The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

Although in recent years, educators have explored the use of social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-influence-children-education/">robots</a> to help students learn, they focused mostly on children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/">University of Waterloo</a> in Canada has designed a socially assistive robot to help keep students with learning disabilities focused on their work. According to the experts, using this robot was highly successful, with both pupils and their instructors valuing the positive classroom contributions made by the robot.



“There is definitely a great potential for using robots in the public education system,” said study senior author Kerstin Dautenhahn, a professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Waterloo. “Overall, the findings imply that the robot has a positive effect on students.”



The researchers conducted a series of experiments with a small humanoid robot called QT, which has the ability to perform gestures using its head and hands, accompanied by speech and a variety of facial expressions. To test whether this robot was suitable for use with children with learning disabilities, they divided 16 students into two groups. While in the first group, students worked one-on-one with a human instructor only, in the second one they worked both with the instructor and a QT robot.&nbsp;



Although the instructor controlled the sessions, the robot took over occasionally, triggered by the instructor, to lead the student. If necessary, the robot set goals and provided self-regulating strategies and, if the learning process was getting off-track, it also used strategies such as games, jokes, riddles, breathing exercises, and physical movements to redirect the students back to their tasks.



“Our qualitative analysis suggests that instructors and students showed positive attitudes towards the social robot in their one-to-one sessions. In addition, the students were more engaged with their task in the presence of the robot, and displayed fewer off-task behaviors in the intervention condition, compared to the control condition. These results suggest that a social robot can be used as an effective educational tool for instructors in boosting engagement and mitigating off-task behaviors for students with learning disabilities,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the proceedings of the <a href="https://www.icsr2022.it/">International Conference of Social Robotics</a> from Florence, Italy and can be found <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-24670-8_14">here</a>. 



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Social robots can help students stay focused

Although in recent years, educators have explored the use of...

In March 1946, less than a year after the end of World War II, the Medical Research Council of the UK commenced a longitudinal study to follow the health and development of 5,362 babies, all born in the same week in England, Wales and Scotland. Today, this is the longest running major birth cohort study in the world, and the surviving participants are soon to turn 77 years old. There have been at least 24 follow-up contacts with all surviving members of the cohort, with the latest full testing conducted when they were aged 69.



Previous research using data from this 1946 British birth cohort has demonstrated the beneficial effects of being physically during the midlife period on verbal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-mushrooms-boost-nerve-growth-and-enhance-memory/">memory</a>. Following on from this, researchers from the MRC Unit for Lifelong Health and Ageing at University College London have now investigated whether the timing of physical activity has an influence on improved cognitive function in later life.&nbsp;



The participants reported their levels of physical activity at follow-up surveys conducted at the ages of 36, 43, 53, 60–64 and 69, by which time only 1,417 of the original participants were available. At each age they completed a questionnaire to assess how often they had taken part in any sports, vigorous leisure activities or exercise in the previous month.&nbsp;



Their responses were categorized into: not active (no participation in physical activity/month); moderately active (participated 1–4 times/month); most active (participated 5 or more times/month), and then summed across all 5 assessments to create a total score ranging from 0 (inactive at all ages) to 5 (active at all ages).&nbsp;



The researchers assessed cognitive function at age 69 using the validated ACE-111, which tests attention and orientation, verbal fluency, memory, language, and visuospatial function. They also used tests of verbal memory (word learning test) and processing speed (visual search speed), and analyzed the associations between cognitive function and levels of physical activity.&nbsp;



The researchers were particularly keen to know if physical activity is most beneficial to later-life cognitive function when undertaken in specific ‘sensitive’ periods across the life course, or when undertaken across multiple time periods.&nbsp;



Their results, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2022-329955">Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery &amp; Psychiatry</a>, show compelling evidence of the positive effects of being, and remaining, physically active across 30 years of adulthood on later-life cognition. Essentially, they find that any regular leisure time physical activity, carried out at any age during adulthood, is significantly associated with better brain function in later life. However, maintaining an exercise routine throughout adulthood seems to be best for preserving mental acuity and memory.



