Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Botox, or botulinum toxin, is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-may-cause-dangerous-drug-interactions/">medication</a> derived from a bacterial toxin that is commonly used to treat wrinkles, migraines, muscle spasms, excessive sweating, or even incontinence. New research led by the <a href="https://pharmacy.ucsd.edu/">Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences</a> at UC San Diego has found that people receiving Botox injections reported significantly less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-alleviates-the-symptoms-of-anxiety/">anxiety</a> than patients treating these conditions with other types of medicine.



The researchers looked through the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)’s <a href="https://open.fda.gov/data/faers/">Adverse Effect Reporting System</a> (FAERS) database, in which almost 40,000 people reported what happened to them after Botox treatment, in order to test whether such treatments might have an impact on anxiety levels.



“A large number of diverse adverse effects are being reported to the FDA and the main objective usually is to find those harmful side effects that had not been identified during clinical trials,” said study lead author Ruben Abagyan, a professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the Skaggs School. “However, our idea was different. Why don’t we do the opposite? Why don’t we find beneficial effects?”



By using a mathematical algorithm to look for statistically significant differences between Botox users and patients who received different treatments for the same conditions, Professor Abagyan and his colleagues have found that the reported anxiety risk was between 22 and 72 percent lower in people treated with Botox for four conditions and injections sites: cosmetic use (facial muscles), migraine (facial and head muscles), spasms and spasticity (upper and lower limbs), and torticollis (neck muscles).



In 2020, Professor Abagyan and his team published another <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-69773-7">study</a> showing that Botox has antidepressant effects too. However, the specific molecular mechanisms by which Botox reduces depression and anxiety may be different. “They may be related, but there are different pathways responsible for anxiety attacks versus depression,” said Abagyan.



Although these precise mechanisms are not yet clearly understood, the scientists believe that botulin toxins could be transported to regions in the central nervous system involved with moods or emotions, or that the Botox-affected neuromuscular junctions may communicate directly with the brain. However, since Botox is generally used to treat chronic, unpleasant conditions that may contribute to anxiety and depression, its success in relieving these psychological symptoms could be indirect, by improving the underlying physical conditions.&nbsp;



The researchers aim to begin clinical trials to identify the best sites and doses to administer in order to use this medication specifically for the treatment of mental issues such as anxiety and depression.



The study in published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Botox injections may reduce anxiety and depression

Botox, or botulinum toxin, is a medication derived from a...

On Monday, December 21, 2021, the US <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (E.P.A) announced the tightest-ever auto emission standards in order to reduce one of the major sources of carbon dioxide emissions that are warming our planet. This new, more stringent rule will require passenger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reduced-vehicle-emissions-have-saved-thousands-of-lives/">vehicles</a> to travel an average of 55 miles per gallon of gasoline by 2026, from under 38 miles per gallon today.



Transportation is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, representing 29 percent of the country’s total emissions. Implementing the new rule announced by E.P.A. would prevent the release of 3.1 billion tons of carbon dioxide through 2050, and would save roughly 360 billion gallons of gasoline from being burned. This would lead to a 15 percent yearly reduction in the country’s gasoline consumption, and drivers could save up to $1,080 in fuel costs over the lifetime of more efficient vehicles.



“The final rule for light duty vehicles reflects core principles of this administration: We followed the science, we listened to stakeholders, and we are setting robust and rigorous standards that will aggressively reduce the pollution that is harming people and our planet - and save families money at the same time,” said Michael S. Regan, the administrator of the E.P.A.



This rule will also help shift the US car market towards electric vehicles, which currently make up only a very small percentage of the cars Americans use (approximately two percent in 2020, and rising only slightly this year).



“E.P.A.’s final rule for greenhouse gas emissions is even more aggressive than originally proposed, requiring a substantial increase in electric vehicle sales, well above the four percent of all light-duty sales today,” said John Bozzella, the president and CEO of the <a href="https://www.autosinnovate.org/">Alliance for Automotive Innovation</a>, a lobbying group representing the world’s largest auto companies.



&nbsp;“Achieving the goals of this final rule will undoubtedly require enactment of supportive governmental policies - including consumer incentives, substantial infrastructure growth, fleet requirements, and support for U.S. manufacturing and supply chain development.”



However, Biden administration’s promises to halt transportation-related emissions by largely replacing traditional cars with electric vehicles was met with skepticism by people like Dan Becker, the director of the <a href="https://safeclimatecampaign.org/sample-page-2/who-are-we/">Safe Climate Transport Campaign</a>.



