Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lighter-feathers-help-migratory-birds-to-keep-cool/">Birds</a> such as parrots and peacocks are well known for boasting bright and varied colors within their feathers to aid in the act of choosing a mate. Even common birds such as pigeons are colorful in places, such as their pink feet. However, until recently little has been known about the colors of the most ancient birds of all – dinosaurs.



New research from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> has been investigating the possibility that pops of colors were present on the bodies of extinct dinosaurs.&nbsp;



“Living birds use an array of pigments and can be very colorful on their beaks, legs, and around their eyes,” explained study lead author Sarah Davis. “We could expect that extinct dinosaurs expressed the same colors.”



The researchers came to this conclusion by analyzing the colors found on common ancestors of ancient archosaurs during the beginning of the Triassic period, and conducting phylogenetic reconstructions. Ancestors such as turtles, crocodiles and 4,000 different species of birds presented a 50 percent chance that the archosaur had bright colors within its body’s soft tissues including beaks, skin and scales.



Typically, these kinds of bodily colors come from carotenoids, pigments appearing as red, orange, and yellow tones that ultimately root from plant-based diets. These carotenoids do not fossilize well, hence why the researchers have had to study the color of living animals to result in their hypothesis.



“The earliest dinosaurs were pony-sized and ate large, vertebrate prey,” said study co-author Julia Clarke, a professor at the Jackson School. “Different groups shifted to plant-dominated or mixed diets. This shift likely led to changes in coloration of the skin and non-feather tissues.”



The research has also presented a new perspective on the colorfulness of living birds. Whilst the species studied are usually considered dull in color, the study found that over half of the 4,022 species had bright colors, with 86 percent of these hosting such colors on body parts other than feathers.



“There is so much more to birds’ color than their plumage – just think of the vibrant orange-yellow bill of a toco toucan – but feathers tend to get the most attention,” explained Mary Caswell Stoddard, co-author and associate professor at Princeton University. “This study unravels the evolutionary history of carotenoid-based coloration not just in plumage but also in the beaks and skin of birds and their relatives.”



The research findings have been published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15585646">Evolution</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Dinosaurs may have had pops of color like modern ducks

Birds such as parrots and peacocks are well known for...

The Omicron variant, discovered almost a month ago in South Africa, sparked fears all over the globe, due to its extremely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">high contagiousness</a> and ability to partly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-partial-immune-evasion-after-vaccination/">evade</a> protection from previous infection or vaccination. It is currently surging through Europe and the United States, driving <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/12/23/us/omicron-case-count.html">daily cases</a> past Delta’s peaks in many countries.



However, data from South Africa, Omicron’s original epicenter seem to give reason for optimism. According to the country’s top scientists, South Africa may have already <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2021/12/22/africa/south-africa-omicron-peak-intl/index.html">passed the peak</a> of its Omicron outbreak, much faster than it happened in the case of previous variants, such as Delta or Beta.&nbsp;



As of December 18, although the test positivity remained still high (at 29.8 precent), there has been a 20.8 percent decrease in the number of new detected cases. Moreover, the rates of hospitalization and deaths have also been significantly lower relative to those experienced in previous waves.



New <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/22/health/covid-omicron-delta-hospitalizations.html">studies</a> from Scotland and England have also suggested that Omicron might be milder than Delta in terms of severe cases that lead to hospitalizations and deaths. Initial <a href="https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/handle/10044/1/93035">estimates</a> from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> show that, compared with Delta variant cases, people infected with Omicron are 15 to 20 percent on average less likely to end up in hospitals. However, it is not yet clear whether the mildness of many Omicron cases is caused by intrinsic characteristics of the virus or the fact that many positive cases are breakthrough infections or reinfections.



A new <a href="https://www.med.hku.hk/en/news/press/20211215-omicron-sars-cov-2-infection">study</a> led by the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong </a>has found that while Omicron multiplies 70 times faster than Delta in the human bronchus, making it more transmissible through droplets and aerosols, it spreads ten times slower in the lungs, and thus less likely to cause severe cases of pneumonia. Although these findings may indeed suggest that this variant is milder, study lead author Dr Michael Chan Chi-wai warns that, due to its high transmissibility, Omicron might still cause a significant amount of damage.