The researchers found that 11 percent of participants were physically inactive at all five survey times. Around 17 percent of participants were active at only one of the survey times, whereas 20 percent were active at two and three of them; 17 percent were active at four of the survey times, and 15 percent were active at all five. Those people who reported being physically active at all five of the survey times were more likely to have higher cognitive performance, better verbal memory and faster processing speed at the age of 69.



The effect sizes were similar across all adult ages, and for those who were moderately and most physically active, “suggesting that being physically active at any time in adulthood, even if participating as little as once per month, is linked to higher cognition,” wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



The positive association between cumulative physical activity and later life cognitive performance was partly explained by childhood cognition, socioeconomic position, and education. However, the effect remained significant even when these variables were accounted for in the statistical analysis.&nbsp;



“Together, these results suggest that the initiation and maintenance of physical activity across adulthood may be more important than the timing … or the frequency of physical activity at a specific period,” explained the researchers.



The study has some limitations, including the fact that it is an observational investigation and so cannot attribute cause to the differences identified in cognitive function. In addition, all the participants were White and there was a disproportionately high attrition rate among socially disadvantaged participants. No data were collected from participants about the intensity or duration of physical exercise that they undertook, nor about whether they actually adhered to the regimen they selected during the surveys.&nbsp;



But the researchers nevertheless conclude: “Our findings support guidelines to recommend participation in any physical activity across adulthood and provide evidence that encouraging inactive adults to be more active at any time, and encouraging already active adults to maintain activity, could confer benefits on later life cognition.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Any type of physical activity can help protect the brain

In March 1946, less than a year after the end...

Digital,Interface,With,Digital,Icons,Over,Mid,Section,Of,Man

A large part of modern life is spent immersed in a variety of digital media, ranging from websites and Zoom meetings to videogames and social media. According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/">Binghamton University</a>, since online content of various types often differs in terms of visual orientation from real images that we perceive in natural, urban, and suburban environments, it could significantly alter our visual perception.&nbsp;



“With the continued growth of digital device use, a greater portion of the visual world experienced daily by many people has shifted towards digital environments. The “oblique effect” denotes a bias for horizontal and vertical (canonical) contours over oblique contours, which is derived from a disproportionate exposure to canonical content,” the authors explained.



In the natural world, although we are mostly exposed to horizontal phenomena such as the horizon and vertical ones like trees, we also see objects oriented at a variety of angles, such as tree branches or sloping hillsides. By contrast, in a “carpentered” environment largely manufactured by humans, many of these oblique lines are eliminated and the landscape becomes dominated by horizontal and vertical objects such as buildings, powerlines, road signs, or street lamps. Suburban environments, since they often contain small pockets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-increased-well-being-during-the-pandemic/">nature</a>, are somewhere in between.



By comparing the visual orientation of various kinds of digital media with real-life scenes from natural, suburban, and urban environments, the researchers found that many types of media also exhibit the oblique effect. Although videogames aiming to imitate the natural world often (partially) succeed, pixilated videogames and social media sites - which are essentially composed of boxes of various sizes – exhibit the oblique effect to an extreme not seen in real-world environments.



“The question is: Is this shifting our overall profile of orientation sensitivity? People are spending so much time looking at these digital environments that it may become influential,”&nbsp;said study lead author Nicholas Duggan, a professor of Psychology at Binghamton.&nbsp;



Previous research has found that over-exposure to digital content – such as playing Minecraft for several hours – can shift what our brain pays attention to visually, increasing our sensitivity to horizontal and vertical lines. While this oblique effect tends to fade once viewers stop playing the game and re-engage with the natural world, it is not yet clear how people with digital media overuse disorder are affected.&nbsp;



“We’re talking about kids who were dropping out of school because they play video games every waking moment. The conjecture is that these people may be subjecting themselves to a digital environment that is substantively different from what other people typically experience on a daily basis,” explained study co-author Peter Gerhardstein, an expert in Developmental Psychology at Binghamton.&nbsp;



However, further research is needed to clarify how overexposure to digital media affects visual perception. “There is a lot of benefit to online content in general. Unless you are overusing it, we strongly suspect there is no real impact here. But if you are heavily overusing digital content, you could be altering some aspects of your basic visual perception,” Gerhardstein concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/03010066221148673">Perception</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Digital media can alter our visual perception

A large part of modern life is spent immersed in...