"Before this presidential term ends, the administration must issue long-term standards strong enough to usher in the age of electric vehicles," he said. "They must close the loopholes and force automakers to actually deliver electric vehicles, rather than just churning out promises to make them."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

EPA tightens emission standards for the auto industry

On Monday, December 21, 2021, the US Environmental Protection Agency...

Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plants-cause-a-global-loss-of-floristic-uniqueness/">plants</a> such as thyme and oregano are known to possess an anti-cancer compound that can suppress tumor development, the amount that can be found in these plants is not sufficient to cure disease. A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> argue that the key to unlocking the therapeutic potential of these plants is amplifying the amount of the compound they create, or synthesizing the compound in the laboratory.



“These plants contain important compounds, but the amount is very low and extraction won’t be enough,” said study co-leader Natalia Dudareva, a distinguished professor of Biochemistry at Purdue University. “By understanding how these compounds are formed, we open a path to engineering plants with higher levels of them or to synthesizing the compounds in microorganisms for medical use.”



Thymol, carvacrol, and thymohydroquinone are flavor compounds in thyme, oregano, and other herbs from the Lamiaceae family that have anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties that are highly beneficial for human health. Among these, thymohydroquinone has been found to have significant anti-cancer properties.



Together with colleagues from <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> in Germany and <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> in the US, Professor Dudareva uncovered the biosynthetic pathway to the formation of thymohydroquinone. By using RNA sequencing and correlation analysis, the scientists screened over 80,000 genes from plant tissue samples and identified those necessary for the formation of this extraordinary compound.&nbsp;



“These findings provide new targets for engineering high-value compounds in plants and other organisms,” said study co-first author Pan Liao, a postdoctoral researcher in Professor Dudareva’s lab at Purdue University. “Not only do many plants contain medicinal properties, but the compounds within them are used as food additives and for perfumes, cosmetics and other products.”



According to Professor Dudareva, the results of this study could be applied to understand the biochemical composition of other plant species, and to assess their potential therapeutic use.



“We, as scientists, are always comparing pathways in different systems and plants,” she explained. “We are always in pursuit of new possibilities. The more we learn, the more we are able to recognize the similarities and differences that could be key to the next breakthrough.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Unlocking anti-cancer compounds in thyme and oregano

Although plants such as thyme and oregano are known to...

According to new research from experts at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a>, using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-absorbs-heavy-metals-that-may-harm-human-health/">cannabis</a> together with other medicines may increase the likelihood of dangerous drug interactions.



Cannabinoids - a type of compounds found in cannabis plants - and their primary metabolites found in cannabis users' blood were studied. The researchers discovered that these compounds interact with two enzyme families that assist to metabolize a wide range of medications prescribed for a variety of illnesses. The unfavorable effects might increase with too much building up in the body, resulting in unanticipated side effects such as toxicity or unintentional overdose.



While further research is needed, the study authors claim one initial insight from these trials is that cannabis should be used with caution when combined with other prescription medications.



“Physicians need to be aware of the possibility of toxicity or lack of response when patients are using cannabinoids. It’s one thing if you’re young and healthy and smoke cannabis once in a while, but for older people who are using medications, taking CBD or medicinal marijuana may negatively impact their treatment.” said study senior author Philip Lazarus, a distinguished professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences.



The findings from a pair of research works were published in the journal <a href="https://dmd.aspetjournals.org/">Drug Metabolism and Disposition</a>. One study examined the cytochrome P450s (CYPs) enzyme family, while the other analyzed the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) enzyme family. These two enzyme families work together to help the body digest and remove more than 70 percent of the most widely used medicines.



While previous research on cannabinoids' potential drug interactions has been limited, this new study is the first to look at the interaction between three of the most abundant cannabinoids - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN) - and their metabolites, as well as all of the major CYP enzymes. The study is also the first to examine explicitly for drug interactions between these cannabinoids and UGT enzymes.