“By infecting many more people, a very infectious virus may cause more severe disease and death even though the virus itself may be less pathogenic. Therefore, taken together with our recent studies showing that the Omicron variant can partially escape immunity from vaccines and past infection, the overall threat from the Omicron variant is likely to be very significant,” he concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Omicron is surging, but may cause less severe illness

The Omicron variant, discovered almost a month ago in South...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> describes the first known active COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-may-help-ward-off-infections-a-new-study-suggests/">infections</a> in white-tailed deer. The samples from the deer, collected before the Delta variant was widespread, shows that they were infected by the same variant that was prevalent in Ohio at the time the samples were collected there.&nbsp;



The research suggests that deer are not only capable being infected by COVID-19, but that they may actually be a regular host for the virus.&nbsp;



Study senior author Andrew Bowman, associate professor of veterinary preventive medicine at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> said the research leads toward the idea that we might actually have established a new maintenance host outside humans.



"Based on evidence from other studies, we knew they were being exposed in the wild and that in the lab we could infect them and the virus could transmit from deer to deer. Here, we’re saying that in the wild, they are infected," explained Professor Bowman.



"And if they can maintain it, we have a new potential source of SARS-CoV-2 coming in to humans. That would mean that beyond tracking what’s in people, we’ll need to know what’s in the deer, too. It could complicate future mitigation and control plans for COVID-19.”



There are many unknowns - how the deer were infected in the first place, and whether the infection can be passed from the deer to other species, including humans.



“The working theory based on our sequences is that humans are giving it to deer, and apparently we gave it to them several times. We have evidence of six different viral introductions into those deer populations. It’s not that a single population got it once and it spread," said Professor Bowman.



So far, the research indicates the deer suffer infection rates ranging from 13.5 to 70 percent from samples taken across nine states. There are an estimated 30 million deer across the US but sampling purposefully took place near human populations, so more remote deer populations may have lower levels of infection.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

First known active COVID-19 infections in deer found in Ohio

A new study published in the journal Nature describes the...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), handing out gifts significantly lowers blood pressure and heart rate, thus decreasing the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-air-pollutants-contribute-to-cardiovascular-disease/" data-type="news" data-id="1894645">cardiovascular</a> incidents such as heart attacks or strokes.&nbsp;



While previous studies have shown that the act of giving can improve mood and mental wellbeing, this is the first study to investigate the correlation between gift giving and cardiovascular benefits.



The researchers recruited 90 college students and initially exposed them to a stressful situation by telling them that they have only a few minutes to prepare for a speech they had to deliver in front of a large audience.&nbsp;



After measuring their heart rate and blood pressure (which usually spiked after being exposed to the stressor), half of the students were told that they could choose a gift and send it to anyone they wanted together with an email explaining why they chose them. The rest of the participants were told to choose a gift card for themselves.



The scientists found that, when stressed students were allowed to send someone a gift, both their heart rate and blood pressure decreased significantly. By contrast, there was no significant cardiovascular improvement in the case of the other participants.



“Prosocial behavior – or the warm glow of giving – can have many benefits. As well as reducing heart rate and blood pressure, it lowers rates of depression and stress. We found it had a greater effect than self-rewarding behavior,” reported the study authors.



“Giving gifts or helping others makes us more sociable and less aggressive. Much of our normal lives are spent earning money to look after ourselves and our families, often in jobs where sometimes you have to be ruthless with other people. Giving Christmas presents is a chance to compensate for that – and it’s good for our health,” concluded study co-author Gary Cooper, a psychologist and stress expert at <a href="https://www.alliancembs.manchester.ac.uk/">Alliance Manchester Business School</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14698986">Psychophysiology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gift giving lowers blood pressure and heart rate

According to a new study led by the University of...

