Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Kodiak, Alaska just reported the highest temperature ever recorded in the state in the month of December at 67 degrees Fahrenheit. The new high (reached on Sunday, December 26) beat the previous record from the 1980, which didn’t manage to exceed the high 40s. According to the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA), Alaska is warming faster than any other US state and at a rate that is twice the global average.



Kodiak was not the only city in Alaska fighting with record temperatures recently. Cold Bay, located on the Aleutian Islands, experienced a ground-breaking 66 degrees (after a previous record of 44 in 1999), while Unalaska’s temperature spiked up to 57.3 degrees on Monday.



This anomalous warmth has brought record moisture, since the air can hold four percent more water with every degree that it warms. This resulted in massive rains, with Fairbanks experiencing its wettest December on record, and winter rains in the Interior region of Alaska becoming increasingly more commonplace.



According to the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR), climate change could also increase the number of thunderstorms that Alaska will face during this century, which in turn could spark widespread flash flooding, landslides, and lightning-induced wildfires.



The scientists estimate that the sea ice around Alaska will increasingly melt in the warmer months, creating an ample source of moisture which, together with warmer temperature from greenhouse emissions may cause intense summertime storms.



“Alaska can expect three times as many storms, and those storms will be more intense,” said NCAR scientist Andreas Prein, a co-author of an earlier <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-020-05466-1">study</a> exploring the impact of climate change on Alaska’s weather. “It will be a very different regime of rainfall.”



“We suspect that the increasing number of thunderstorms might have significant impacts, such as amplifying spring floods or causing more wildfire ignitions,” added study lead author Basile Poujol, a scientist at the <a href="https://psl.eu/en">Paris Sciences and Letters University</a>.&nbsp;



“Further studies are necessary to determine whether these impacts are likely to occur and, if so, their potential effects on ecosystems and society.”



“The potential for flash flooding and landslides is definitely increasing, and the Arctic is becoming way more flammable. It’s hard to grasp what the ecological changes will be in the future,” concluded Dr. Prein.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alaska hits record temperatures due to climate change

Kodiak, Alaska just reported the highest temperature ever recorded in...

In a recent study, Professor Kuniyoshi L. Sakai of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> and his colleagues set out to look at the effect of music on the human brain. Specifically, they wanted to look at the overlapping neurology of language acquisition and music. This idea was inspired by the Suzuki Method, a type of musical training based around natural language learning.&nbsp;



"In the field of neuroscience, it is well established that there are areas of the brain that deal specifically with language, and even specialized regions that correspond to different parts of language processing such as grammar or syntax," said Sakai.



"We wondered if training under the Suzuki method might lead to activity in such areas, not when using language, but when engaging with music. Our study reveals this is indeed the case."



To investigate, Sakai and his colleagues gathered a study group of 98 Japanese secondary school students. The participants fell into three categories - those who were trained in music from an early age using the Suzuki method, those who were trained from an early age using a different method, and those who were trained late in life or not at all.&nbsp;



The scientists scanned the subjects' brains to create a model of their neurological activity. While being scanned, the groups were given musical compositions with errors to fix in one of four categories. The pieces had errors in pitch, tempo, stress or articulation.&nbsp;



Interestingly, both of the groups trained from an early age showed similarities in brain activity. These students showed more overall neurological activity, as well as activity in specific parts of the brain, depending on the type of error in the music.&nbsp;



Furthermore, participants who had been trained in the Suzuki Method showed unique activation of emotion and melody parts of the brain when working with tempo.&nbsp;



"One striking observation was that regardless of musical experience, the highly specific grammar center in the left brain was activated during the articulation condition. This connection between music and language might explain why everyone can enjoy music even if they are not musical themselves," explained Sakai.



"Other researchers, perhaps those studying neurological traits of artistic experts, may be able to build on what we've found here. As for ourselves, we wish to delve deeper into the connection between music and language by designing novel experiments to tease out more elusive details."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor">Cerebral Cortex</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain activity reveals connection between music and language

In a recent study, Professor Kuniyoshi L. Sakai of the...

Begonia is one of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-based-diet-may-be-a-great-way-to-start-the-new-year/">plant</a> genera, comprising over 2,050 known species all over the world. Most begonias are small weeds, measuring only a few centimeters. However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.187.75854">PhytoKeys</a> has recently described the world’s largest specimen of a Begonia species, measuring over three meters in height and 2.5 meters in width.



