Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Honey bees worldwide have been hit hard by a number of diseases. New research published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, looks at how changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-linked-to-extreme-winter-weather-in-the-u-s/">weather</a> patterns in the UK may be impacting diseases in local honey bees. 



The research shows that one of the most devastating diseases, caused by Varroa sp. mites, increases in prevalence as temperatures rise. Interestingly, the prevalence of infectious mites was found to decrease as rain and wind increased.&nbsp;



Ben Rowland is a PhD student in the School of Natural and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a> and the study’s lead researcher.



“Our analysis clearly shows that the risk of a colony contracting one of the diseases we examined is influenced by the weather conditions experienced by that colony," said Rowland.&nbsp;



"Our work highlights some interesting contrasts; for example, rainfall can drive one disease to become more common whilst another will become rarer.”



The scientists collected data from over 300,000 honey bee colonies, as well as data on temperature, wind and rainfall. The analysis revealed that different diseases responded and interacted in different ways to different climatic factors.&nbsp;



“We have long known that weather can influence the ability of honey bees to leave the hive and forage for food, but to better understand how our climate can influence honey bee disease is fascinating! This new knowledge will help us predict how honey bee disease might be influenced by future climate change," said study senor author Professor Giles Budge.



The research also looked specifically at the impact of weather on disease outbreaks or "hot spots." The southwest of England, for instance, is at greater risk of infection from Varroa sp. mites due to weather conditions.&nbsp;



An area including Powys, Shropshire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire is also at risk of an outbreak of the damaging disease European foulbrood, the research shows. This type of prediction will likely become more important as climate change continues to become worse.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deadly honey bee diseases are influenced by the weather

Honey bees worldwide have been hit hard by a number...

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated more than eight million tons of plastic waste since its start, most of it single-use plastic for personal protective purposes. This is according to a new model, developed by researchers at the <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/en/">Nanjing University</a> in China.&nbsp;



A portion of this plastic will end up entering the oceans of the world, and will either sink to the bottom or remain floating on top until it collects on beaches, in oceanic gyres or in the seas of the Arctic.&nbsp;



The Nanjing University MITgcm-plastic model (NJU-MP) that was developed and used in this study works like “a virtual reality,” according to Yanxu Zhang, professor at the School of Atmospheric Sciences at Nanjing University. He said that the model was built based on Newton’s laws of motion and the law of conservation of mass.&nbsp;



“The model simulates how the seawater moves, driven by wind, and how the plastics float on the surface ocean, degraded by sunlight, fouled by plankton, landed on beaches, and sank to the deep,” said Professor Zhang. “It can be used to answer ‘what if’ questions, for example, what will happen if we add a certain amount of plastics to the ocean?”



The researchers used data from the start of the pandemic in 2020 through August 2021, and found that most of the global pandemic plastic waste entering the ocean comes from rivers in Asia; they account for 73 percent of the total discharge of plastics.&nbsp;



The three biggest contributors to ocean plastic pollution are the Shatt al-Arab, Indus, and Yangtze Rivers, which discharge into the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and East China Sea respectively. European rivers account for 11 percent of the discharge, and other continents have only minor contributions to the problem.&nbsp;



The study, led by a team of researchers at Nanjing University’s School of Atmospheric Sciences and UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography, found that the bulk of pandemic plastics discharged on land were derived from medical waste. This was particularly true in areas where waste management was already under pressure before the start of the pandemic.



“When we started doing the math, we were surprised to find that the amount of medical waste was substantially larger than the amount of waste from individuals, and a lot of it was coming from Asian countries, even though that's not where most of the COVID-19 cases were,” said study co-author Amina Schartup, an assistant professor at Scripps Oceanography.&nbsp;



“The biggest sources of excess waste were hospitals in areas already struggling with waste management before the pandemic; they just weren't set up to handle a situation where you have more waste.”