According to the UK <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/">Met Office</a>, the Northern Lights will be particularly strong around the North Pole on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holiday-stress-can-take-away-the-magic-of-the-season/">Christmas</a> Eve. This phenomenon is linked to a solar storm that erupted from the Sun on Monday, December 20, due to a coronal mass ejection (CME) – a powerful eruption of magnetically charged particles and plasma from the Sun’s corona.



The Northern Lights, or Auroras (Aurora borealis at the North Pole, and Aurora australis at the South Pole), have fascinated scientists and stargazers for centuries. They are usually caused by charged particles from solar winds that are colliding with the Earth’s magnetic field and redirected above the poles.&nbsp;



The Earth has an invisible forcefield, the magnetosphere, which protects us from dangerous particles emanating from the Sun. “Whilst it shelters us, it also creates one of the most impressive phenomena on Earth – the Northern Lights,” explained science reporter Marty Jopson.



“When the deadly solar winds meet Earth's magnetosphere, some of the charged particles get trapped, and are propelled down the Earth's magnetic field lines straight towards the poles. And when they reach Earth, they strike atoms and molecules in our atmosphere, releasing energy in the form of light.”&nbsp;



The solar storm that started on Monday is not strong enough to disrupt satellite services and knock out power grids, as some solar storms do. However, it will make the Northern Lights appear much brighter on Christmas Eve.&nbsp;



“The auroral oval is likely to be slightly enhanced at high latitudes from the 22nd to 24th due to coronal hole geomagnetic activity enhancement, and the chance of a weak coronal mass ejection arriving on the 23rd,” the Met Office said.&nbsp;



In Europe, the Northern Lights will be visible from Iceland, Finland and Norway, while in North America they will be best seen in Alaska, and Alberta, Canada.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Northern Lights will shine brighter on Christmas Eve

According to the UK Met Office, the Northern Lights will...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01616-8">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a> has found that diverse plant traits, including characteristics such as plant size, structure, and life span, are determined to a large extent by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/">climate</a> and soil properties.



The diversity of plant form and function can be described in terms of morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics. According to scientists, traits across plant species fall into two main categories: size and economy of metabolism.&nbsp;



By analyzing a global dataset for 17 different plant traits, researchers from <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>, the <a href="https://www.bgc-jena.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry</a> in Jena and the <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en/">University of Leipzig</a>, have confirmed for the first time that these two main categories apply to all plants studied worldwide.



In the size category, plants continuously balance height, leaf size, seed size and similar traits, which are influenced by hydraulic components of water transport. The economics of metabolism category describes how rapidly and effectively plants gain energy and biomass through photosynthesis, in correlation with how long the plants survive. Metabolism can be determined by features such as the structure and composition of leaves, including the concentrations of chemical compounds like nitrogen, phosphorous, or carbon.



Plant traits are influenced by a variety of external factors. By analyzing the characteristics of over 20,000 species of plants, the researchers found that the most decisive factors in shaping these traits are climate and oil conditions.



"Our study clearly demonstrates that plant traits worldwide can be explained by joint effects of climate and soil," said study lead autor Julia Joswig, a doctoral student in Geography and Spatial Genetics at the University of Zurich. “This suggests that aspects of climate change and soil erosion, both of which occur as a result of land use change, for example, should be researched together."



For example, the height of plant species changes along latitudes, due to differences in climate, and both morphological and metabolic processes are strongly influenced by soil-forming factors including organisms living in the soil, geography, and topography.&nbsp;



According to study co-author Miguel Mahecha, a professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Leipzig, "studies of this kind can guide global Earth system models to represent the complex interaction of climate, soil, and biodiversity, which is an important prerequisite for future predictions."



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant traits are shaped by climate and soil conditions

A recent study published in the journal Nature Ecology &amp;...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California Santa Cruz</a>, the researchers found that mother elephant seals can recognize their pup's voice at just two days old. The experts said this helps mothers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-develop-preferences-based-on-random-choices/">babies</a> survive during a precarious time.&nbsp;



An international team of scientists led by Dr. Juliette Linossier recorded calls of elephant pups using a microphone on the end of a long pole. The recordings were played to mother elephant seals as their responses were monitored. The moms were played calls from their own babies, as well as calls from a pup of a similar age.