In 2019, study lead author Dr. Daike Tian, a plant scientist at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> led a research team to perform a field survey of wild Begonias in Tibet, China. While exploring the county of Mêdog, the researchers saw a huge Begonia in full bloom. This type of Begonia appeared to be a previously unknown species.



From a small population with only a few dozen individuals, the researchers collected two of the tallest ones to measure them and prepare the specimens for future studies.&nbsp;



One of the plants was 3.6 meters tall, with the thickest part of its ground stem reaching almost 12 centimeters in diameter. In order to be able to measure the tallest Begonia recorded in the entire Asian continent, Dr. Tian had to ask his driver to climb on top of the vehicle. To carry them back to Shanghai for further investigations, the researchers had to cut the plants into four sections.



Begonia gigantica, recently described as a new species, grows on forest slopes along streams at an elevation of approximately 450 to 1,400 meters. It is sparsely distributed in Southern Tibet, and was recently added in the “endangered” category on the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List</a>.



Starting on October 2020, visitors were able to see the enormous plant at the first Chinese Begonia show in&nbsp;<a href="https://tools.bgci.org/garden.php?id=4544">Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden</a>. Currently, the staff at the Chenshan Herbarium is applying for Guinness World Records for this extraordinary specimen.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

World's tallest Begonia species discovered in Tibet

Begonia is one of the largest plant genera, comprising over...

Young children love to hear a good story and shared reading is a way of teaching them about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bilingual-brains-can-switch-between-languages-with-ease/">language</a> and the world, at the same time as entertaining them. However, many popular children’s books have been shown to portray protagonists and other characters in gender-specific ways and may inadvertently perpetuate beliefs and stereotypes relating to gender. 



Children learn at a young age about gender-related characteristics. By 24 months (in girls) and 31 months (in boys), children already exhibit knowledge of behaviors that are stereotypically feminine (e.g., vacuuming), masculine (e.g., building), and neutral (e.g., sleeping). For this reason, it is very important to understand how gender is represented in books for young children.



“Some of the stereotypes that have been studied in the social psychology literature are present in these books, like girls being good at reading and boys being good at math,” said Molly Lewis, special faculty in the Social and Decision Sciences and Psychology departments at the Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences.&nbsp;



In a new study, Lewis and her colleagues from <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/">Carnegie Mellon University</a> and the University of Wisconsin analyzed 247 popular, contemporary books written for children between the ages of 0 and 5 years. Previous work on how gender is represented in books has used “content analysis” methods that involve detailed analyses of a small number of texts. But in the current study, the researchers had a broader focus and analyzed the entire 200,000-word corpus constituting the 247 books.&nbsp;



In their analysis, the researchers quantified the extent to which words in texts were associated with males vs. females, which they termed the words’ “gender bias.” Some of these gender biases reflect well-known stereotypes, for example “pretty” (female) or “large” (male). They quantified the gender biases in individual books and in the corpus as a whole using two methods.



In the first method, adults were asked to judge which words were associated with gender stereotypes, and in the second method, statistical co-occurrence of words was investigated. In addition, the researchers compared their findings to the word use in adult fictional literature.&nbsp;



The results indicate that books for young children vary widely in degree of gender bias, ranging from strongly male to strongly female. In particular, books with gendered language were centered around the protagonist in the story. Female-associated words focused on affection, school-related words and communication verbs, like ‘explained’ and ‘listened.’ In contrast, male-associated words focused more on professions, transportation and tools.



“The audiences of these books [are] different,” said Lewis. “Girls more often read stereotypically girl books, and boys more often read stereotypically boy books.”



Furthermore, girls are more likely to have books read to them that include female protagonists, than boys. Interestingly, the books with female protagonists had more gendered language than the books with male protagonists. The researchers attribute this finding to “male” being historically seen as the default gender, making the female-associated words more striking and notable.&nbsp;



Because girls prefer books with female protagonists and boys prefer those with male protagonists, children are more likely to learn about the gender biases of their own gender than of other genders, while enjoying shared reading.



When the researchers compared their findings to the word usage in adult fiction books, they found that children’s books displayed more gender stereotypes than fictional books read by adults. In particular, the researchers examined how often women were associated with good, family, language and arts, while men were associated with bad, careers and math. Compared to the adult corpus, which was fairly gender neutral when it came to associations between gender, language, arts and math, children’s books were far more likely to associate women with language and arts and men with math.