Out of the more than eight million tons of pandemic-associated plastic generated globally, more than 25,000 tons would enter the global ocean. The model predicted that, within three to four years, a significant portion of this ocean plastic debris would either be washed up on beaches or sink to the seabed.&nbsp;



However, a portion will likely go into the open ocean, eventually being trapped in the centers of ocean basins or subtropical gyres, or ending up in a circumpolar plastic accumulation zone in the Arctic Ocean.&nbsp;



While this Arctic accumulation zone does not yet exist, the model predicts that, due to ocean circulation patterns the Arctic Ocean appears to be a “dead-end” for plastic debris transported in the oceans of the world. The model shows that about 80 percent of the plastic debris that transits into the Arctic Ocean will sink quickly, but a circumpolar plastic accumulation zone is predicted to form by 2025.&nbsp;



“There is a pretty consistent circulation pattern in the ocean, and that's why we can build models that replicate how the ocean moves – it's just physical oceanography at this point,” said Schartup, whose research normally focuses on understanding mercury in the oceans.&nbsp;



“We know that if waste is released from Asian rivers into the North Pacific Ocean, some of that debris will likely end up in the Arctic Ocean – a kind of a circular ocean which can be a bit like an estuary, accumulating all kinds of things that get released from the continents.”



The Arctic ecosystem is already particularly vulnerable due to the harsh environmental conditions and sensitivity to global warming. The addition of plastic pollution to this already fragile system carries further threats to the organisms that live there and adds another layer of concern.



The authors stress the importance of better management of medical waste derived from treating COVID-19 patients, particularly in developing countries where management systems may already be insufficient. They also call for global public awareness of the environmental impact of personal protection equipment (PPE) and other plastic products, and the development of innovative technologies for better plastic waste collection, classification, treatment, and recycling, and development of more environmentally friendly materials.



“Indeed, the COVID-related plastic is only a portion of a bigger problem we face in the 21st century: plastic waste,” said Zhang. “To solve it requires a lot of technical innovation, transition of economy, and change of lifestyle.”



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Thousands of tons of COVID-related plastic could end up in the ocean

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated more than eight million tons...

Ahead of the United Nations climate change conference (COP26), more than 100 countries pledged to decrease greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillar-outbreaks-drive-co2-emissions/">emissions</a>. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, experts analyzed these pledges - known as nationally determined commitments (NDCs) - and assessed how they would potentially affect Earth's climate.&nbsp;



According to the study authors, the current NDCs could pave the way for reducing global warming to two degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) or less during this century.



Based on the pledges made at the 2015 Paris Agreement, the researchers determined that the possibility of limiting temperature rise to below 2 and 1.5 degrees Celsius by 2100 was 8 and 0 percent, respectively. Now, based on the new pledges, the study authors estimate that these possibilities have risen to 34 and 1.5 percent.&nbsp;



The experts emphasize that these percentages can be achieved only with supporting policies and measures of equal or greater ambition. Furthermore, they say these odds can increase to 60 and 11 percent, respectively, if countries pursue a more ambitious route after 2030.



Such a scenario could also eliminate the possibility of global temperature rise exceeding four degrees Celsius. The chance of such an increase was 10 percent higher under the 2015 commitments.&nbsp;



“We are so much closer to getting to the 2-degree goal than six years ago when the Paris Agreement was first signed. The wave of strengthened climate pledges and net-zero targets significantly increased our chance of staying under 2 degrees Celsius. And we practically ruled out the possibility of the worst climate outcomes of 4 degrees or higher," said study co-author Haewon McJeon, a research scientist at the Department of Energy’s <a href="http://www.pnnl.gov/">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



Study lead author Yang Ou, a postdoctoral researcher at the Joint Global Change Research Institute, stated that there is a one in three chance to meet the 2 degrees Celsius limit, but making the 1.5 degree Celsius limit more plausible will need more ambition.



The study evaluated a range of emissions scenarios, using an open-source model called the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM). The scientists ran multiple scenarios, including a hypothetical future in which prevailing climate mitigation measures and policies remain mostly unchanged through 2100.



According to the study authors, various factors impacted near-term emissions trajectories and long-term climatic outcomes. One example is the worldwide shift away from coal in favor of technology advancements that reduced the cost of solar panels and electric automobiles. They claimed that these innovations had aided in bringing the Paris Agreement's goals closer to realisation.



