Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">Omicron</a> variant of the coronavirus was first identified in South Africa on November 26, 2021. It has already spread to <a href="https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/news-events/epidemiological-update-omicron-data-10-december">62 countries</a> all over the world, and may <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/omicron-dominant-europe-covid/2021/12/10/7ec14c42-59df-11ec-8396-5552bef55c3c_story.html">become the dominant variant</a> in some European countries by as early as next week.&nbsp;



Omicron does not seem to cause more severe illness. In fact, its symptoms appear to be <a href="https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/12/11/early-data-on-omicron-show-surging-cases-but-milder-symptoms">milder</a> than those of previous variants. However, its high transmissibility makes experts claim that Omicron will soon become dominant globally, giving rise to enormous waves of infections in most of the world’s countries.



In one of the first peer-reviewed studies about this variant (published in&nbsp;the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/22221751.2021.2017757">Emerging Microbes &amp; Infection</a>), a research team led by China’s <a href="http://english.nmpa.gov.cn/2019-07/19/c_389166.htm">National Institutes for Food and Drug Control</a> (NIFDC) has tested 28 serum samples from COVID-19 convalescent patients infected with the original strain of the coronavirus that emerged from Wuhan against in vitro Omicron samples (as well as other variants of concern and interest).&nbsp;



The experts discovered that the neutralization potential of these sera against Omicron decreased 8.4 fold. This reinforces previous <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.11.11.21266068v2.full.pdf">findings</a> that argued that Omicron is capable of dodging immunity gained from previous infections.



“We found the large number of mutations of the Omicron variant did cause significant changes of neutralization sensitivity against people who had already had COVID,” said study senior author Youchun Wang, a researcher at NIFDC. “However, the average ED50 (protection level) against Omicron is still higher than the baseline, which indicated there is still some protection effect that can be observed.”



Wang and his colleagues predict that Omicron may be able to evade to a certain degree also vaccine-induced immunity, particularly since real-world data has already shown that the protection from vaccines diminishes significantly four to six months after the second dose.&nbsp;



Pfizer and BioNTech have also <a href="https://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer-and-biontech-provide-update-omicron-variant">reported</a> earlier this week that sera from individuals who received two doses of their vaccine exhibit more than a 25-fold reduction in neutralization titers against the Omicron variant compared to the wild-type virus, and strongly suggested people to get a booster shot.



“Although two doses of the vaccine may still offer protection against severe disease caused by the Omicron strain, it’s clear from these preliminary data that protection is improved with a third dose of our vaccine,” said&nbsp;Albert Bourla, Pfizer’s Chairman and Chief Executive Officer. “Ensuring as many people as possible are fully vaccinated with the first two dose series and a booster remains the best course of action to prevent the spread of COVID-19.”



However, future real-world studies are essential for clarifying Omicron’s ability to evade previously acquired immunity and thus establish the potential global impact of this new variant.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Omicron: Partial immune evasion after vaccination

The Omicron variant of the coronavirus was first identified in...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.idc.ac.il/en/schools/psychology/research/pages/developmental-social-neuroscience.aspx">Center of Developmental Neuroscience</a> at Reichman University, Israel, has found that chemical signals in mothers’ body odor may have a significant role in supporting the development of infants’ social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-isolation-damages-our-brains/">brains</a> and make them capable of interacting with strangers from an early age.



While maternal body odors serve as important safety-promoting and social recognition signals, their role in human brain maturation has been largely unknown. A research team led by Yaara Endevelt-Shapira, a postdoctoral research associate at the Center for Developmental Neuroscience, has recently investigated in more detail the complex role of chemical signals in enhancing infant-adult brain-to-brain synchrony.



The scientists gave 62 mothers a cotton t-shirt each and asked them to use it as a pajama for two consecutive nights before the experiment. In a first stage of the empirical study, the mothers and their infants had electrodes placed on their heads and were seated initially back-to-back, then face-to-face. When they were facing each other, mothers and infants shown higher neural synchrony.