“Cannabinoids stay in your body only for about 30 minutes before they are rapidly broken down. The metabolites that result from that process stay in your body for much longer - up to 14 days - and at higher concentrations than cannabinoids and have been overlooked in previous studies, which is why we thought we should focus on those as well.” explained first author Shamema Nasrin, a graduate student in the WSU College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.&nbsp;



The researchers tested their findings in human liver and kidney tissues that contained many of these enzymes, using modified human kidney cells that enabled them to look at a single enzyme at a time. Several CYP enzymes were shown to be substantially inhibited by cannabis and the primary THC metabolites.&nbsp;



One important finding was that THC-COO-Gluc, one of the most abundant THC metabolites, appeared to have a large role in blocking numerous essential enzymes in the liver, which had never been studied before. 



When the researchers looked at the UGT enzyme family, they discovered that all three cannabinoids, but notably CBD, blocked two of the liver's key UGT enzymes. Cannabidiol was also discovered to suppress three enzymes that account for nearly 95 percent of kidney UGT metabolism, which aids in the elimination of toxins and some medications.



“If you have a kidney disease, or you are taking one, or more drugs that are metabolized primarily through the kidney, and you’re also smoking marijuana, you could be inhibiting normal kidney function, and it may have long-term effects for you," said Professor Lazarus.



“Taking CBD or marijuana might help your pain but could be making the other drug you’re taking more toxic, and that increase in toxicity may mean that you can’t continue taking that drug," said Nasrin. "So, there could be serious ramifications for anti-cancer drugs, and that’s only one example of the many drugs that could potentially be affected by the cannabinoid-enzyme interactions we’re seeing."



The Health Sciences and Services Authority of Spokane County and the State of Washington's Initiative Measure No. 502, which funds the university's Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Program, provided funding for these studies.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis use may cause dangerous drug interactions

According to new research from experts at Washington State University,...

Small, antibody-like proteins known as VNARs (Variable New Antigen Receptors) are derived from the immune systems of sharks, and appear to be extremely potent in preventing COVID-19. According to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-12-shark-antibody-like-proteins-neutralize-covid-.html">Nature Communications</a>, VNARs could effectively neutralize a large variety of coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2 and its most recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">variants</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The shark proteins are ten times smaller than human antibodies and can bind to infectious proteins in unique ways that bolster their ability to stop infection. 



"These small antibody-like proteins can get into nooks and crannies that human antibodies cannot access," said study senior author Aaron LeBeau, a professor of pathology at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>. "They can form these very unique geometries. This allows them to recognize structures in proteins that our human antibodies cannot."



Professor LeBeau and his colleagues tested a large variety of shark proteins against both infectious SARS-CoV-2 and a version of the virus that cannot replicate in cells, and identified three candidate VNARs that rapidly and effectively stopped the virus from infecting human cells. When tested against SARS-CoV-1 (the virus causing the 2003 outbreak), the three VNARs also appeared to be highly effective.



One of the VNARs, called 3B4, attached strongly to a groove on the viral spike protein that is very similar among genetically diverse coronaviruses, allowing it to successfully neutralize even the MERS virus - a relatively distant cousin of SARS that led to an outbreak in 2012. This ability makes 3B4 an excellent candidate to fight viruses yet to emerge.



"The big issue is there are a number of coronaviruses that are poised for emergence in humans. What we're doing is preparing an arsenal of shark VNAR therapeutics that could be used down the road for future SARS outbreaks. It's a kind of insurance against the future," said Professor LeBeau.



Future therapies will probably include a cocktail of multiple shark proteins in order to optimize their effectiveness against a large array of different and mutating viruses. These drugs will be cheaper and easier to manufacture than human antibodies and could be delivered into the body through different routes.&nbsp;



Although they have not yet been tested in humans, they show an extraordinary therapeutic potential, particularly for people who do not respond well to vaccines and may need alternative protective strategies.&nbsp; &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shark proteins can neutralize different coronaviruses

Small, antibody-like proteins known as VNARs (Variable New Antigen Receptors)...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-partial-immune-evasion-after-vaccination/">Omicron</a> is by far the most contagious variant of SARS-CoV-2 to date. It has already spread to 77 countries and is currently causing massive outbreaks in South Africa, United Kingdom, and Denmark. Although the levels of hospitalization and deaths have remained relatively low in South Africa, where the variant is dominant since almost three weeks, experts are not yet sure whether Omicron causes milder disease than previous strains.



In fact, according to a new <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/mrc-global-infectious-disease-analysis/covid-19/report-49-Omicron/">study</a> led by <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>, Omicron does not seem to have lower severity than Delta, judged by either the proportion of symptomatic infections or hospitalizations in the United Kingdom, where Omicron cases are expected to peak by the end of the year with daily numbers rising up to one million.