The study revealed that the mothers were much more interested in the speaker and moved toward it when it was playing calls from their own pup.



"This is a rare demonstration of individual recognition among phocid mothers and their offspring, and suggests that consistency in maternal responsiveness may be an important social factor influencing the pup's growth and survival," wrote the study authors.



While feeding newborn elephant seals, the mothers lose about half of their body mass. Meanwhile, the pups gain about seven times their initial weight. This substantial weight gain can be attributed to the "exceptional fat content" of the mother's milk.



While the early recognition is necessary for survival, the researchers could not explain why female seals are often observed feeding each other's pups.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Females fast for the entire month they are nursing," study co-author Dr Caroline Casey told BBC. "So it makes no (evolutionary) sense for them to use their resources on another mother's pup."



"But at this site (a colony in California) that we study, there have been a lot of observations of females feeding pups not related to them."



According to Dr. Casey, it is possible that humans are to blame. She noted that elephant seals were hunted to near extinction during the late 1800s. As a result, the tens of thousands of elephant seals that are alive today can be traced back to just a couple dozen seals that historically survived. 



This phenomenon would make the elephant seals genetically similar, which may explain why mothers would feed other pups if the their moms are closely-related females. 



Going forward, the researchers want to investigate whether the seals are more likely to feed the pups of their sisters or cousins.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Royal Society journal Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephants seals recognize pup's voice at two days old

In a new study from the University of California Santa...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667121003712?via%3Dihub">Cretaceous Research</a> has recently identified and described a previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauropod-dinosaurs-lived-only-in-earths-warmer-regions/">dinosaur</a> species, Velociraptor greeni. The newly discovered animal is an ancient relative of fierce Velociraptors, which roamed the earth 75 million years ago. 



The fossils that the scientists analyzed have been found on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">Isle of Wight</a>, and appeared to belong to a ten feet long creature with huge slashing talons and finely serrated teeth. This discovery marks the first time a large raptor has ever been found in England.



According to a research team led by the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>, this dinosaur lived 125 million years ago, during the Early Cretaceous, when the Isle of Wight was covered by forests.



“This was a large, and very heavily constructed animal,” said study lead author Dr. Nicholas&nbsp;Longrich. “The bones are thick-walled and massive. It clearly didn't hunt small prey, but animals as large or larger than itself.”



Due to its strong limbs and talons, it is possible that&nbsp;this dinosaur was able to climb trees. As Longrich and its colleagues noted, its heavy bones certainly suggest an animal that relied on strength and surprise rather than speed, in order to capture its prey.



Other top predators of the Early Cretaceous which lived in the area that is today’s Britain included the&nbsp;allosaur Neovenator, spinosaurs such as Baryonyx, and an early tyrannosaur named Eotyrannus.



“There's an extraordinary diversity of dinosaurs known in England in the Cretaceous, and even after more than a century of study, we continue to find new species,” explained Dr Longrich.&nbsp;



“Although palaeontologists have been studying these dinosaurs for a long time, it's hard going. We have to wait for the sea cliffs to fall and expose bits of bone, or for the waves to wash them out of the rocks. We've spent two centuries on the Isle of Wight piecing together our picture of English dinosaurs.”&nbsp;



The recent discovery of Velociraptor greeni helps build a bigger picture of the Early Cretaceous world, and provides, according to Dr. Longrich, “a tantalizing hint at the diversity of dinosaurs in England at that time.”



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A new dinosaur species related to Velociraptors has been found

A new study published in the journal Cretaceous Research has...

Tsunamis create magnetic fields as they move conductive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meltwater-influences-carbon-storage-in-the-arctic/">water</a> through the Earth's ’s own magnetic fields. A new study from the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> shows that these changes in magnetic fields can be detected minutes before changes in sea level. 