“Our data are only part of the story – so to speak,” said Mark Seidenberg, professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and contributing author on the study. “They are based on the words in children’s books and say nothing about other characteristics that matter: the story, the emotions they evoke, the ways the books expand children’s knowledge of the world.&nbsp;We don’t want to ruin anyone’s memories of ‘Curious George’ or ‘Amelia Bedelia.’ &nbsp;Knowing that stereotypes do creep into many books and that children develop beliefs about gender at a young age, we probably want to consider books with this in mind.”



Together, the findings suggest that children’s books may be an early source of gender associations and stereotypes. Clearly, the words and information used in early education books could play a role in establishing and formalizing perceptions of gender in young children.



“There is often kind of a cycle of learning about gender stereotypes, with children learning stereotypes at a young age then perpetuating them as they get older,” said Lewis. “These books may be a vehicle for communicating information about gender. We may need to pay some attention to what those messages may be and whether they’re messages you want to even bring to children.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/pss">Psychological Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young children learn gender stereotypes from storybooks

Young children love to hear a good story and shared...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-03825-4">Nature</a> has identified a type of antibodies that could neutralize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-is-surging-but-may-cause-less-severe-illness/">Omicron</a> and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-proteins-can-neutralize-different-coronaviruses/">coronavirus</a> variants. These antibodies target areas of the viral spike protein that remain largely unchanged as the virus mutates. These findings could offer the possibility to design better vaccines and treatments against not only current but also possible future variants.



The Omicron variant has an unusually high number of mutations (37) in the spike protein, which it uses to latch onto and invade cells. These mutations explain the variant’s high transmissibility and capacity to cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-partial-immune-evasion-after-vaccination/">reinfections and breakthrough infections</a>.



“The main question we were trying to answer was: how has this constellation of mutations in the spike protein of the Omicron variant affected its ability to bind to cells and to evade the immune system’s antibody responses?”&nbsp;said study lead author David Veesler, an investigator at the <a href="https://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a> and associate professor of Biochemistry at the <a href="https://www.uwmedicine.org/school-of-medicine">University of Washington School of Medicine</a> in Seattle.



To assess the effects of these mutations, Professor Veesler and his colleagues designed a pseudovirus that mimics Omicron, and exposed it to different types of antibodies collected from patients who had been infected with previous variants, vaccinated, or both infected and vaccinated.



The scientists found that people previously infected or vaccinated had reduced ability to block infection, while people who were both infected and vaccinated, or got a booster dose of vaccine showed less reduction in neutralizing capacity, thus being more able to ward off Omicron infection.



From the three antibodies currently authorized to be used as a treatment, only one seemed to be able to offer some degree of protection. However, when researchers tested a larger panel of antibodies generated against earlier versions of the virus, they managed to identify four classes of antibodies that retained their ability to neutralize Omicron. These antibodies target one of four specific areas of the spike protein that is conserved not only in different SARS-CoV-2 variants, but also in other coronaviruses called sarbecoviruses.&nbsp;



The findings that antibodies targeting conserved areas present in a large array of coronaviruses suggests that designing vaccines and antibody treatments that target these particular areas could prove effective against a broad spectrum of present as well as future variants that may emerge through mutations.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Four classes of antibodies found to neutralize Omicron

A new study published in the journal Nature has identified...

Researchers have discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-detect-insect-dna-in-air-samples/">DNA</a> is sometimes preserved in the sediments surrounding archeological remains. This interesting finding raises the status of sediments from byproduct to useful tool.&nbsp;



“The retrieval of ancient human and faunal DNA from sediments offers exciting new opportunities to investigate the geographical and temporal distribution of ancient humans and other organisms at sites where their skeletal remains are rare or absent," said study senior author Matthias Meyer of <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> in Leipzig.



In an attempt to discover the origins of the DNA, the researchers collaborated with a team of international geoarcheologists. Using pieces of sediment hardened by soaking in a polyester resin, the experts examined it under the microscope and attempted DNA extraction.&nbsp;



DNA was successfully extracted from blocks of sediments that had been stored for up to 40 years. Mike Morely of Flinders University, who led some of the geo-archaeological analyses, said that the fact these blocks are an excellent source of ancient DNA – including that originating from hominins - provides access to a vast untapped repository of genetic information.