In a second stage of the experiment, 51 of the infants were seated face-to-face with a stranger – a woman with a similar age as their mothers who lived in a nearby area and had an infant of about the same age. While the infants interacted with this woman, they were exposed to either a clean t-shirt or the t-shirt that their mother used.



Infants who were exposed to a clean t-shirt showed a significantly lower inter-brain neural synchrony with the stranger than with their mother. By contrast, those exposed to the t-shirt with their mother’s body odor showed the same degree of neural synchrony with the stranger as with their mother.&nbsp;



These findings suggest that scent preserves a chemical signal of the mother’s presence even in her absence, increasing the infants’ social capabilities and helping them survive in a constantly changing social environment.



“Human mothers use interbrain mechanisms to tune the infant’s social brain, and chemosignals may sustain the transfer of infant sociality from the mother-infant bond to life within social groups,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abg6867">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Maternal chemical signals help infants bond with strangers

A new study led by the Center of Developmental Neuroscience...

Scientists estimate that globally two out of five plant species are threatened with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-dragonfly-species-at-risk-of-extinction/">extinction</a>. Despite this clear trend, there is still much debate over whether species richness is also declining locally. This phenomenon is referred to as the “biodiversity conservation paradox."



An international team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/about-idiv.html">iDiv</a> has now taken a closer look at the displacement of rare plants by analyzing a shift in species composition across three habitats. Plant species were examined in mountain summits, woodland understories, and meadows and pastures.&nbsp;



The results show that widely distributed plants which prefer nutrient rich soils are becoming more common, while plants with small ranges requiring low nutrient soils are in decline.&nbsp;



Across the mountain habitats, species numbers are still increasing. However, according to study first author Dr. Ingmar Staude, this may not always be the case. He said that in the long term, species displacement may be expected here too.



The plant species composition analysis was derived from research at 141 study areas spread across 19 countries. The data goes back as far as the 1940s.&nbsp;



The researchers found that the major culprit of species displacement is an increase in soil nutrients such as nitrogen, which is associated with agriculture. Combustion and an increase in soil temperatures are also contributing factors. These additional factors cause the phenomena to be far outside of normal agricultural areas.&nbsp;



“We are witnessing these dynamics unfolding in near-natural habitats, places we’d expect to provide safe havens for specialized species and those of high conservation value," said Dr. Ingmar. "This suggests that the Anthropocene is not stopping at the doors of the few remaining wild areas that we consider protected.”



“The results of the study are not just be seen as an ‘early warning signal,' said study co-author Professor Harold Pauli. "Particularly concerning is that the species change has proceeded in the same direction across strongly differing ecosystems. We, therefore, expect that we are dealing here with a pervasive, large-scale phenomenon.”



Overall, the research highlights the issue of intense agriculture driving local extinction of rare plants. Unfortunately, this problem will only get worse with a growing population that will demand even more agriculture.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare plants are displaced by more common species

Scientists estimate that globally two out of five plant species...

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.mbari.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a> (MBARI) have recently spotted off the Californian coast a very rarely seen giant phantom jellyfish with 32 feet long tentacles. This elusive deep-sea creature was first officially documented in 1899. It has only been spotted 110 times in over 120 years, and has been captured on camera just nine times.&nbsp;



The giant phantom jellyfish (Stygiomedusa gigantea) is one of then largest invertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-predators-have-outsmarted-monarch-butterflies/">predators</a> in the deep-sea ecosystem. It has an umbrella-shaped bell which can be up to 3.3ft wide, and four “paddle-like” arms that can reach a length of 32ft and are used to trap prey. 



This purple-colored creature lives in the depths of the oceans, in regions up to 21,900ft deep. Although it has been spotted only off the coast of the Pacific, in the Gulf of Mexico, and near Japan, scientists believe it resides in all oceans, besides the Arctic. According to the sparse knowledge gathered so far, the giant phantom jellyfish feeds mostly on plankton and a variety of small fish that live deep underwater. However, more than a century after its discovery, not much is known about this strange animal.