"We find no evidence (for both risk of hospitalization attendance and symptom status) of Omicron having different severity from Delta," the study authors wrote.&nbsp;



By analyzing a cohort of over 333,000 people who tested positive for the coronavirus between November 29th and December 11th, scientists estimated that the risk of reinfection with Omicron is 5.4 greater than that of the Delta variant. This implies that protection against reinfection after a previous infection may be as low as 19 percent.



The researchers also found that vaccine effectiveness against Omicron was significantly lower than in the case of other variants (between 0 percent and 20 percent after two doses of Pfizer or Astra Zeneca, and between 55 percent and 80 percent after a <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/232657/boosters-vital-mitigate-impact-omicron-lose/">booster</a> dose). However, vaccines still appear to offer a significant degree of protection against severe illness and death.



“This study provides further evidence of the very substantial extent to which Omicron can evade prior immunity given by both infection or vaccination. This level of immune evasion means that Omicron poses a major, imminent threat to public health,” said study lead author Neil Ferguson, a professor of Epidemiology at Imperial College London.



“Quantifying reinfection risk and vaccine effectiveness against Omicron is essential for modelling the likely future trajectory of the Omicron wave and the potential impact of vaccination and other public health interventions,” added study co-author Azra Ghani, the Chair in Infectious Disease Epidemiology at the same university.



Although this study appears rather pessimistic, it is still too early to clearly assess the virulence of Omicron. According to Dr. Clive Dix, former Chair of the UK Vaccine Taskforce, at least another month is needed to clarify the levels of vaccine efficacy.



"There is a huge amount of uncertainty in these modelled estimates and we can only be confident about the impact of boosters against Omicron when we have another month of real-world data on hospitalization, ICU numbers, and deaths," he said.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Omicron: “No evidence” that it is milder than Delta

Omicron is by far the most contagious variant of SARS-CoV-2...

Horseshoe crabs are ancient creatures that emerged before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-behavior-helped-early-dinosaurs-thrive/">dinosaurs</a> and have proven extremely successful in surviving various environmental stressors, such as mass extinctions and several ice ages, during their 450 years-long history. However, conservationists warn that these crustaceans may soon become extinct due to the fact that humans are using them to test a large variety of drugs and vaccines.



One of their most amazing and unique features is how their bright blue blood coagulates when exposed to harmful bacterial endotoxins which usually induce inflammation and fever, often causing anaphylactic shock and death. These toxins are responsible for venereal diseases, bacterial meningitis, cholera, bubonic plague, and many other diseases. The immune cells in the horseshoe crabs’ blood, containing immune cells called Limulus amebosyte lysates (LALs), trap and immobilize these endotoxins, rendering them inert.



Ironically, the same feature that helped them survive over the ages, may now bring the crabs to extinction. Since the 1960s, when scientists discovered this extraordinary defensive system, the crabs’ blood has been extensively used to test medications, vaccines (including the recent coronavirus ones), needles, and biomedical devices to ensure they are not contaminated.&nbsp;



To do this, scientists drain the crabs of their blood and, although they return them to the ocean afterwards, up to 30 percent of the creatures die.&nbsp;



“As it is now, the entire supply chain for endotoxin testing of drugs rests upon the harvest of a vulnerable or near extinct sea creature,” said Kevin Williams, a researcher at <a href="https://www.biomerieux.com/">bioMérieux</a>, a French multinational biotechnology firm.



According to a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.607668/full">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>, “in the US, 525,000 horseshoe crabs per year were captured during 2013 to 2017 and the&nbsp;Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission estimates short-term bleeding-induced mortality to be 15 percent (4 percent to 30 percent), resulting in mortality of approximately 78,750 horseshoe crabs annually in recent years comprising a minor portion.”&nbsp;



Fortunately, many pharmaceutical companies in Europe and Asia have recently switched to a synthetic product called recombinant Factor C assay (rFC), which appears to be able to detect bacterial endotoxins as reliably as LAL. However, due to the fact that using this alternative is more costly and time consuming, in the United States the only major company that has switched to rFCs is Ely Lily. Only if many more companies take this road, will this magnificent ancestral creature have a chance to survive.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Horseshoe crabs could be wiped out by the pharmaceutical industry

Horseshoe crabs are ancient creatures that emerged before the dinosaurs...