"New commitments, technological advances, and the near- and long-term recovery from the pandemic have set us on a different course than what laid before us at the 2015 Paris Agreement. But if we adopt more ambitious goals that truly reflect the common but differentiated responsibilities across all parties, that gives us a better than even chance of staying under 2 degrees Celsius," said study co-lead author Gokul Iyer.



"And this highlights the importance of the Glasgow meeting. Without periodic and transparent updates, we won’t get the commitments strong enough to meet the temperature goal.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New pledges could eliminate the worst climate outcomes

Ahead of the United Nations climate change conference (COP26), more...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a> suggests that the pledges on curbing greenhouse gas emissions from the <a href="https://ukcop26.org/">COP26</a> climate change summit in Glasgow could help limit global temperature rises to below 1.9C. Plans by India (the world’s third biggest greenhouse gas emitter) to reach net zero emissions by 2070 will likely make an important contribution to reaching climate targets.



According to Alok Sharma, the president of COP26, these new commitments from a large number of countries represent important progress, but are still insufficient to reach the goal set in 2015 by the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to less than 1.5C above pre-industrial temperatures.&nbsp;



Many scientists warn that if temperatures rise above the 1.5C target, some impacts of climate change are likely to become irreversible, including small islands being flooded and extreme weather events increasing in frequency.



In order to stay within the 1.5C threshold, global greenhouse emissions should decrease about 45 percent by 2030, which, as many important speakers at the Glasgow summit admitted, will likely not happen. However, if by 2050 major greenhouse emitters manage to meet the net zero target, there is a high change that global temperatures will not surpass the 2C limit.



“It’s still a huge if, because many of the net zero targets – including the net zero target from India – are conditional on international support,” said study lead author Malte Meinshausen, a climate scientist at the University of Melbourne. “We need to see that happen.”



“Any progress is welcome but we need extreme caution about declaring success on the basis of vague and often vacuous net zero targets three or more decades hence,” added Edward Miliband, the Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy of the UK.&nbsp;



“For example, Australia has a 2050 net zero target but its 2030 plans are in line with 4 degrees of warming. There is a reason for the focus on halving emissions this decisive decade. It reflects the urgency, clarity and specificity we need to keep 1.5C alive. We cannot allow political leaders to shift the goalposts."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Despite progress at COP26, climate target of 1.5C is out of reach

A recent study led by the University of Melbourne suggests...

With lockdowns being lifted in many parts of the world, a large number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-cats-test-positive-for-alpha-variant-of-sars-cov-2/">dogs</a> left home alone by their owners face psychological problems such as separation anxiety. 



While it may seem that dogs who are left home with other canine companions would feel less lonely and anxious, a new study led by the Academy for Animal Naturopathy in&nbsp;Dürnten, Switzerland has found that the opposite is usually true. Dogs appear to be even more anxious when left home with other dogs.



“Many dogs are left alone at home by their owners for several hours on a daily basis. This practice is known to be a possible source of complication in dog keeping. Behaviorists and veterinarians are frequently consulted due to excessive vocalizations, destructive behavior and house-soiling of dogs left alone by their owners,” explained the study authors.&nbsp;



“These observations are thought to be symptoms of a disorder which most authors refer to as separation anxiety or separation related behavior.”&nbsp;



Signs of separation anxiety in dogs include barking, howling, increased physical activity, digging, scratching, disruptive chewing, or excessive urination and defecation.



The scientists videotaped 32 dogs in single-dog households and 45 dogs in multi-dog households that were left alone as part of their usual routine. Surprisingly, intense physical activity was higher in multi-dog households, primarily in the first hours after separation.&nbsp;



“We observed more separation-related behavior in multi-dog households,” reported study lead author Gerrit Stephan, a researcher at the Academy for Animal Naturopathy.