“Even now, scientists still know very little about this animal,” the researchers from MBARI said.&nbsp;“The challenges of accessing its deep-water habitat contribute to the relative scarcity of sightings for such a large and broadly distributed species.” The most recent recording was done at a depth of 3,200ft in the Monterey Bay, with the help of an underwater robot.



Before underwater robots, or “remotely operated vehicles” (ROVs), were invented, experts used trawling nets to study creatures such as the giant phantom jellyfish. However, when such animals are captured and brought to the surface, their usually silky-looking frames turn to “gelatinous goo.” Thus, underwater robots remain the best tool to observe this mesmerizing creature in its natural habitat.



A recording of the recent sighting of the giant phantom jellyfish can be found <a href="https://youtu.be/9bzQYKm3xTA">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant phantom jellyfish spotted in Monterey Bay

Scientists from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) have...

Forest animals often benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of monkeys, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>. The researchers found that animals eavesdrop on monkeys while they are eating in hopes of snatching up discarded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-swap-spit-to-share-food-and-special-fluids/">food</a>.



"Monkeys are messy eaters. After just a few bites of a fruit, they let it fall to the ground. Other species benefit from this habit. But to do so most effectively, they need to know where and when the monkeys are eating. Here, our study demonstrates that mammals use eavesdropping," said study lead author, Linnea W. Havmøller.



The team spent nine months in a rainforest in Panama studying how various types of fruit-eating animals, including coatis and agoutis, listen to capuchin and spider monkeys as they eat in the trees.&nbsp;



When the half-eaten fruit often falls to forest floor below, the researchers discovered that animals are ready to pounce the moment they hear the food hit the ground.



"It is clear that, when terrestrial animals hear monkeys in a tree, they head towards that tree. It’s as if their ears are telescoped, which lets them hear the lunch bell from wherever it’s ringing. This gives them access to food that would otherwise be inaccessible at the time," explained Rasmus W. Havmøller, a postdoctoral researcher at the Natural History Museum of Denmark.



The study authors explained that the eavesdropping strategy is not just a convenient way to get a little extra food for themselves – it can play a vital role for animals. There is a season each year when food becomes very scarce in Panama, and many species must depend on almond trees for the majority of their food, including the groups observed for the study.&nbsp;



"During this season, there is incredibly little to eat in the forest – other than the prodigious quantities of fruit from this one type of tree. However, terrestrial animals can’t access these fruits unless monkeys drop them. For these animals, the eavesdropping method means that they gain access to food in greater quantities and far sooner than the long time it would take if the fruits were left to fall on their own. And during some periods, it is crucial for their food gathering," said Linnea W. Havmøller.



Ramus W. Havmøller said that in the bigger picture, this means that in areas where monkeys have been removed from the local environment, there can be a negative cascading effect. "Not only will the species of mammals which depend on the fruit being dropped by monkeys suffer – there can be an impact on the entire rainforest ecosystem because terrestrial fruit-eating animals help disperse the seeds that allow the forest to reproduce."



For the investigation, the researchers collected data using GPS collars, cameras, speakers playing monkey sounds, and traps that collected fallen fruit. The analysis revealed that over 90 percent of the fruit which landed in the traps had bite marks and was half-eaten by monkeys. The fruit that fell outside of the traps was eaten almost immediately.



“I think we've underestimated how much mammals interact with each other and how many ways they're actually connected," said Rasmus Havmøller. "Eavesdropping between species is a new chapter in the behavioral biology of mammals, which provides us with important knowledge about how much the disappearance of one species can impact an entire ecosystem."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17447429">Biotropica</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of monkeys

Forest animals often benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of...

Through an analysis of fossil footprint tracks, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unirioja.es/">University of La Rioja</a> has found that, about 100 million years ago in what is now La Rioja province in northern Spain, two bipedal meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">theropods</a> reached running speeds of almost 45 kilometers per hour.