Sitting for long periods of time has been linked to an alarming number of adverse health conditions such as poor heart health, diabetes, weight gain, dementia, and multiple cancers. Even if you exercise regularly, prolonged sitting and other sedentary behaviors can wreak havoc on your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-loved-as-a-teen-linked-to-healthier-adulthood/">health</a>.



Despite an urgent need for answers, particularly for those who have sedentary jobs, it has remained unclear how much more moving and how much less sitting is needed to prevent serious health hazards.&nbsp;



Now, exercise physiologists at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University Irving Medical Center</a> have identified one potential solution. The experts report that just five minutes of walking during every half hour of sitting can offset some of the most harmful effects.



The study, led by Dr. Keith Diaz, is the first to look at more than just two or three potential activities to mitigate prolonged sitting. The researchers tested five different scenarios, including one minute of walking after every 30 minutes of sitting, one minute after 60 minutes, five minutes after 30, five minutes after 60, and no walking.&nbsp;



“If we hadn’t compared multiple options and varied the frequency and duration of the exercise, we would have only been able to provide people with our best guesses of the optimal routine,” said Dr. Diaz.



Ultimately, the study revealed that the most effective solution was five minutes of walking for every 30 minutes of sitting. This was the only amount of movement that significantly lowered both blood sugar and blood pressure, noted the researchers.&nbsp;



For example, five minutes of walking for every 30 minutes of sitting was found to help regulate how the participants responded to large meals - reducing blood sugar spikes by 58 percent compared with prolonged sitting.&nbsp;



Any amount of walking was associated with lower blood pressure compared to sitting all day without movement. “This is a sizeable decrease, comparable to the reduction you would expect from exercising daily for six months,” said Dr. Diaz.&nbsp;



Furthermore, walking for any length of time (except one minute every hour) was associated with significant improvements in mood and less fatigue.&nbsp;



“The effects on mood and fatigue are important,” explained Dr. Diaz. “People tend to repeat behaviors that make them feel good and that are enjoyable.”&nbsp;



The research continues, as the team is now testing 25 different doses of walking among a wider variety of participants.



“What we know now is that for optimal health, you need to move regularly at work, in addition to a daily exercise routine,” said Dr. Diaz. “While that may sound impractical, our findings show that even small amounts of walking spread through the work day can significantly lower your risk of heart disease and other chronic illnesses.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.acsm.org/education-resources/journals/medicine-science-in-sports-exercise">Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Experts find a healthy solution for prolonged sitting

Sitting for long periods of time has been linked to...

New research published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-023-01751-8">Animal Cognition</a> shows that geckos are more intelligent than once thought.&nbsp;



Self-recognition is the ability to identify oneself. As visual creatures, we are familiar with our ability to recognize ourselves in the mirror.&nbsp;



However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-eat-fire-ants-to-boost-their-immune-system/">lizards</a> are more scent oriented. If you watch a lizard or snake, you will notice them darting their tongues around as they gather various aromas from their environment.&nbsp;



We already know that geckos use their tongues to identify the pheromones of other individuals, but the question remained - can they distinguish their pheromones from those of other geckos?



To find out, researchers from the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html">University of Bern</a> conducted an experimental study in which they compared geckos’ reactions to their own odor, the odor of other geckos, and a control odor.&nbsp;



The experts found that geckos were more interested in the smell of other geckos than their own scent. Based on this reaction, the researchers determined that geckos are able to distinguish their scent from the scent of other individuals. The evidence suggests that these lizards communicate socially via pheromones.&nbsp;



“The geckos have to compare more frequently when confronted with the odor of another gecko, compared to their own odor. This indicates that they know their own odor,” said study lead author Birgit Szabo.