“It's a common misconception – and often given as poor advice – that a dog with separation-related anxiety will fare better and show fewer stress responses if another dog is added to the household,” said Natalie Waran, a professor of Animal Welfare at the <a href="https://www.eit.ac.nz/">Eastern Institute of Technology</a> in New Zealand.&nbsp;



“This doesn't address the underlying problem for the dog with separation anxiety, and it often results in another dog showing anxious or excitable behavior. The key is to understand the causes of problem behavior to be able to manage or treat those effectively.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Further research is needed in order to better understand the reasons why separation anxiety appears to be stronger in multi-dog households and to open therapeutic pathways for pets struggling with emotional issues.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159121002501#!">Applied Animal Behavior Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs get more separation anxiety when left with another animal

With lockdowns being lifted in many parts of the world,...

Among the things that are often listed as making us “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-named-a-new-human-ancestor/">human</a>” are tool use, advanced problem solving-capabilities, even religion. However, one thing above all enables the development of humankind - language. Now, scientists are doing their level best to unlock the mystery of how the brain turns our thoughts into words - even across different systems of language.&nbsp;



“Our brains are capable of engaging in multiple languages," said Sarah Phillips from <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a>. "Languages may differ in what sounds they use and how they organize words to form sentences. However, all languages involve the process of combining words to express complex thoughts.”&nbsp;



“Bilinguals show a fascinating version of this process - their brains readily combine words from different languages together, much like when combining words from the same language," said Liina Pylkkänen.



Phillips and Pylkkänen are the authors of a new study examining the way the brain of bilingual people operates, especially when two bilinguals converse.&nbsp;



To accomplish this, the researchers studied a group of people who spoke both English and Korean. Then they performed tests on words that accurately described pictures - the words were sometimes English, and sometimes Korean. Then, the experts used magnetoencephalography to measure the portions of the brain that were active during the exercise.



The results? The brain’s left anterior lobe&nbsp; was able to formulate meaning out of the word-picture associations, even when switching between languages. 



"Our results reveal one neural substrate that may underlie the intuitive ease of language switching: a combinatory mechanism in left anterior temporal cortex that can take mixed-language vocabulary as its input with no sensitivity to language switching," wrote the study authors.



Because there’s not an extra “step” involved in the multi-lingual exchanges, this suggests that bilingual people have a distinct neurological ability to combine and interpret different languages.



“Earlier studies have examined how our brains can interpret an infinite number of expressions within a single language," said Phillips. "This research shows that bilingual brains can, with striking ease, interpret complex expressions containing words from different languages.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/">eNeuro</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bilingual brains can switch between languages with ease

Among the things that are often listed as making us...

Instances of animals being infected with SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-that-covid-19-is-a-seasonal-infection/">COVID-19</a>) have bee)n documented from around the world. The species affected include pet dogs, cats and ferrets, zoo animals such as big cats, otters and primates, farmed mink and wild white-tailed deer. 



A new study reports the first instav7thnce of pet infection by the alpha&nbsp;variant of SARS-CoV-2, which&nbsp;was first detected in southeast England and is commonly known as the UK variant or B.1.1.7. This variant rapidly outcompeted pre-existing variants in England due to its increased transmissibility and infectivity.&nbsp;



Two cats and one dog returned positive PCR tests for this variant of the Coronavirus, while two additional cats and one dog displayed antibodies to the virus two to six weeks after they had developed signs of cardiac disease. All of the pets had suffered an acute onset of cardiac disease, including severe myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle).



Many of the owners of these pets had also tested positive for COVID-19, and had developed respiratory symptoms several weeks before their pets became ill.



“Our study reports the first cases of cats and dogs affected by the COVID-19 alpha variant and highlights, more than ever, the risk that companion animals can become infected with SARS-CoV-2,” said lead author Luca Ferasin,&nbsp;DVM, PhD, of The Ralph Veterinary Referral Centre, in the UK.



“We also reported the atypical clinical manifestations characterized by severe heart abnormalities, which is a well-recognized complication in people affected by COVID-19 but has never been described in pets before."&nbsp;



"However, COVID-19 infection in pets remains a relatively rare condition and, based on our observations, it seems that the transmission occurs from humans to pets, rather than vice versa."