About 35 years ago, researchers discovered a few three-toed dinosaur footprints in La Rioja. Recently, further excavations at the site revealed more prints forming two short trails. The analysis of the footprints suggest that they were made by two medium-sized dinosaurs, each about four to five meters long and two meters tall, belonging to either the spinosaur or the carcharodontosaur family of predatory therapods.&nbsp;



By analyzing the distance between consecutive footprints (the stride length), a research team from the University of La Rioja has found that the two dinosaurs were incredibly fast, reaching speeds of up to 45 kilometers per hour. Moreover, abrupt changes in speed suggested that the creatures switched directions as they ran.



“High-velocity trackways are very scarce around the world,” said study senior author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Angelica-Torices">Angélica Torices</a>, a paleontologist at the University of La Rioja. According to her, speed helped these dinosaurs not only in hunting, but also in fleeing danger such as "bigger theropods that could see them as their prey."



"Their capacity to run very quickly and their maneuvering abilities surely allowed them to chase prey very efficiently. And of course I wouldn't like to be caught by this guy on a riverbank," added study lead author Pablo Navarro-Lorbes, a doctoral student at the same university.



"There are several factors that dictate the running ability of a dinosaur," Navarro-Lorbes explained. "One of them is size. Some paleontologists think that theropods with sizes between 100 and 1,000 kilograms (220-2,200 pounds) could have been some of the best dinosaur runners because of the relationship between their weight and muscular performance.” Another factor is the dinosaurs’ elongated legs, which was of crucial importance for allowing them reach such speeds.



Further research is needed to clarify the precise mechanics characterizing these theropods’ movements, as well as their relations with other animal species with which they shared their environment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02557-9">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flesh-eating theropods were extremely fast

Through an analysis of fossil footprint tracks, a new study...

Turkish ichthyologists have made an amazing discovery of the critically endangered Batman River Loach, which had last been seen in 1974. In fact, this is the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-protect-corals-by-feeding-on-crown-of-thorns-starfish/">fish</a> to be found as part of a more ambitious plan. 



Nonprofit organizations Shoal and Re:Wild have teamed up to create a top 10 most wanted lost fishes list. The Batman RIver Loach is the first on this list to be found after the project launched in June 2021.&nbsp;



"When I first heard about the Search for the Lost Fishes project, I was very happy," said Cüynet Kaya, associate professor with Recep Tayyip Erdogan University in Turkey.



"Moreover, two of the 10 most wanted fish species were distributed in my country. It is a very different feeling when you see naturalists from foreign countries caring about an endemic species in your country and making efforts to save it."&nbsp;



"As a freshwater fish taxonomist, I thought that I should do my best for this project, and fortunately our efforts resulted in finding the first lost endemic and critically endangered Batman River loach.”&nbsp;



The Batman River Loach is the smallest loach in the Middle East. With a length of approximately 1.4 inches, it is smaller than any loaches in Europe.&nbsp;



Scientists had previously searched in the last known locations for the loach but to no avail. Kaya and Münevver Oral, a research fellow with Recep Tayyip Erdogan University together took a different approach.&nbsp;



The scientists analyzed the possible habitats where the Batman River Loach could survive and searched the Sarim Stream, upstream from the Batman Dam. Using tightly knit nets, they found 14 fish in Sarim Stream. Nine more fish were found in Han Stream.&nbsp;



The researchers said the population of fish seems stable but they worry about the impact of pollution, drought and invasive species. Such a small number of fish is inherently a fragile population.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Re:Wild



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish rediscovered after being lost for 50 years

Turkish ichthyologists have made an amazing discovery of the critically...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-infants-recognize-words-using-similar-brain-regions/">Infants</a> may seem to have weak and vulnerable immune systems, but researchers have now demonstrated that this is simply not the case. A new study from <a href="https://www.cuimc.columbia.edu/">Columbia University Irving Medical Center</a> reveals that when it comes to new viruses, babies have stronger immune systems than adults. 