"The study opens up a new era of ancient DNA studies that will revisit samples stored in labs, allowing for analysis of sites that have long since been back-filled, which is especially important given travel restriction and site inaccessibility in a pandemic world," said Morely.



The researchers looked at sediment from Denisova Cave in central Siberia, a place where DNA from Neanderthals, Denisovians and modern humans has been recovered. The scientists showed that organic particles yielded more DNA than randomly sampled sediment.&nbsp;



“It clearly shows that the high success rate of ancient mammalian DNA retrieval from Denisova Cave sediments comes from the abundance of micro remains in the sediment matrix rather than from free extracellular DNA from feces, bodily fluids or decomposing cellular tissue potentially adsorbed onto mineral grains," said study co-author Vera Aldeias from the University of Algarve.



According to study lead author Diyendo Massilani, he was able to recover substantial amounts of Neanderthal DNA from only a few milligrams of sediment. The genetic analysis of the DNA revealed the sex of the individuals and showed that they belonged to a Neanderthal population that has already been identified from the cave.



“The Neanderthal DNA in these small samples of plastic-embedded sediment was far more concentrated than what we typically find in loose material," said Massilani.



“With this approach it will become possible in the future to analyze the DNA of many different ancient human individuals from just a small cube of solidified sediment. It is amusing to think that this is presumably so because they used the cave as a toilet tens of thousands of years ago."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neanderthal DNA is preserved in archeological sediments

Researchers have discovered that DNA is sometimes preserved in the...

New Caledonian crows are unusual among birds in that they use tools to extricate food items from holes in the stems of trees or from cracks in the bark. The crows forage in this way using two different types of stick tools – a straight twig or leaf stalk that can be collected from the ground, or a hooked stick that is fashioned specifically by the crow from stems of a particular species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-traits-are-shaped-by-climate-and-soil-conditions/">plant</a>.&nbsp;



When crows forage using a hooked stick tool, they are up to ten times more efficient at securing food. This indicates that the stick tools are an important part of the foraging strategy and clearly help crows to access food successfully. The awkward part is that a crow cannot hold its stick tool in its beak while at the same time eating a food item it has just extracted; while eating, the bird has to place its tool somewhere other than in its beak.



In previous research on NC crows, scientists from the School of Biology at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland found that crows secure their tools using one of two "safekeeping" strategies while they eat their food – they either hold the tool trapped underfoot, or they temporarily insert the tool into a nearby hole or behind bark. If the tool is not securely stored there is a risk that it falls to the ground and has to be retrieved, or that another crow steals the tool for its own use.



Researchers from the University of St Andrews and the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> in Konstanz, Germany, have now investigated whether NC crows take better care of their favorite tools by storing them more securely when not in use. Their results were published recently in the journal eLife.



The study involved two main experiments using a large sample of wild-caught, temporarily captive New Caledonian crows that were presented with food inserted into holes drilled in a piece of wooden log. In the first experiment they investigated whether crows prefer one tool type over the other, and in the second they assessed whether crows take better care of their preferred tools by storing them carefully between periods of use.&nbsp;



When offered a choice of tools, either hooked sticks or straight sticks, the crows clearly preferred the hooked sticks. While straight sticks may be picked up commonly from the leaf litter below the trees, hooked stick tools have to be fashioned by the crows and demand time and energy investment. In addition, the crows select the stems of a particular plant, Desmanthus virgatus, from which to craft the hooked tools. Since this plant is not very common, wild crows have to invest energy in searching for these specific plants as well.&nbsp;



“Hooked tools are not only more costly to obtain, but they are also much more efficient,” explained team leader, Christian Rutz from the University of St Andrews. “Depending on the foraging task, crows can extract prey with these tools up to ten times faster than with bog-standard non-hooked tools.”



Assuming that the crows would ‘value’ the hooked tools because of their effectiveness and the investment required to produce them, the researchers then used video footage to monitor how crows stored their tools after use.&nbsp;



“Many of us will fuss about a brand-new phone, making sure it does not get scratched, dropped or lost. But we may handle an old phone with a cracked screen quite carelessly,” said lead author Barbara Klump, who is now based at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Germany.