The study is published by <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/">Wiley</a> in the journal <a href="https://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20427670">Veterinary Record</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs and cats test positive for alpha variant of SARS-CoV-2

Instances of animals being infected with SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that...

According to a recent survey conducted by the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02990-w">Nature</a>, two thirds of the climate scientists on the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) said that they expect the world to warm by at least 3°C, compared to pre-industrial temperatures, by the end of this century. The estimate is well beyond the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris agreement</a>’s goal to limit global warming to 1.5–2 °C.



Most of the scientists who responded to the survey expressed fear that the world is running out of time to avoid the catastrophic effects of anthropogenic climate change, and showed marked skepticism that governments will manage to slow the pace of global warming - despite the political promises they made at the Paris agreement in 2015.



Eighty-eight percent of the respondents claimed that the world is experiencing an enormous climate crisis and said that they expected to witness catastrophic impact of climate change during their own lifetimes.&nbsp;



Half of the participants said that global warming is causing them to reconsider major life decisions, such as where to live and whether to have children or not, and over 60 percent reported that they experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-people-are-increasingly-anxious-over-climate-change/">climate-induced anxiety</a>, grief, and other psychological distress.&nbsp;



“The pessimism expressed by some IPCC panelists underscores the vast gulf between hopes and expectations for the climate summit that began this week in Glasgow. In advance of the meeting, the United States, the European Union, China and others have announced new plans to curb greenhouse-gas emissions, although scientific analyses suggest those plans still fall well short of the Paris goals."&nbsp;



"Over the next two weeks, countries will formalize and perhaps even strengthen those commitments. But making them a reality will require as-yet-unprecedented political mobilization at the national level once leaders return home,” the survey authors warned.



Fortunately, a pessimistic outlook does not seem to completely extinguish hope that the situation could improve. Two-thirds of the scientists involved in the survey claimed that they are persistently engaging in advocacy related to climate change, by promoting science through speeches, publications, and videos, contacting lawmakers or government officials to advocate specific climate policies, signing letters or petitions calling for action, or participating in demonstrations.



As Charles Koven, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> in California, put it, “I believe that the majority of people really do care about the future, and that it is possible for governments to coordinate and avoid the worst climate outcomes.”



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Is there still time to avoid catastrophic climate outcomes?

According to a recent survey conducted by the journal Nature,...

In many animal species, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-orchard-bees-respond-to-fires-by-producing-more-females/">females</a> apparently choose male mates based on the presence of adornments, such as large antlers or bright colors, or the use of ritualized displays that in some way indicate a male’s fitness. This is known as sexual selection and is thought to be responsible for the presence of extravagant and unusual male characteristics.&nbsp;



But when the pool of possible mates is limited, females who are too choosy run the risk of ending up with no partner and no possibility of reproducing. The risks associated with female choosiness were the subject of a recent study by Wolfgang Forstmeier of the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology in Germany, and colleagues, who used populations of captive zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) to test their hypotheses.



Zebra finches are socially monogamous songbirds that have regionally distinct songs. Females prefer to select mates that have the same song dialect.&nbsp;



The researchers capitalized on this situation and set up 10 aviaries, each containing 12 male and 12 female finches from the two different dialect lineages. In each captive breeding colony, one-third of the females (4 birds) could choose from two-thirds (8 birds) of the males that shared the same dialect. This was considered to be a situation of relaxed competition as there was an excess of males from which the 4 females could select a suitable mate.&nbsp;



However, in each aviary the remaining two-thirds of females (8 birds) had only one-third of the males (4 birds) that shared their song dialect. This was thus a situation of high competition as these females had a shortage of preferred males from which to select a mate. They could either choose a male with a different song dialect or choose not to breed at all.



The researchers hypothesized that females that experienced high competition for mates would have less reproductive success (measured in terms of offspring that reached independence). They also theorized that these females would lay fewer eggs and start egg-laying later – because they would be busy competing for mates.



The results showed that 31 percent of females in the high-competition treatment chose to pair with a male of a different song dialect, while 26 percent refused to settle for this and remained unpaired throughout the experiment. The researchers termed these unpaired females “wallflowers.”