Research like this challenges the idea that reptiles are dumb, antisocial creatures. “Lizards and reptiles are generally seen as unsocial primitive animals. We must recognize that reptiles are more social and intelligent than we thought,” explained Szabo.



The findings also give animal behaviorists and evolutionary biologists another avenue to explore when considering the evolution of social behavior in all animals.



“Reptiles, and especially geckos, are ideally suitable for investigating fundamental questions about the evolution of sociality," said study co-author Eva Ringler. "Within geckos, we can find a vast range of social structures and habitats."



"This allows us to investigate the interrelationships of cognition, communication and social living within a small taxonomic group – and make comparisons between these and other, more distantly related groups of animals such as mammals and birds."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Geckos can recognize their own scent

New research published in the journal Animal Cognition shows that...

Mirror neurons are clusters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-human-brain-adapts-to-weightlessness-in-space/">brain</a> cells that activate both when we perform an action and when we observe a similar action performed by others. Since their discovery in primates in the 1990s, mirror neurons have generated much interest both in science and popular culture, rising (often unfounded) speculation that they might underlie humans’ ability to mimic, empathize, and even develop culture or appreciate art.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> has found that, in male mice, mirror neurons located in the hypothalamus – an evolutionary ancient part of the brain – play a fundamental role in structuring aggressive behaviors. The experts discovered that the same neurons become activated when mice are fighting and when they are watching a fight. These findings hint at a more primal origin for these types of neurons than previously thought.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-struggle-to-predict-aggression-in-dogs-and-other-humans/">Aggression</a> in the wild is rarely a private affair,”&nbsp;said study senior author Nirao Shah, a professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Stanford. “Aggression is usually not only to defeat the other animal, but also to tell others in the vicinity, ‘Hey, I’m the boss.’ It’s a public display.”



In previous research, Professor Shah and his colleagues traced aggression in male mice to a cluster of brain cells located in the ventromedial hypothalamus subsequently dubbed “the rage center.” Now, by using precise imaging techniques to record activity in the rage center in both mice engaged in a fight and those only witnessing a fight, the scientists found that these neurons are also sensitive to aggression between other mice.



Most research on mirror neurons has focused on those located in the cortex – the most evolutionary advanced part of the brain - so their discovery in the hypothalamus was quite shocking. Another surprising aspect was that these aggression-mirroring neurons seemed to be triggered by sight in observers, whereas in fighting mice, they were triggered by the smell of pheromones.&nbsp;



Finally, the scientists found that these neurons appeared innately tuned to aggression, even in mice that never engaged in or witnessed aggressive behavior, and not only contributed to sensing aggression, but also to enable it.



According to the experts, the fact that aggression-mirroring neurons exist in such a primitive area of the brain suggests that may have been conserved across evolution, from mice to humans. “It suggests that we might have the same neurons, and maybe they encode some qualities of aggression in ourselves,” Shah concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.01.022">Cell</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Do animals have "mirror neurons" that spark aggression?

Mirror neurons are clusters of brain cells that activate both...

Social networks may be crucial for the survival and success of individuals that live in groups. Being connected to others may help an individual to access food, avoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clash-of-the-top-predators-wolves-are-eating-sea-otters/">predation</a>, disease and parasites, and reproduce fruitfully. The ecological and evolutionary importance of network structure has been recognized for a long time, although the reasons that network structures vary within and between species have not been investigated in depth.&nbsp;



For decades, researchers on Cayo Santiago, an island off the southeastern coast of Puerto Rico, have been studying rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), that were introduced from India in 1938. These primates are given supplemental food and water, and are monitored by staff of the Caribbean Primate Research Center (CPRC) on a daily basis to record births, deaths and behavioral patterns.&nbsp;



The macaques are highly social and live in matrilineal kin groups, of which there are 19 on the island. Females groom one another as a way of social bonding, and this can also be used as a measure of connectedness. Previous research has shown that the social networks of older females change as they age, with more mature females prioritizing relationships with their closer partners and kin, while reducing their contact with less favored females. These older females do not spend any less time grooming others, or being groomed themselves, but they do focus their attentions on a smaller circle of partners.