The videos were analyzed to determine whether crows stored their tools securely (trapped under a foot or placed in a hole), or whether they left them lying around on top of the log or on the ground. The results showed that the crows were significantly more likely to keep their tools safe after foraging with a hooked stick. Furthermore, they used the safest option (a hole) to store a hooked stick more frequently than to store a straight stick.&nbsp;



“It was exciting to see that crows are just that bit more careful with tools that are more efficient and more costly to replace. This suggests that they have some conception of the relative ‘value’ of different tool types,” noted study co-author James St Clair.



This is the first study to investigate how animals handle and store tools of different kinds, providing an innovative way to measure how much they value these objects. The method can be applied using untrained subjects and it allows for behavioral comparisons between tool-using animals from different taxonomic groups.&nbsp;



Image Credit: James St Clair



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Crows look after their valuable tools more carefully

New Caledonian crows are unusual among birds in that they...

NASA has sent a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-will-completely-change-how-we-view-the-universe/">spacecraft</a>, the Parker Solar Probe to the outer reaches of the sun’s atmosphere - the corona - where it spent five hours. This is the first time a spacecraft has come so close to the sun.&nbsp;



Study first author Justin C. Kasper is the deputy chief technology officer at BWX Technologies and a professor in the Michigan Institute for Research in Astrophysics at the University of Michigan.



"This marks the achievement of the primary objective of the Parker mission and a new era for understanding the physics of the corona," said Kasper. "The concept of sending spacecraft into the magnetized atmosphere of the sun - sufficiently close that the magnetic energy is greater than both ion and electron kinetic and thermal energy - predated NASA itself,"



In 2018, NASA launched the Parker Solar Probe in an effort to gain better understanding of the sun, including its gravitational and magnetic forces that control solar winds.&nbsp;



"We have been observing the sun and its corona for decades, and we know there is interesting physics going on there to heat and accelerate the solar wind plasma. Still, we cannot tell precisely what that physics is," said Nour E. Raouafi of the <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/">Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory</a> (JHU/APL).



"With Parker Solar Probe now flying into the magnetically-dominated corona, we will get the long-awaited insights into the inner workings of this mysterious region."



Gary Zank, a co-investigator on the probe’s Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons (SWEAP) instrument said that it's hard to overstate the significance of both the event and the observations made by Parker Solar Probe.&nbsp;



"For over 50 years, since the dawn of the space age, the heliospheric community has grappled with the unanswered problem of how the solar corona is heated to well over a million degrees to drive the solar wind," said Zank.



"The first measurements of the sub-Alfvénic solar wind may represent the most major step forward in understanding the physics behind the acceleration of the solar wind since the formative model by Parker. This event is what many heliophysicists have dreamed about for most of their careers!"



The results were presented in a press conference at the American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2021 and published in the journal <a href="https://prl.aps.org/">Physical Review Letters</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

For the very first time, a spacecraft has "touched" the sun

NASA has sent a spacecraft, the Parker Solar Probe to...

Anthrax is an infectious bacterial disease, causing lung infections and skin lesions in humans and livestock. However, new research led by <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/">Harvard Medical School</a> has found that a toxin from the microbe causing anthrax can efficiently block <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-our-breathing-rate-increase-when-we-feel-pain/">pain</a> in mice. Building on this finding, scientists engineered an anthrax protein vehicle that could deliver different types of treatments into pain receptors and modulate nerve-cell function.



“This molecular platform of using a bacterial toxin to deliver substances into neurons and modulate their function represents a new way to target pain-mediating neurons," said study senior investigator Isaac Chiu, an associate professor of Immunology at Harvard Medical School.



These findings can help design therapies that selectively target pain-sensitive fibers without the widespread systemic effects of opioids, and their associated addiction and health hazards.&nbsp;



"There's still a great clinical need for developing non-opioid pain therapies that are not addictive but that are effective in silencing pain," explained study first author Nicole Yang, a research fellow in Immunology in Professor Chiu’s lab. "Our experiments show that one strategy, at least experimentally, could be to specifically target pain neurons using this bacterial toxin."&nbsp;



Injecting the anthrax toxin into the lower spine of mice produced potent pain-blocking effects, preventing the animals from being negatively affected by mechanical or thermal stimulations. Importantly, mice’s vital signs such as heart rate, body temperature, and motor coordination remained intact, showing that this new pain-controlling technique was highly selective and precise in blocking pain, without the widespread systemic effects characterizing opioid use.