Crowd,Of,Sports,Fans,Cheering,During,A,Match,In,Stadium.

Synchronization allows human spectators in a crowd to cheer together, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-hints-at-a-secret-musical-battle-between-fireflies-and-bats/">fireflies</a> to flash simultaneously, and metronomes to remain consistent when they are side by side. Now, researchers from <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/">Trinity College Dublin</a> have revealed new secrets behind the intriguing phenomenon of synchronization. 



The study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/">Physical Review Research</a>,&nbsp; provides a mathematical model elucidating synchronization.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Scientists have long known that if one clock runs a bit faster than another, connecting the two physically can cause them to tick together. Making a large assemblage of clocks work together in this way was thought to be very hard, if not impossible. The current research shows how synchronization can work even with a large collection of clocks.&nbsp;



“The equations we have developed describe an assembly of laser-like devices – acting as our ‘oscillating clocks’ – and they essentially unlock the secret to synchronization," said Dr. Paul Eastham, Naughton Associate Professor in Physics at Trinity.



"These same equations describe many other kinds of oscillators, however, showing that synchronisation is more readily achieved in many systems than was previously thought.”



The phenomena that works with clocks works with many other systems as well, from people to insects to other machines. “Many things that exhibit repetitive behavior can be considered clocks, from flashing fireflies and applauding crowds to electrical circuits, metronomes, and lasers," explained Dr. Eastham.



"Independently they will oscillate at slightly different rates, but when they are formed into an assembly their mutual influences can overcome that variation.”



The research has some practical applications as well. It may be possible to use this new science of synchronization to create computer systems that use light signals as a way to process data.&nbsp;



The study was supported by the Irish Research Council and used resources supported by the Science Foundation Ireland. This is an example of basic research that could lead to advanced technological breakthroughs.&nbsp;



"We derive phase diagrams that classify the desynchronized and synchronized states, focusing on the behavior in one and two dimensions. This is achieved by outlining the connection of the oscillator model to the quantum description of localization of a particle in a random potential through a mapping to a modified Kardar-Parisi-Zhang equation," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Our results indicate that synchronization in coupled polariton condensates and other examples of low-dimensional lattices of coupled oscillators is not destroyed by randomness in their natural frequencies."



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists reveal the secrets of synchronization

Synchronization allows human spectators in a crowd to cheer together,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-reduces-epileptic-seizures-by-86-percent/">Cannabis</a> plants - the source of medical marijuana, CBD oils and hemp - have a strange propensity to absorb heavy metals from soils. This ability makes them valuable for restoring contaminated soils, it can also lead to health problems in those consuming cannabis products.&nbsp;



A new meta-analysis led by scientists from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> looks at the absorption of heavy metals by cannabis and the ensuing health risks for consumers.&nbsp;



“Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, are known to be carcinogenic," said Professor Louis Bengyella. "The heavy-metal content of cannabis is not regulated; therefore, consumers could unknowingly be exposed to these toxic metals. This is bad news for anyone who uses cannabis but is particularly problematic for cancer patients who use medical marijuana to treat the nausea and pain associated with their treatments.”



Unfortunately, the problem is made worse by selective breeding of some strains, specifically for phytoremediation, that is the absorption of toxins from soil, air and water.&nbsp;



“The problem is if we use these strains that were developed for phytoremediation without considering why they were developed in the first place, we may unknowingly expose consumers to heavy metals,” explained Bengyella.



In the study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/journal/Toxin-Reviews-1556-9551">Toxin Reviews</a>, Bengyella and colleagues looked at and analyzed previous research on phytoremediation, what happens to absorbed metals and the resulting health problems.&nbsp;



The researchers found that some commonly grown plants were used for phytoremediation because of their long stem length, fast growth, high root and leaf surface areas, all qualities that improve heavy metal absorption. The team also found that trichomes - hair like structures - are where heavy metals exit the plant.



“Trichomes are important because they store the CBD oil and the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) that are desired by consumers," said Bengyella. "This led us to question if these heavy metals are there at the level of the trichome, what can they do to people?”



The scientists turned to the known health effects of heavy metals on people. They found that the metals absorbed by cannabis can cause a variety of health problems. Through reactions inside the human body, the metals can cause damage to enzymes, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Heavy metal consumption can lead to cancer and neurological problems.&nbsp;



“Cannabis consumed in combustive form represents the greatest danger to human health, as analysis of heavy metals in the smoke of cannabis revealed the presence of selenium, mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium, nickel and arsenic," said Bengyella.