According to the experts, the infant immune system beats the adult immune system at fighting off new pathogens. The research may explain why infants are less affected by COVID-19.



Dr. Donna Farber, a professor of Microbiology &amp; Immunology, explained that while babies are more prone to respiratory illnesses compared to adults, the difference is that babies are seeing these viruses for the first time.&nbsp;



“Adults don’t get sick as often because we’ve recorded memories of these viruses that protect us, whereas everything the baby encounters is new to them," said Dr. Farber.



For the investigation, the researchers tested the immune system’s ability to respond to a new pathogen. They collected naïve T cells, which are immune cells that have never encountered a pathogen, from both infant and adult mice. These cells were administered to an adult mouse infected with a virus.



When the cells competed to eradicate the virus, the infant T cells won by a landslide. The experts report that naïve T cells from infant mice detected the virus earlier (at lower levels), proliferated faster, and traveled in greater numbers to the site of infection - rapidly building a strong defense against the virus.&nbsp;



In a lab experiment, the T cells of human infants performed just as well against adult T cells. “We were looking at naïve T cells that have never been activated, so it was a surprise that they behaved differently based on age,” said Dr. Farber.



"What this is saying is that the infant’s immune system is robust, it's efficient, and it can get rid of pathogens in early life. In some ways, it may be even better than the adult immune system, since it’s designed to respond to a multitude of new pathogens.”



"SARS-CoV-2 is new to absolutely everybody, so we’re now seeing a natural, side-by-side comparison of the adult and infant immune system. And the kids are doing much better."



"Adults faced with a novel pathogen are slower to react. That gives the virus a chance to replicate more, and that’s when you get sick.”



The study results also help to clarify why vaccines are more effective in childhood, when T cells are very robust. “That is the time to get vaccines and you shouldn't worry about getting multiple vaccines in that window,” said Dr. Farber. “Any child living in the world, particularly before we started wearing masks, is exposed to a huge number of new antigens every day. They’re already handling multiple exposures.”



“Most vaccine formulations and doses are the same for all ages, but understanding the distinct immune responses in childhood suggests we can use lower doses for children and could help us design vaccines that are more effective for this age group."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciimmunol">Science Immunology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Infants have surprisingly strong immune systems

Infants may seem to have weak and vulnerable immune systems,...

Have you ever wondered why adults talk differently to babies than they do to other adults, or even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddlers-chimps-share-gestures/">toddlers</a>? They use a higher pitch than normal, speak more slowly, emphasize or exaggerate certain words and use a different vocabulary. This “baby talk” is not only cute and engaging, but may also be helping infants learn how to produce speech.&nbsp;



New research from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> suggests that baby talk, apart from being very effective at getting a baby’s attention, can also have another, previously unknown benefit: it helps babies learn to produce their own sounds and words. The researchers think that using baby talk guides infants in how their own words should sound.



"It seems to stimulate motor production of speech, not just the perception of speech. It's not just goo-goo ga-ga," said Dr. Matthew Masapollo, director of the UF Laboratory for the Study of Cognition, Action, and Perception of Speech.



In the study, the researchers changed the frequency of conversational sounds to mimic either an infant or adult vocal tract. When they tested how infants reacted to each sound tract, they found that six- to eight-month-old babies “displayed a robust and distinct preference for speech with resonances specifying a vocal tract that is similar in size and length to their own.”&nbsp;



By contrast, younger babies of four to six months in age didn’t have that preference. It seems that older babies have already developed some control over their voices and their ability to make “babble words” and this makes the sounds of an adult’s baby talk more interesting and appealing to them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



It is tempting to think of baby talk as a simple form of communication, but that is not necessarily true. For example, words like “choo-choo-train” and “kitty-cat” are actually more complex than their adult language counterparts. Using baby talk clearly has other important functions as well.&nbsp;



Though baby talk may sound simple, it's accomplishing a lot, said study co-author Dr. Linda Polka McGill University.&nbsp;



"We're trying to engage with the infant to show them something about speech production," she said. "We're priming them to process their own voice."