In a new study, led by scientists from the University of Exeter, the same groups of macaques were investigated to find out whether this change in social connectedness of older females has any effect on the cohesion and structure of the social network as a whole. The researchers stress that older people also tend to reduce the number of social relationships they have with others, and focus their attention and effort on close friends and family. The effect that this has on human society has also not been investigated.&nbsp;



“For both humans and macaques, focusing on close friends and family in later life may bring a variety of benefits,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Erin_Siracusa">Dr Erin Siracusa</a>, from Exeter’s&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/research/centres/crab/">Centre for Research in Animal Behavior</a>. “Our study aimed to find out what knock-on effect these individual age-related changes have for how well connected a society is overall.”



“We had information on six monkey groups collected over eight years, and representing, in total, 19 social networks,” she explained.



The 19 social networks contained differing proportions of old females (over 18 years of age), although none had more than 20 percent. The researchers hypothesized that networks with a greater proportion of old individuals would be more sparsely connected due to the older animals having fewer social partners (ie., the presence of more old females would have an effect on the overall structure of the network).&nbsp;



“The first thing we found is that that older female macaques are poor influencers,” said Siracusa. “By having fewer friends, older females are less able to transmit knowledge and experience outside their immediate social circles.”



However, the researchers did not find any differences between the structure of networks containing a greater proportion of old females and those containing a greater number of young adults. This was despite the fact that the older females have reduced social networks.&nbsp;



The team proposed that, since no more than 20 percent of monkeys were old in any given group that was studied, it was possible that this was too few individuals to affect the overall network structure. They decided to use a computer model to simulate the possible effects if a greater proportion of the network was made up of old individuals, and also if the old monkeys were even older than 18 years of age.&nbsp;



By modeling age-based differences in two interaction patterns (number of social partners and the tendency to link with kin) using data collected in the field, the researchers found that the age composition of a group can have important consequences for its cohesiveness and connectedness. Interestingly, these effects did not necessarily scale in the linear manner that might be expected in response to a linear increase in proportion of old individuals in the network.



“We found really substantial consequences for network structure, which could affect useful things like information transmission and cooperation, and could also limit the spread of disease,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Lauren_Brent">Professor Lauren Brent</a>, also from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



“In humans, population aging is poised to be one of the most significant social transformations of the 21st Century. Our findings suggest this could have far-reaching effects on the structure of our societies and the way they function.”



With the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health">global human population of over-60s expected to double by 2050</a>, the findings suggest social structures, cohesion and connectedness could all change significantly.



The findings, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0061">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences</a>, also indicate that any animal group containing disproportionately large numbers of old, or large numbers of young individuals, is likely to experience a shift in the social network structure. This is because young and old individuals differ in the level of their social activities.



For example, the removal of older individuals through trophy hunting could alter important processes in the remaining group, such as communication, cooperation and access to resource-related knowledge. Younger individuals may also be more aggressive and less socially cohesive, which could have repercussions for network connectivity and structure.&nbsp;



"Consequently, through its effects on network structure, shifting age demography may have broader implications than previously appreciated for group dynamics and persistence, and thus warrants further research," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aging populations have less cohesive social networks

Social networks may be crucial for the survival and success...

Scientists have long known that older adults living with food insecurity are more likely to face malnutrition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acts-of-kindness-can-help-relieve-depression/">depression</a>, and physical limitations which significantly affect their life quality. Although research has shown that the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a> (SNAP) – U.S.’s largest federally funded nutrition-assistance program – has managed to reduce hunger and food insecurity in the general population, not much is known about how SNAP impacts brain aging in older adults.



Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has examined the relationship between food insecurity, SNAP, and cognitive decline and discovered that food sufficiency and participation in SNAP can mitigate accelerated cognitive decline in the elderly.