Since the anthrax toxin alleviated symptoms of pain caused by inflammation or nerve cell damage seen in the aftermath of traumatic injury and certain viral infections, while maintaining the treated nerve cells physiologically intact, it promises to be an excellent medicine that could be widely used in the near future.&nbsp;



"Bringing a bacterial therapeutic to treat pain raises the question 'Can we mine the natural world and the microbial world for analgesics?'" Professor Chiu said. "Doing so can increase the range and diversity of the types of substances we look to in search for solutions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-021-00973-8">Nature Neuroscience</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study identifies an anthrax toxin that can alleviate pain

Anthrax is an infectious bacterial disease, causing lung infections and...

Abstract,Scientific,Background,-,Glowing,Planet,Earth,In,Space,,Solar

By using telescope observations and archival data, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.u-bordeaux.com/">University of Bordeaux</a> has recently found more than 70 free-floating planets – astronomical bodies wandering through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-will-completely-change-how-we-view-the-universe/">space</a> without orbiting a parent star – in a nearby region of the Milky Way. This is the largest sample of such planets found in a single group and it nearly doubles the overall number of this type of planets known to scientists.



These free-floating planets with sizes close to that of Jupiter are located in the Upper Scorpius OB stellar association, an area of the Milky Way which is 420 light-years away from the Earth. This stellar association contains several of the most famous nebulae, such as the Rho Ophiuchi cloud, the Pipe Nebula, the Coalsack, and Barnard 68.



Free-floating planets have mostly been discovered through microlensing surveys, in which astronomers look for brief chance alignments between exoplanets and background stars. However, since microlensing events happen only once, follow-up observations are impossible.



The new planets were discovered through a different method. Since million years after their formation, they are still hot enough to glow, the scientists detected them by using highly sensitive cameras on the world’s largest and most performant telescopes.



“We measured the tiny motions, the colors and luminosities of tens of millions of sources in a large area of the sky,” explained study lead author Núria Miret-Roig, an astrophysicist at the University of Bordeaux. “These measurements allowed us to securely identify the faintest objects in this region.”&nbsp;



“The treasure trove available in the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/projects/astrodataarchive/">NOIRLab Astro Data Archive</a> has been fundamental to this study,” added project leader Hervé Bouy, an astronomer at the same university. “We needed very deep and wide-field images in both the optical and near-infrared, spanning a long time baseline. So the <a href="https://www.darkenergysurvey.org/fr/">Dark Energy Camera and NEWFIRM</a> were very appealing for our project because they are among the most sensitive wide-field cameras in the world.”



The researchers believe that the free-floating planets may have been ejected from their parent system millions of years ago. If this hypothesis is correct, there could be even more Earth-sized free-floating planets waiting to be discovered. “The free-floating Jupiter-mass planets are the most difficult to eject, meaning that there might even be more free-floating Earth-mass planets wandering the galaxy,” said Miret-Roig.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01513-x">Nature Astronomy</a>.&nbsp;



--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dozens of free-floating planets found in the Milky Way

By using telescope observations and archival data, a research team...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(21)02754-9/fulltext">The Lancet</a> has found that the protection offered by the Oxford-Astra Zeneca <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-is-surging-but-may-cause-less-severe-illness/">Covid-19</a> vaccine starts waning considerably three months after receiving the second dose. These findings – drawn from the analysis of large datasets from Scotland and Brazil – suggest that booster doses are needed to help maintain protection against severe disease in people vaccinated with Oxford-Astra Zeneca.



&nbsp;“Our analyses of national datasets from both Scotland and Brazil suggest that there is considerable waning of effectiveness for the Oxford AstraZeneca vaccine, with protection against severe Covid-19 falling over time,” reported study lead author Vittal Katikireddi, a professor of Public Health at the <a href="https://www.gla.ac.uk/">University of Glasgow</a>.&nbsp;



“We studied two million people in Scotland and over 42 million people in Brazil who had received two doses of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine. More than four months after receiving a second dose, the risk of experiencing either a Covid-19 hospitalization or death was approximately five times greater than the period of maximum vaccine protection after accounting for changes in infection rates and a range of other factors.”