"It is disturbing to realize that the cannabis products being used by consumers, especially cancer patients, may be causing unnecessary harm to their bodies.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis absorbs heavy metals that may harm human health

Cannabis plants - the source of medical marijuana, CBD oils...

We have all had the experience of gasping out loud when we hurt ourselves, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-exercises-improve-focus-in-children-with-adhd/">breathing</a> faster when we get a fright. But the reason why our breathing rate increases when we are anxious or in pain was not previously understood.&nbsp;



In recent research, however, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> has found that a neural network in the brain coordinates breathing rhythm with feelings of pain and fear. They propose that this finding could lead to the development of an analgesic that would prevent opioid-induced respiratory depression (OIRD), the disrupted breathing that can cause death in those who overdose on opioid drugs.



Opioid medications are often used as painkillers, and they are effective at reducing pain. However, they also reduce breathing rate, sometimes to the extent that the user stops breathing and dies. There was clearly a need to understand the mechanism whereby breathing rate is coordinated with the experience of pain.&nbsp;



In the study, published today in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/home">Neuron</a>, the Salk scientists focused on a group of neurons in the brainstem called the lateral parabrachial nucleus. Nerve cells in this region are arranged in the form of a core, which is surrounded by a shell. They found that, whereas neurons in the core project to the amygdala, an area of the brain that processes fear and the emotional experience of pain, neurons in the shell project to the pre-Bötzinger complex, a region that generates breathing rhythm.&nbsp;



The core and shell neurons influence each other according to inputs from these areas, making us breathe faster when we experience pain or anxiety.



“We are the first group to demonstrate how the lateral parabrachial nucleus coordinates breathing and pain,” said study senior author Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/sung-han/">Sung Han</a>. “By understanding the circuits in this brain region, we may be able to tease apart breathing regulation and pain regulation to develop a medication that inhibits feelings of pain without repressing breathing, like OIRD.”



Researchers in Professor Han’s lab had previously shown that opiates like morphine repress breathing by triggering specific receptors, called mu opioid receptors (MORs). This leads to the inhibition of neurons that express these receptors. They also showed that reactivating the cells that express MORs can reverse OIRD. Their current research suggests there may be different approaches to preventing OIRD, possibly by inhibiting neurons in the region’s core (blunting fear/anxiety) while exciting similar neurons in the shell (supporting breathing).



In order to show how the core and shell neurons coordinate breathing with pain and emotions, the researchers first used light and chemical agents to prove that manipulating the MOR-expressing neurons in the lateral parabrachial nucleus alters breathing rate in mice. They then used fluorescent tracers to map the inputs and outputs to the MOR-expressing neurons.&nbsp;



The results showed that nerve cells in the core project to the central amygdala, while neurons clustered in the surrounding shell project to the pre-Bötzinger complex. When they recorded electrical activity in neurons from one of the regions (core or shell), while stimulating activity in the other region, they found that the two groups of nerve cells were connected to one another by means of an excitatory network of neurons. It is through this network that signals of fear and pain are coordinated with breathing rhythm.&nbsp;



“We have found very intricate circuits involving upstream and downstream input to these neurons. By uncovering this circuit mechanism, we can better explain why breathing can often be coordinated with pain and anxiety,” said first author Shijia Liu, a graduate student in Han’s lab.



Professor Han is eager to see the team’s discovery have a functional application. “The biggest problem these days is that opioids reduce pain but also reduce breathing, so people die."



"By understanding those two mechanisms in our research, maybe we can manipulate certain populations of neurons by pharmacological intervention so that we can control pain without changing the breathing.”



The researchers in Han’s group are now undertaking genetic analyses of the core and shell neurons to identify specific functional markers that regulate pain or breathing.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why does our breathing rate increase when we feel pain?

We have all had the experience of gasping out loud...

Since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">tropics</a> are becoming hotter due to climate change and deforestation, the ability of outdoor workers to perform their jobs safely is increasingly reduced. This is the conclusion of research led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> and published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.11.016">OneEarth</a>.



The study suggests that in recently deforested locations, almost five million people lost at least half an hour of safe outdoor work time per day.



“There is a huge disproportionate decrease in safe work hours associated with heat exposure for people in deforested locations versus people in forestated locations just over the past 15 or 20 years,”&nbsp;said study lead author Luke Parsons, a climate expert at Duke.