The researchers analyzed a representative sample of 4,578 older U.S. adults who had to report their food insecurity and were classified as either food sufficient or insufficient. According to their SNAP status, they were also classified as SNAP participants, SNAP-eligible nonparticipants, and SNAP-ineligible nonparticipants.



The analysis revealed that rates of cognitive decline were similar in SNAP participants and SNAP-ineligible nonparticipants, both of which were lower that those of SNAP-eligible nonparticipants. Moreover, the greatest rate of cognitive decline found in the food insecure group was equivalent to being 3.8 years older, while the greatest rate observed in the SNAP-eligible nonparticipants was equivalent to being 4.5 years older.



“For an aging population, roughly four years of brain aging can be very significant,” said study lead author Muzi Na, an assistant professor of Nutritional Sciences at Penn State. “These results really point to the importance of food security for people as they age and the value that SNAP can have in improving people’s cognitive health as they age. We need to make sure that people have access to — and encourage them to use — the SNAP program as they age.”



However, further research is needed to comprehensively assess the impact of addressing food insecurity and promoting SNAP participation on the cognitive health of older adults.



The study is published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjnut.2022.12.012">The Journal of Nutrition.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Food insecurity increases cognitive decline in older adults

Scientists have long known that older adults living with food...

According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>, World War II-style rationing could be an effective way of reducing carbon emissions rapidly and fairly and thus of mitigating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-play-a-major-role-in-mitigating-climate-change/">climate change</a>. 



The experts argue that, although policymakers have taken into consideration other schemes to reduce emissions – such as carbon taxes or personal carbon trading schemes – these tend to favor the wealthy, who would be capable of buying their right to pollute if trading were allowed. By contrast, carbon rationing would allow individuals to receive an equitable portion of resources based on their needs and thus share out their effort to protect our planet.



“The concept of rationing could help, not only in the mitigation of climate change, but also in reference to a variety of other social and political issues – such as the current energy crisis,” said study co-lead author Nathan Wood, a postdoctoral fellow in Fair Energy Transition at <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en">Utrecht University</a>.



During World War II, compulsory food rationing was more acceptable to the UK population than voluntary changes to diet when resources became scarce. Such policies aimed to share goods and burdens in a more equitable manner, regardless of wealth. Moreover, historic rationing policies also introduced price controls on goods to keep essential resources affordable for most people.



Yet, according to the researchers, a major difference between World War II rationing and the current climate crisis regards public perception. The apparent availability&nbsp;of a wide variety of goods is now giving the illusion that resources are available in abundance, although the reality is highly different.



“There is a limit to how much we can emit if we are to reduce the catastrophic impacts of climate change. In this sense, the scarcity is very real,” explained study co-lead author&nbsp;Rob Lawler, an expert in Applied Ethics at Leeds. 



“The cost of living crisis has shown what happens when scarcity drives up prices, with energy prices rising steeply and leaving vulnerable groups unable to pay their bills. Currently, those living in energy poverty cannot use anywhere near their fair share of energy supply, whereas the richest in society are free to use as much energy as they can afford,” added Wood.&nbsp;



The scientists argued that policy changes should start with stricter regulations and information campaigns to inform the public about the benefits of rationing. Governments should first regulate the largest polluters (oil, gas, and petrol companies, intensive farming, long-haul flights) and then gradually such regulations to the larger population.



According to the researchers, two options for rationing policy could possibly be efficient. Policymakers could either introduce an all-encompassing carbon allowance, offering “carbon cards” to track and limit usage, or they could ration specifically selected goods, such as flights, petrol, household energy, or even clothing or food.



“Many have proposed carbon allowances and carbon cards before. What is new (or old, taking inspiration from World War II) is the idea that the allowances should not be tradable. Another feature of World War II-style rationing is that price controls on rationed goods would prevent prices from rising with increased demand, benefitting those with the least money,” Lawlor explained.



Such types of rationing would accelerate the transition from fossil fuels to clean energy and more sustainable lifestyles. “For example, rationing petrol could encourage greater use of, and investment in, low carbon public transport, such as railways and local trams,” Wood concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2023.2166342">Ethics, Policy &amp; Environment</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Rationing could be an effective way to fight climate change

According to a recent study led by the University of...