The surprise came, however, when it turned out that the “wallflowers” produced, on average, the same number of eggs and successful fledglings as the breeding pairs. It seems that there was no shortage of mating opportunities between unpaired females and paired males.&nbsp;



The unpaired females then chose either to build a nest and rear the young on their own, or they sneaked their fertilized eggs into the nests of pair-bonded individuals and left the chick rearing to them, like a cuckoo does.



Some previous studies have suggested that there will be a cost to a female that is too fussy when selecting a male, and that this cost (not reproducing) would act against the evolution of sexual selection as a process. However, the current study found that females who refused to pair with a male of the wrong song dialect would suffer no cost at all in terms of offspring produced.&nbsp;



In addition, unpaired females chose to mate with, and to deposit their eggs in the nests of males that had the same song dialect. With this reproductive strategy, these unpaired females were achieving the desired result even though they were not able to form pair-bonds with the preferred males.



The study is the first to quantify the fitness costs to females of being too picky. And indeed, the results indicate that, at least in zebra finches, these costs are non-existent, as long as the females are able to employ alternative reproductive strategies. This behavioral flexibility can facilitate the evolution of female choice and male sexual selection in monogamous species, the authors say.



“Our study asks how females cope with the situation that their mate preferences are difficult to satisfy," said Forstmeier. "The answer is: more successfully than we had expected.”



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLoS Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female finches can afford to be picky when selecting a mate

In many animal species, females apparently choose male mates based...

Recent neuroscientific research has found that social isolation can impact brain function in significant, and sometimes permanent ways. In a series of presentations given at <a href="https://www.sfn.org/meetings/neuroscience-2021">Neuroscience 2021</a>, the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience and the world’s largest conference on the brain sciences, several scientists argued that social isolation rewires the brain in complex ways, potentially leading to anxiety, depression, addiction, and other behavioral changes.



Humans are highly social creatures, who depend on social contact for their well-being. Since the COVID-19 pandemic started, loneliness caused by social isolation increased significantly, leading to multiple neurological and behavioral changes. By using animal models, neuroscientists are beginning to identify the neurological bases of solitude.



According to scientists, social isolation is associated with changes to various areas of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, the nucleus accumbens, and the amygdala, as well as the dopamine and oxytocin systems, which are crucial for structuring patterns of social interaction. Such changes can lead to long-term deficits in social recognition, anxiety, depression, addiction to alcohol and various drugs, and weight gain.&nbsp;



“This research shows that social isolation impacts many brain regions and affects many different behaviors, resulting in increased risk for disease,” said Alexa H. Veenema, an associate professor of Neurobiology at <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a>. “The pandemic has had a tremendous effect on our mental health. This research will provide us with insights about which specific neural circuits mediate the behavioral effects induced by social isolation.&nbsp;We can then find ways to restore these neural circuits, counteracting the consequences of social isolation.”



According to Enrique U. Pérez-Cardona, a neuroscientist at the <a href="https://www.uprc.edu/">University of Puerto Rico at Carolina one of the best ways to mitigate the negative effects social isolation has on the brain is through regular exercise. In an experimental study, young rats which were isolated for ten days gained weight, became more anxious, and had a blunted dopamine response in their nucleus accumbens. However, rats that exercised five days a week for five weeks on a treadmill showed a significant reduction of anxiety and weight loss.</a>



Further research is needed to understand whether such findings can easily be translated to humans. Considering the widespread experience of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic though, there is an urgent need to better understand and prevent the long-term effects of social isolation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social isolation damages our brains

Recent neuroscientific research has found that social isolation can impact...

The Global Carbon Project has recently published its latest update. The most recent report finds that, although carbon emissions dropped by 5.4 percent in 2020 amid COVID lockdowns, an increase of 4.9 percent is predicted this year.&nbsp;



This rate of activity will nearly return emissions to pre-COVID levels, equating to the release of 36.4 billion tons of carbon in 2021. Emissions from coal and gas use are set to grow more in 2021 than they fell in 2020, but emissions from oil use remain below the 2019 levels.