“There is a small amount of climate change that has happened over the same 15-year period, but the increase in humid heat exposure for people living in deforested relative to forested locations was much larger than that from recent climate change.”



Since trees block out the sun’s radiation and cool down the air through evapotranspiration (a process when plants transport water from the soil and evaporate it through the leaves), deforestation is associated with an increase in local temperatures.



“The trees in the tropics seem to limit the maximum temperatures that the air can reach. Once we cut those trees down, we lose that cooling service from the trees, and it can get really, really hot,” explained Parsons.&nbsp;



“In the Brazilian Amazon, for example, where huge swaths of the rainforest have been cleared in the last 15 or 20 years, the afternoons can be up to 10 degrees Celsius warmer than forested regions.”



Using satellite data and meteorological observations, Parson and his colleagues tracked the temperature and humidity levels in 94 countries with tropical forests in America, Africa, and Asia, from 2003 to 2018. They estimated that, in recently deforested areas, approximately five million people lost about half an hour, and 100,000 lost up to two hours of safe outdoor work time per day.



“I think the research has a positive message and a negative message. The negative message is that if we cut down trees, we not only cause problems for the ecosystem and global carbon emissions, but we also lose local cooling services that provide a comfortable and safe place to work.”&nbsp;



“But the positive message is that if we can prevent forest loss, we can maintain cooling services along with all the other benefits forests provide. Importantly, the relationship between the health of the forests and nearby people offers an additional, locally relevant reason to prevent tree loss,” Parsons concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation made outdoor work unsafe for millions

Since the tropics are becoming hotter due to climate change...

Worldwide, the proportion of people over the age of 60 is predicted to double in the next three decades. An aging population brings with it many attendant health issues, not least of which is type 2 diabetes. This disease is characterized by insulin resistance, or an inability of the body cells to respond to insulin, and its treatment places a burden on public <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-is-essential-for-heart-health/">health</a> systems globally.&nbsp;



Insulin resistance is often associated with reduced physical activity and so, as we age and become less active, we are more prone to developing type 2 diabetes. However, the precise mechanism whereby physical inactivity leads to the development of insulin resistance has not been demonstrated.



Now, in a study led by Professor Tony Tiganis of <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, researchers have discovered the metabolic mechanism whereby physical activity levels and insulin resistance are connected in laboratory mice.&nbsp;



According to Professor Tiganis, skeletal muscle cells constantly produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and this process increases during physical exercise. Moderate exposure to these oxygen-derived free radicals is essential for normal cellular function in our bodies, and also induces the body’s adaptive response to produce antioxidants in defense. Regular exercise benefits health by enhancing antioxidant defenses against high levels of ROS, and this is one of the ways in which doing exercise makes us feel better.



“Exercise-induced ROS drive adaptive responses that are integral to the health-promoting effects of exercise,” said Professor Tiganis.&nbsp;However, a reduction in generation of ROS in skeletal muscle, brought on by decreasing physical activity as we age, is instrumental in the development of insulin resistance.&nbsp;



The research team found that, in mice, an enzyme called NOX-4 is essential for producing exercise-induced ROS and therefore for the adaptive responses that drive metabolic health. They found that levels of NOX-4 increased in skeletal muscle after the mice exercised and that this led to increased ROS, which elicited the adaptive responses that protect mice from the development of insulin resistance.



Importantly, the scientists have shown that the levels of NOX-4 in skeletal muscle are directly related to age-associated decline in insulin sensitivity.&nbsp;“In this study we have shown, in animal models, that skeletal muscle NOX-4 abundance is decreased with aging and that this leads to a reduction in insulin sensitivity,” said Professor Tiganis.



These findings help explain how physical activity actually enhances insulin responses and promotes metabolic health. In addition, the enzyme that is key in this mechanism has the potential to be targeted by drugs in order to promote its activity, thereby protecting against the consequences of aging, such as diabetes.&nbsp;



“Triggering the activation of the adaptive mechanisms orchestrated by NOX-4&nbsp;with drugs, might ameliorate key aspects of aging, including the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes,” said Professor Tiganis.&nbsp;



“One of these compounds is found naturally, for instance, in cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli or cauliflower, though the amount needed for anti-aging effects might be more than many would be willing to consume.”&nbsp;



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Enzyme produced during exercise protects against aging

Worldwide, the proportion of people over the age of 60...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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