Since both Scotland and Brazil had a similar interval between vaccine doses (12 weeks) and similar initial prioritization of who was vaccinated (healthcare workers and people at high risk of developing severe illness), the scientists have been able to reliably compare the findings. In both countries, the decline in effectiveness began to appear three months after the second dose, with the risk of hospitalization and death increasing threefold before four months and fivefold soon after.



“Vaccines have been a key tool in fighting the pandemic, but waning in their effectiveness has been a concern for a while,” said study co-author Aziz Sheikh, the director of University of Edinburgh’s <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/usher">Usher Institute</a>.&nbsp;



“By identifying when waning first starts to occur in the Oxford-Astra Zeneca vaccine, it should be possible for governments to design booster programs that can ensure maximum protection is maintained.”



“If eligible for a booster and you have not had yet had one, I would highly recommend that you book one soon,” Dr. Aziz urged.



--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vaccine protection wanes three months after second dose

A new study published in the journal The Lancet has...

When Jake Esselstyn, Professor of Biology at <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a>, began his work on shrews on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, he wanted to investigate the ecological and evolutionary factors that might explain shrew <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-hidden-diversity-among-iberian-spiders/">diversity</a> on the island. 



At that time, there were six species of shrews in the genus Crocidura that had been identified there, and he thought he would be able to clarify how they had arisen on the island. “I was interested in questions about how shrews interacted with their environment, with each other, how local communities were formed."



Although Professor Esselstyn’s research began in 2010, he soon realized that the task of analyzing ecological and evolutionary relationships was impossible because there were clearly many undescribed species present. So began ten years of field trips to collect as many shrew specimens as possible from mountain and lowland sites on the island.&nbsp;



“It was overwhelming because for the first several years, we couldn’t figure out how many species there were,” he said.



Shrews are small, insectivorous mammals that are most closely related to hedgehogs and moles. During Esselstyn’s field trips he and his research team collected more than 1,200 shrews using pitfall traps. All of them weighed less than an AA battery, ranging from about 3 grams (0.1 oz) to about 24 grams (0.85 oz). The largest species had an average body length of 95 mm (about 3.7 in).



While Professor Esselstyn did identify and describe a new species of shrew in 2019, the picture became clearer once the research team had examined the genetic and morphological data from the specimens they collected between 2010 and 2018, and added data from old specimens that had been collected in 1916. More than 1,400 shrews were analyzed and this resulted in the identification of 21 different shrew species on Sulawesi, 14 of them being brand new to science.&nbsp;



The details of the 14 new, endemic species of shrews in the genus Crocidura have been published recently in the <a href="https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/7">Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History</a>. This discovery represents the largest number of new mammals described in a scientific paper since 1931, some 90 years ago.&nbsp;



“It's an exciting discovery, but was frustrating at times,” said Esselstyn, curator of mammals at the LSU Museum of Natural Science and associate professor in the Department of Biological Sciences. “Usually, we discover one new species at a time, and there is a big thrill that comes from it. But in this case, it was overwhelming … ”



Now that he feels he has a better handle on the shrew diversity of the island, Professor Esselstyn is interested in exploring the geographic, geological and biological factors that have contributed to Sulawesi's extraordinary shrew biodiversity. The island is shaped rather like a lower-case letter k and this shape has contributed to the radiation and diversification of shrew species, he said. “There are consistent boundaries between species ... whether you're looking at frogs or macaques or mice. It suggests some sort of shared environmental mechanisms.”



Researchers have found at least seven such zones – roughly, the island's central mass, the three “legs” of the k, and three zones on the long, bent “neck” of the island. Genetic analysis would be crucial in understanding the evolution of this diversity of shrew species. It will enable the researchers to determine how long ago or recently similar species diverged and whether they’ve been in regular contact with each other since then.



“It's a difficult problem. But I think we can do it now that sequencing genomes is relatively low-cost,” he said. “A few years ago, we couldn't have done it but it's relatively feasible now.”



“Taxonomy serves as the foundation of so much biological research and conservation effort. When we don't know how many species there are or where they live, our capacity to understand and preserve life is severely limited. It's essential that we document and name that diversity,” Esselstyn said. “If we can make discoveries of this many new species in relatively well-known groups like mammals, imagine what the undocumented diversity is like in less conspicuous organisms.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breakthrough study describes 14 new species of shrews

When Jake Esselstyn, Professor of Biology at Louisiana State University,...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...