While parents are sometimes discouraged from engaging in baby talk, the new research shows the patterns associated with that speaking style - which scientists call “infant-directed speech” - could be a key component in helping babies make their own words.



The results of the research were published today in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/yslh20/current">Speech, Language and Hearing</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

“Baby talk” sets the stage for speech production in infants

Have you ever wondered why adults talk differently to babies...

A,Shaggy,Woolly,Mammoth,Stands,In,The,Long,Grass,Of

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from the Klondike region of the central Yukon territory’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-melting-may-release-nuclear-waste-into-the-atmosphere/">permafrost</a>, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca/">McMaster University</a> in Canada has found that ancestral species such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammoths-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change-not-humans/">mammoths</a> or wild horses survived thousands of years longer than initially estimated.



The scientists used DNA capture-enrichment technology to isolate and rebuild in great detail the fluctuating animal and plant communities at different time points during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, an unstable climatic period 11,000 to 14,000 years ago when various species such as mammoths, mastodons, or sabre-toothed cats went extinct.



By analyzing tiny soil samples collected from Canada’s permafrost and containing billions of microscopic genomic sequences from animal and plant species, the researchers managed to shed more light on the status of ancient ecosystems at different historical periods.&nbsp;



They found that although mammoths and horses were already in steep decline before the period of climatic instability marking the passage from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, they did not immediately disappear due to human overhunting as it was initially believed. In fact, the DNA evidence shows that the wooly mammoth and the North American wild horse persisted until about 5,000 years ago – well into the mid-Holocene period.



“The rich data provides a unique window into the population dynamics of megafuana and nuances the discussion around their extinction through more subtle reconstructions of past ecosystems,” said study lead author Hendrik Poinar, an evolutionary geneticist and director of the <a href="https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/mcmaster-ancient-dna-centre">McMaster Ancient DNA Centre</a>.



The genetic analyses that the research team performed have also shown a strong continuity between the genomic structures of ancient and contemporary horses. “Although mammoths are gone forever, horses are not,” said study co-author Ross MacPhee, a senior curator at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“The horse that lived in the Yukon 5,000 years ago is directly related to the horse species we have today,&nbsp;Equus caballus. Biologically, this makes the horse a native North American mammal, and it should be treated as such.”



The researchers stress the need to collect and archive more permafrost samples, which are at risk of being lost forever due to global warming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammoths survived longer than initially thought

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from...

Last year, COVID-19 restrictions drove a 5.6 percent decrease in fossil fuel consumption. Despite this, the average growth in carbon emissions were higher than average over the last decade.&nbsp;



Greenhouse gases, including CO2, have reached record highs across the globe. To address this problem, scientists have long been developing ways to capture carbon from the atmosphere. Some of these methods have required large amounts of energy or indeed create carbon themselves, making them impractical.&nbsp;



Now, a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/green-energy-and-environment">Green Energy &amp; Environment</a> has demonstrated a simple new method for carbon capture developed by scientists at China’s Renmin University. The CO2 capture system uses modified sawdust as a CO2 absorbent powered only by sunlight.&nbsp;



“While a large number of high-performing CO2 absorbents have been developed in recent decades, people rarely pay attention to the carbon emitted by the adsorbent during its preparation," said study co-author Professor Yapei Wang.&nbsp;



"Moreover, typical&nbsp; industrial CO2 capture systems show high-energy consumption during the absorber regeneration process. To solve these issues, we focused on a solution that not only fabricates low-energy consumption CO2 absorbents, it also uses sunlight as the single energy input to regenerate those absorbents.”



An important aspect of this method is that it’s also reversible. This means that carbon captured using the system could then be used to create other fuel products such as ethanol, methanol and methane. We can imagine this as a way of recycling fuel carbon emissions.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the carbon capture system is quite simple and requires little energy input. Sawdust is soaked in a solution of amine based polymer. The sawdust is energized to absorb carbon with sunlight reflectors.&nbsp;



Study lead author Shiming Zhang said the team was inspired by solar water heaters. "Using sunlight as an energy input minimizes the need for traditional energy and is more environmentally-friendly.”