An,Illustration,Of,A,Male,And,Female,Dodo,Birds,In

Recently, <a href="https://colossal.com/">Colossal Biosciences</a> – a biotech company based in Dallas – has announced a bold effort to bring back from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lynx-population-in-france-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/">extinction</a> the famous dodo bird, a flightless bird that vanished from the Island of Mauritius in the late 17th century and became emblematic of humanity’s devastating impact on the natural world. Although the company received $225 million in investments to “resurrect” the dodo, its plans depend on major advances in genome editing, stem-cell biology, and animal husbandry, thus making the success of their endeavor far from certain.



“It’s incredibly exciting that there’s that kind of money available,” said Thomas Jensen, a cell and molecular reproductive physiologist at the <a href="https://www.wells.edu/">Wells College</a>. “I’m not sure that the end goal they’re going for is something that’s super feasible in the near future.”



Colossal’s plan is to begin with the dodo’s closest living relative - the iridescent-feathered Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) – and to isolate and culture specialized primordial germ cells (PGCs), which make sperm and egg-producing cells, from developing Nicobars. Afterwards, they aim to edit DNA sequences in the PGCs to match those of dodos by using state-of-the-art gene-editing tools such as CRISPR. These edited cells would then be inserted into embryos from a surrogate species to generate “chimeric animals” with DNA from both species, which could ultimately produce something resembling a dodo.



However, according to various experts, this plan faces several challenges. First, in order to edit Nicobar pigeon PGCs, the scientists will initially need to identify the conditions which allow these cells to flourish in the laboratory. Although this has already been done with chickens, it may take some time to repeat this process in the case of other bird species. Moreover, according to Beth Shapiro, a paleogeneticist at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, who recently sequenced the dodo genome, an even greater challenge will be to determine the genetic changes which could transform Nicobar pigeons into dodos. In addition, it could be problematic to find a bird large enough that can act as the surrogate, since dodo bird eggs are much larger than Nicobar pigeon eggs.



Finally, even if the dodo will ultimately be resurrected, the predators that threatened it in the 17th century have not gone away, whereas most of dodo’s habitat has. “You do have to ask, if we could have such money, wouldn’t it be better spent on restoring habitat on Mauritius and preventing species from going extinct?” said Vikash Tatayah, the conservation director at the <a href="https://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/">Mauritian Wildlife Foundation</a> in Vacoas-Phoenix.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, Tatayah – as well as other scientists – are enthusiastic about the attention dodo de-extinction could bring to conservation. “It’s something we would like to embrace,” he concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Could the dodo bird be brought back from extinction?

Recently, Colossal Biosciences – a biotech company based in Dallas...

If you were to take a trip into space, you’d be tumbling around the rocket cabin due to the lack of gravity. However, a new study from the University of Antwerp and the <a href="https://www.uliege.be/">University of Liège</a> has revealed that this is not the only physiological effect of zero gravity. In fact, the human brain actually adapts to the feeling of weightlessness, with some effects persisting for more than eight months after returning to Earth.&nbsp;



The "BRAIN-DTI scientific project" has received support and acknowledgment from Raphaël Liégeois, a Belgian astronaut who will soon be the third Belgian in space. The purpose of this study on the effects of weightlessness on the human brain is to prepare the new generation of astronauts for longer missions, explained Liégeois.



To better understand weightlessness of the brain, the researchers used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to investigate the brains of 14 astronauts both before and after their mission to space. Data was collected in resting conditions to ensure that there was no activity that may influence the MRI scans of each astronaut, helping the researchers to understand whether any changes were apparent after long-duration spaceflight.&nbsp;



Through this study of default brain states before and after space missions, the researchers were able to conclude that “functional connectivity” changed after prolonged space flight. Functional connectivity is a marker used to assess how the activity within specific brain areas correlates with activity in other regions. In the case of this study, before and after functional connectivity states were compared.&nbsp;



“We found that connectivity was altered after spaceflight in regions that support the integration of different types of information," explained Steven Jillings and Floris Wuyts, researchers at the University of Antwerp. “Moreover, we found that some of these altered communication patterns were retained throughout 8 months of being back on Earth. However, other brain changes returned to the level of how the areas were functioning before the space mission.”