In the United States and European Union, both major emitters of CO2, emissions were decreasing prior to the start of the COVID pandemic. This trend is set to continue for 2021.&nbsp;



India’s pre-COVID trend of increasing emissions is also set to continue. However, in China the response to the COVID-19 pandemic has sparked further growth in CO2&nbsp;emissions, pushed by the power and industry sectors.



The research team – including scientists from the University of Exeter, the University of East Anglia (UEA), CICERO and Stanford University – say a further rise in emissions in 2022 cannot be ruled out if road transport and aviation return to pre-pandemic levels and coal use is stable.



The report contains the following analysis of major emitters (the figures below exclude international transport, particularly aviation):



<ul><li>China: Emissions are projected to rise 4 percent compared to 2020, reaching 5.5 percent above 2019 – a total of 11.1 billion tons CO2, 31 percent of global emissions.</li><li>USA: Emissions are projected to rise 7.6 percent compared to 2020, reaching 3.7 percent below 2019 – a total of 5.1 billion tons CO2, 14 percent of global emissions.</li><li>EU27: Emissions are projected to rise 7.6 percent compared to 2020, reaching 4.2 percent below 2019 – a total of 2.8 billion tons CO2, 7 percent of global emissions.</li><li>India: Emissions are projected to rise 12.6 percent compared to 2020, reaching 4.4 percent above 2019 – a total of 2.7 billion tons CO2, 7 percent of global emissions.</li></ul>



For the rest of the world taken as a whole, fossil CO2&nbsp;emissions remain below 2019 levels.



"The rapid rebound in emissions as economies recover from the pandemic reinforces the need for immediate global action on climate change," said&nbsp;<a href="https://emps.exeter.ac.uk/mathematics/staff/pf229">Professor Pierre Friedlingstein</a> of Exeter's&nbsp;<a href="https://gsiexeter.co.uk/">Global Systems Institute</a>, who led the study.



"The rebound in global fossil CO2&nbsp;emissions in 2021 reflects a return towards the pre-COVID fossil-based economy.&nbsp;Investments in the green economy in post-COVID recovery plans of some countries have been insufficient so far, on their own, to avoid a substantial return close to pre-Covid emissions."



"It will take some time to see the full effect of the COVID-related disruptions on global CO2&nbsp;emissions," said Professor Corinne Le Quéré. "A lot of progress has been made in decarbonising global energy since the Paris Agreement was adopted in 2015, plus renewables is the only energy source that continued to grow during the pandemic."



"New investments and strong climate policy now need to support the green economy much more systematically and push fossil fuels out of the equation.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The publication coincides with the meeting of the world’s leaders at COP26 in Glasgow, where they will address the climate crisis and try to commit to plans for a way forward.&nbsp;



Based on the findings in the report, atmospheric CO2&nbsp;concentration is projected to increase by 2.0 parts per million (ppm) in 2021 to reach 415 ppm averaged over the year, which represents a lower growth compared to recent years due to La Niña conditions in 2021.



If the world is to have a 50 percent chance of limiting global warming to 1.5°C, 1.7°C and 2°C, the researchers estimate the remaining "carbon budget" that can still be pumped out has now shrunk to 420 billion tons, 770 billion tons and 1,270 billion tons respectively. This is equivalent to a timeframe of 11, 20 and 32 years at the 2021 emission levels.



"Reaching net zero CO2&nbsp;emissions by 2050 entails cutting global CO2&nbsp;emissions by about 1.4 billion tons each year on average," said Professor Friedlingstein. “Emissions fell by 1.9 billion tons in 2020 – so, to achieve net zero by 2050, we must cut emissions every year by an amount comparable to that seen during COVID.”



"This highlights the scale of the action that is now required, and hence the importance of the COP26 discussions," said Friedlingstein.



The 16th&nbsp;annual Global Carbon Budget is published as a preprint in the journal Earth System Science Data, where it is currently open for review. The data presented on carbon dioxide emissions and how they are partitioned between land, atmosphere and ocean, are updated every year to keep track of CO2 levels globally.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global carbon emissions rebound close to pre-COVID levels

The Global Carbon Project has recently published its latest update....