"In summary, a non-fossil energy-consuming method possessing advantages of high scalability and elegant simplicity was exploited to prepare CO2 absorbents with the ability of reversible CO2 capturing and releasing," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



"Serving as the supporting matrix, sawdust as a byproduct during the lumbering has been recognized as particularly new in the success of accommodating PEI polymers."&nbsp;



"The whole preparation process did not involve aggressive solvents or lengthy laboratory synthesis, affording great promise for the inexpensive and quick preparation of CO2 capture systems."



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sawdust shows great potential for capturing carbon

Last year, COVID-19 restrictions drove a 5.6 percent decrease in...

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the likelihood increases that it will escape the neutralizing effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">vaccines</a> and other forms of treatment that have been developed to date. In response to this, scientists are intensifying their search for more powerful therapeutic solutions.



In a recent study, Rockefeller scientists&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/896-michael-p-rout/">Michael P. Rout</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/902-brian-t-chait/">Brian T. Chait</a>&nbsp;and their colleagues at the Seattle Children’s Research Institute tested the effectiveness of a range of over one hundred nanobodies that target different parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanobodies are like small antibodies that bind only to a specific section (domain) of an antigen such as the spike protein. They are found in members of the camel family, including llamas, alpacas and camels.



When llamas are immunized with small doses of coronavirus proteins their immune response is similar to that of humans after being vaccinated. However, instead of producing large, chunky antibodies as humans do, they produce small antibodies that bind to specific regions of the antigen only. These antigen-binding fragments are known as nanobodies.&nbsp;



The researchers collected blood samples from llamas that had been immunized and they identified a range of different nanobodies. They then located the genes in the llama’s genome that were responsible for coding these small antibody molecules and introduced the genetic information into bacterial chromosomes. The genetically modified bacteria were then cultured in the lab and produced large amounts of the nanobodies that could be used in analysis and testing.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests were done to find out which of the different nanobodies were most successful in neutralizing coronavirus particles. Some of the nanobodies targeted the region of the spike protein that attaches to receptors on human cells. This region is key to infection because, once the spike protein attaches to the host cell receptor, viral and host cell membranes fuse and the virus can enter into the host’s cell. Other nanobodies under investigation targeted different regions of the spike protein.



The results showed that several of&nbsp;the nanobodies were highly effective in neutralizing the original coronavirus, as well as its Delta, Beta and Gamma variants.&nbsp; The small size of nanobodies allows them to access hard-to-reach spots on the SARS-CoV-2 virus that larger antibodies may be unable to access. Furthermore, the research showed that up to three different nanobodies could bind to the same small region of the spike protein at the same time, increasing the chances of neutralizing the virus.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that different nanobodies were even more effective when combined. They suggested that this enhanced effect was due to the action of hitting different parts of the virus at the same time, thereby minimizing its chance of escaping neutralization.&nbsp;



“One of the most amazing things we observed with the nanobodies is that they show extraordinary synergy,” Chait says. “The combined effect is much greater than the sum of its parts.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists hope to develop cocktails of nanobodies that target different regions of the virus at the same time, reducing the chance that the virus can escape detection and neutralization. New studies are even underway to test the effectiveness of this technology on the Omicron variant.&nbsp;



Nanobodies are small and nimble, able to squeeze into hard-to-access folds of the viral spike protein. They are also inexpensive to mass-produce&nbsp;using genetically modified yeast or bacteria. This property, along with the fact that they are remarkably stable even in high temperatures and during long periods of storage, means that nanobodies could be developed into a drug suitable for use in different settings all over the world. This is particularly urgent in many developing countries where citizens still await access to vaccines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llama antibodies have potential to treat coronavirus variants

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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