The researchers hope these magnetic field changes will improve early detection of tsunamis.&nbsp;



"The motion of conductive seawater by tsunamis can generate magnetic fields in the presence of the background geomagnetic main field," explained the study authors.



"Previous studies found that, using the tsunami-generated seafloor magnetic field, it is possible to predict the propagation direction and wave height prior to the actual arrivals of tsunamis."



The scientists used data from magnetic fields to predict the height of waves from two tsunamis.&nbsp;



The predictive power of the magnetic field was tested on a 2009 tsunami in Samoa and a 2010 tsunami in Chile. The research found that in both cases, magnetic fields were detected before water level changes.&nbsp;



The study also showed that water depths affect how much earlier the magnetic fields are detectable.



“It is very exciting because in previous studies we didn't have the observation [of] sea level change," said study senior author Zhiheng Lin, a geophysicist at Kyoto University.



"We have observations [of] sea level change, and we find that the observation agrees with our magnetic data as well as theoretical simulation.”



Neesha Schnepf, a geomagnetics scientist at University of Colorado Boulder who wasn’t involved in the study, explained the importance of the research.



“They did something that basically needed to be done," said Schnepf. "We’ve needed a study that compared the magnetic field data with the sea level change from the pressure data, and I’m pretty sure they’re the first to really compare how well the sea level from magnetic field matches the sea level from pressure, so that’s definitely very useful."



:I think the practical goal would be if your ability to model tsunamis is so improved, you could come up with much better predictions of what areas might need to be warned [and] how badly it might hit certain places."



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21699356">Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tsunamis are preceded by changes in magnetic fields

Tsunamis create magnetic fields as they move conductive water through...

Over the last century, scientists have discovered many fossilized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-discovered-in-brazil/">dinosaur</a> eggs and nests all over the world, but finding one with a well-preserved embryo is an extremely rare event. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/">China University of Geosciences</a> described an oviraptosaur embryo perfectly preserved inside a fossilized egg.&nbsp;



The analysis of the embryo suggests that oviraptorids (a group of theropod dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous that were closely related to birds) took on a distinctive tucking posture before hatching – a behavior previously thought to be unique to birds.



The fossilized dinosaur embryo comes from Ganzhou, a city in the Jiangxi Province of Southern China, and had been acquired in 2000 by Liang Liu, the director of the company <a href="https://www.yingliangstone.com/">Yingliang Group</a>, a leading mining and stone sales company. The egg ended up in storage until it was rediscovered ten years later, when the fossils were unearthed during the construction of the Yingliang Stone Nature History Museum.



“Most known non-avian dinosaur embryos are incomplete with skeletons disarticulated,” said study co-author Waisum Ma, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>. “We were surprised to see this embryo beautifully preserved inside a dinosaur egg, lying in a bird-like posture. This posture had not been recognized in non-avian dinosaurs before.”



In their analyses, the scientists reported that the embryo’s head lied ventral to the body, with the feet on either side, while the back curled along the blunt pole of the egg, in a posture previously not found in a non-avian dinosaur.&nbsp;



The comparison of this specimen to other late-stage oviraptosaur embryos suggests that, before hatching, oviraptorids developed bird-like postures in a late stage of their incubation. In modern birds, such coordinated embryonic movements are associated with tucking, a behavior known to be critical for hatching success.



Further research is needed to understand whether pre-hacking behavior may have originated among non-avian theropods. According to the study authors, future discoveries of embryo fossils will be essential for clarifying this issue.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(21)01487-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004221014875%3Fshowall%3Dtrue#secsectitle0055">iScience</a>.



Image Credit Lida Xing



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur embryo suggests bird-like pre-hatching posture

Over the last century, scientists have discovered many fossilized dinosaur...

When predicting how deadly a meteorite impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-is-expanding-due-to-climate-change/">Earth</a> could be, it makes sense that this estimate would be based on the size of the debris itself. This is not the case, however, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a>. Instead, the researchers found that the deadliness of a meteorite can be determined by the composition of the rocks that it has struck along its way.