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-cheap-antidepressant-may-reduce-severe-covid-19-disease/">COVID-19</a> pandemic changed our lives and lifestyles in many ways. Established routines were disrupted by school closures, remote working, enforced isolation, stay-at-home requirements, travel restrictions and social distancing. Some of us benefited from extra time at home during lockdowns, while others had to devote more of their time to child care and housework.



In a new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and Queen Mary University of London, a team of economists analyzed daily lifestyle changes during pandemic lockdowns in the UK.



The experts collected data from detailed, retrospective time-use diaries kept by 766 UK citizens from across the social spectrum during three points in time: the last month of normality (February 2020), the first lockdown (May 2020), and the last lockdown in March, 2021. &nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers considered four categories of activity and calculated the quantity of time spent by each individual occupied in each of the activity areas: employment (excluding commutes); “housework” (from shopping to childcare); leisure (e.g. hobbies or home entertainment); subsistence (meals, sleeping, personal care). They also assessed the quality of time use by focusing on factors that affect an individual’s experience of an activity, such as with whom the activity was shared and the time when the activity took place.



The results showed that, during lockdowns, individuals spent less time on employment-related activities and more time on housework. These effects were most pronounced for individuals with young children. In addition, compared with pre-pandemic times, fewer individuals were employed and this particularly affected women with young children, who were significantly less likely to be employed.&nbsp;



For families with young children, parents who were employed spent an average of 43 minutes a day less on their paid job in the first lockdown, and 32 minutes less in the third, when compared with pre-pandemic times. For those without young children, there was an average decrease of 28 minutes and 22 minutes a day on paid work, respectively.



The study also exposed a gender bias in terms of changes to routine. Women with young children spent around an hour less on paid work a day than men and women without young children. During the first lockdown, the average time women spent on housework increased by 28 minutes a day, while for men the average time spent on subsistence activities (e.g. sleeping and eating) increased by 30 minutes.&nbsp;



During this year’s lockdown, women spent an extra hour doing housework, and mothers of young children did 67 minutes more housework a day than fathers did. In addition, only women saw an increase in cooking and cleaning activities (time spent on caring duties was spread across genders).



The study also showed that parents often forfeited leisure time. Living with young children at home was associated with a decrease in leisure activities of almost an hour a day in both lockdowns. Those without young children actually experienced more leisure time – around an extra hour a day – but most of this was spent alone.&nbsp;



When the researchers assessed the quality of time spent during lockdown – the self-reported “enjoyment” of given activities – they found that this extra time spent alone was less pleasurable to people and contributed to negative feelings concerning the effects of lockdowns.&nbsp;



An additional factor that reduced the pleasure of time spent was the increase in work-related demands that occurred outside usual working hours. The third lockdown saw around 20 percent of individuals spend more time working unusual hours compared to the pre-pandemic period, which reduced the reported enjoyment of their day overall. This was particularly pronounced in people who earned £5k a month or more. These high earners also spent less time on subsistence activities during the lockdowns.



Overall, during the third lockdown, the enjoyment of activities was about five percent lower than before the pandemic. The third lockdown certainly felt a bit more miserable than the first, according to the research.



“It is no surprise that having to do more work outside of typical working hours meant that people were substantially unhappier during the third lockdown," said study co-author Dr. Eileen Tipoe.



“And it was concerning to find that women, and especially those with young children, were disproportionately affected by lockdown – for example being less likely to be employed and the fact that only women spent more time cooking and cleaning.”



“The lockdowns resulted in drastic changes to patterns of time use, disrupting routines and blurring the distinction between work and family life,” said co-author Dr. Ines Lee. “We have hopefully seen the end of lockdowns, but our study holds lessons for hybrid working, as splitting time between home and office becomes more common.”



“Employers should promote better work-life balance in the post-pandemic world. This could include limits on emails outside working hours, home-working schedules that suit parents, and options for younger workers left isolated by reduced in-person networking." &nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lockdowns disrupted work-leisure balance, especially for moms

The COVID-19 pandemic changed our lives and lifestyles in many...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...