Long-term functional connectivity changes were interpreted to represent a lasting learning effect on the brain. On the other hand, brain changes that returned to normal levels upon return were interpreted as transient effects of spaceflight that indicate a more acute and short-term adaptation to changed gravity levels.&nbsp;



Whilst the scientists are excited about the study findings, research into understanding brain communication changes after space travel is still in a very early stage. It will still be necessary to analyze the behavioral consequences that correlate with these functional connectivity changes, and further studies must be conducted to understand whether longer time in space correlates with more significant brain changes. This research could help organizations select and monitor future astronauts based on the way their brains react to prolonged flight.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-04382-w">Communications Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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The human brain adapts to weightlessness in space

If you were to take a trip into space, you’d...

Team,Of,Doctors,Or,Surgeons,With,Electrocardiogram,Monitor,In,Hospital

Although COVID-19 is primarily a respiratory illness that affects the lungs, it can also affect other organs in the body, including the heart. Temporary or lasting damage to the heart may arise from a lack of sufficient oxygen as the lung’s air sacs fill up with fluid, from inflammation due to the effects of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sars-cov-2-can-survive-on-frozen-meat-for-up-to-a-month/">SARS-CoV-2</a> virus, or from inflammation due to a person’s own immune system’s response to infection by the virus. Although these symptoms may resolve themselves with treatment, they can also lead to life-threatening heart issues such as arrhythmias, heart attacks and strokes.



A research study, due to be presented at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biophysics.org/2023meeting#/">67th Annual Biophysical Society Meeting</a>&nbsp;in San Diego, California, has found that the heart tissue of people who have had COVID-19 can show significant changes that could be related to these heart issues.&nbsp; Professor Andrew Marks of Columbia University and colleagues have studied changes in the heart and heart muscle of COVID-19 sufferers, and in laboratory mice that have been infected with the virus.



In heart tissue from patients who had COVID-19, the team observed increases in oxidative stress (harmful production of unstable molecules) and signals of inflammation, as well as changes in calcium. They also detected adverse changes to a protein called RyR2, which is responsible for regulating the heart’s calcium ion levels.&nbsp;



The heart muscle, like all muscle cells, needs calcium ions in order to contract. The heart’s system for managing calcium ions is essential for the coordinated contractions of the atria and ventricles that pump blood throughout the body. When calcium in the heart becomes dysregulated, it can cause arrhythmias or heart failure.



To test whether these changes were caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection, the researchers used a mouse model that was also susceptible to infection by the virus. The mice that suffered COVID-19 disease also showed changes to the heart tissue, including immune cell infiltration, collagen deposition (indicative of injury), death of heart cells, and blood clots.&nbsp;



The researchers also measured changes to the proteins that are expressed by the heart cells and found patterns consistent with changes observed in the hearts of humans that suffered COVID-19 disease. Microscopic examination of mouse hearts showed an increased percentage of fibrosis and dilation of the muscle fibers, which is a common indicator of early cardiomyopathy in mice, and can make it harder for the heart to pump blood to the body, leading potentially to heart failure.



“The more awareness you build around particular aspects of a disease, the more likely you are to improve the care of patients. And doctors should be aware of heart changes related to COVID-19 infections and should be looking for them,” said Professor Marks. Ultimately, “we want to really figure out what's causing the heart disease and how to fix it."



If future research is able to uncover the biochemical mechanisms that underlie these changes, then specific medications can be used to target these molecular pathways and could help healthcare professionals to diagnose and treat the cardiac issues more effectively. Additionally, understanding the cardiac complications of COVID-19 can also help public health officials make more informed decisions about how to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in advising those at higher risk for heart problems.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

COVID-19 patients experience changes in heart tissue

Although COVID-19 is primarily a respiratory illness that affects the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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