The key reason for this is the production of atmospheric dust. It is commonly known that ancient meteorite impacts have triggered mass extinctions throughout Earth’s history, and one of the contributing factors was the dust that covered the planet’s surface and atmosphere.



However, not all meteorites have caused such extinctions, and some of the smaller ones have been more lethal than larger ones. In order to understand this, a team of paleontologists, asteroid specialists, mineralogists, cloud microphysicists, and climate modelers set out to analyze 44 meteorite impacts over the last 600 million years. The experts examined the mineral content of the dust clouds that were created upon impact.



“For decades scientists have puzzled over why some meteorites cause mass extinctions, and others, even really big ones, don’t," explained study co-author Dr. Chris Stevenson. “It’s surprising when we put together the data: life carried on as normal during the fourth largest impact with a crater diameter of ~48 km, whereas an impact half the size was associated with a mass extinction only 5 million years ago."



Ultimately, it was discovered that all meteorites that resulted in widespread extinction had collided with rocks rich in potassium feldspar. While this mineral is common and benign, it is a powerful ice-nucleating mineral aerosol that has a dramatic effect on the dynamics of clouds, reducing their ability to protect the Earth from solar radiation. This ultimately heated the planet, changed the climate, and increased atmospheric sensitivity to emissions such as those tied to volcanic eruptions.&nbsp;



“Using this new method for assessing the mineral content of the meteorite ejecta blankets, we show that every time a meteorite, big or small, hits rocks rich in potassium feldspar it correlates with a mass extinction event," explained Stevenson. This means that meteorites impacting with potassium feldspar can be lethal to the planet Earth, regardless of the size of the meteorite.



The research findings have been published in the <a href="https://jgs.lyellcollection.org/">Journal of the Geological Society of London</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

The composition of a meteorite can make it more deadly

When predicting how deadly a meteorite impact on Earth could...

New research led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> has found that a microorganism causing bacterial leaf spot disease in tomato <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-not-keeping-pace-with-climate-change/">plants</a> - Xanthomonas euvesicatoria&nbsp;(Xe) - has recently evolved, managing to acquire features that makes it less detectable by the plants’ immune systems. This capacity to defeat host defenses through rapid evolution makes breeding for disease resistance significantly difficult in tomatoes.



“It’s part of the evolutionary warfare between plants and pathogens, where the plant has some defense trait and then some portion of the pathogen population evolves to escape it,” said study co-author Sarah Hind, an assistant professor of Crop Sciences at the University of Illinois.



“The plant has to develop or acquire a new defense trait, but the process is much slower in plants compared to microbes. This study is a great example of that ongoing battle in progress. It tells us we can’t completely rely on this trait to combat bacterial spot disease caused by Xe.”



These bacteria have long whip-like tail structures called flagella which allows them to move through soil and plant tissue. Over time, tomatoes learned to detect flagella through their immune receptors. However, Professor Hind and her colleagues have discovered that one of the tomato’s receptors, FLS3, no longer works to detect flagellin proteins in Xe. This immune evasion is caused by a single amino acid change in these proteins.



&nbsp;“It was surprising to see that only one amino acid change was making all the difference. It made us wonder how binding between flagellin and FLS3 could be so dramatically altered,” said study co-author Maria Malvino, a graduate student at the University of Illinois. Scientists expect that other bacteria affecting tomatoes could soon develop similar immune-evading mutations.



The fact that these bacteria can now sneak past tomato’s defense systems means farmers can rely less on inherent disease resistance and will need to use artificial methods of protection, such as spraying with copper-based pesticides.



“It’s like whack-a-mole for breeders. It takes a long time to release a resistant variety. Often, by the time they go to release a new one, the pathogen population shifts,” Hind said. “And when you add to that the difficulty of maintaining all the desirable traits of a tomato, it’s a tough situation. Again, that leaves us relying on fungicides and copper treatments to keep tomato production profitable here in Illinois.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/MPMI-08-21-0211-R">International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interaction.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria sneak past tomato’s defense mechanisms

New research led by the University of Illinois has found...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...