Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

A new study shows that dogs can recognize their human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dairy-calves-prefer-to-be-housed-with-a-companion/">companions</a> by voice alone. The study carried out by researchers at Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) in Hungary eliminated smell and sight as identifying features, confirming that dogs can identify familiar voices.&nbsp;



To carry out the research, scientists recruited 28 human-dog pairs to play a game of hide and seek. The humans were asked to hide behind one of two hiding spots while a stranger was placed behind the other. The owner’s voice was played from where the owner hid and the stranger’s voice was played from where the stranger hid. The recordings were in neutral voices of the people reading recipes.&nbsp;



The dogs were allowed to choose which hiding spots to approach. The test was repeated with 14 different stranger voices, some similar and some very different from the owner’s voice. In 82 percent of cases, dogs found their owners.&nbsp;



To control for smell, the last two rounds of the study were carried out with the stranger playing the owner’s voice. The dogs still went toward their human’s voice, showing they were not using their sense of smell to guide them.&nbsp;



The scientists discussed the ways in which dogs were able to identify human voices. Differences in pitch and noisiness helped the dogs recognize familiar humans, but it appears that timbre and other qualities didn’t make a difference.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“People mostly make use of three properties: pitch (higher or lower), noisiness (cleaner or harsher), and timbre (brighter or darker) to differentiate others. Dogs may make use of the same voice properties or different ones. If two voices differ in a property that matters for dogs, decisions should be easier," explained study lead author Anna Gábor.&nbsp;



The research is unique and verifies something most dog owners already suspect, giving us a window into dog cognition.&nbsp;



"Dogs’ high choosing success rate, their ability to discriminate their owner’s voice from a variety of control voices, and the fact that dogs’ choices were not confounded by either olfactory cues or speaker order indicate that dogs can reliably use identity cues carried by speech," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



Andics Attila is the leader of the Neuroethology of Communication Lab, where the study was conducted.&nbsp;



“This is the first demonstration that dogs can tell apart their owner’s voice from many others," said Attila. "The study also shows that dogs make use of some, but only some of the same voice properties as humans do to recognize who is talking.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs recognize familiar human voices

A new study shows that dogs can recognize their human...

Wells,,Maine,,February,1,,2021-winter,Storm,Waves,Crash,Over,The

At the current rate of global warming, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-at-an-alarming-rate/">sea levels</a> along the coastal United States will likely rise by a foot (approximately 30 centimeters) or even more by 2050, according to a new <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/sealevelrise/sealevelrise-tech-report.html">technical report</a> released on Tuesday, February 15, 2022 by the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA). By the end of the century, this value could reach a disastrous two feet, if no urgent measures are taken to mitigate climate change.



“What we’re reporting out is historic,” said Richard Spinrad, the NOAA administrator. “The United States is expected to experience as much sea level rise in the next 30 years as we saw over the span of the last century.” According to Dr. Spinrad, while cutting greenhouse gas emissions to curb global warming is crucial for the longer-term future, the projected sea level rise by 2050 “will happen no matter what we do about emissions.”



This substantial rise will create a massive increase in the frequency of coastal flooding, even in the absence of storms or heavy rainfall, putting over 140,000 houses at risk of “chronic inundation” every month or so. The report predicts that by mid-century, minor high-tide flooding events in coastal areas could happen over ten times per year, while more destructive events (which currently have a four percent chance to occur in any given year) could occur twice a decade.



In order to cope with such events, storm and wastewater systems will need to be upgraded, and many homes and important infrastructure located close to the sea might have to relocate. Moreover, saltwater could infiltrate coastal aquifers, affecting water quality and poisoning farmlands, and septic systems may not be able to safely handle waste. Ports could face severe damage, disrupting supply chains and causing rises in costs that could affect even people who live far away from the coastlines.



“We need to make people understand this isn’t just a bunch of scientists talking and arm-waving. This is really happening, and it’s happening on time scales that matter to the individual,” said Reide Corbett, Dean of Integrated Coastal Programs at <a href="https://www.ecu.edu/">East Carolina University</a> and executive director at <a href="https://www.coastalstudiesinstitute.org/">Coastal Studies Institute</a>. “If we’re talking about 2050 - for someone buying a house today, that’s within the range of their mortgage.”



Regardless of the rather pessimistic tone of the report and the certainty that whatever we do at this moment, the predicted rises over the next three decades cannot be stopped, we should still take urgent measures to mitigate climate change, in order to save our planet from even more catastrophic future outcomes.



“The fact that there’s this locked-in sea level rise is not a reason to throw up our hands and say there’s nothing we can do about this, because there absolutely is,” said Kristina Dahl, a principal climate scientist at the nonprofit organization the<a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/"> Union of Concerned Scientists</a>. “This decade we’re in right now is one of the most consequential decades for our climate future. It’s really critical that we start bringing our emissions down quickly and steeply.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea levels on the U.S. coastline will rise one foot by mid-century

At the current rate of global warming, sea levels along...

Robber flies (Asilidae) are predatory insects that feed by hunting down flying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/">prey</a> and snatching them out of the air. In open environments, the flies maintain the line of sight to the potential prey, adjusting their position as the target twists and turns on its path. Such maneuvers are done with great speed and agility. 



However, things become much more complex for these hunters when the environment is cluttered with obstacles. So how do they adjust their hunting patterns when there are distractions in the environment?



Researchers from Imperial College London set out to investigate how the predatory robber flies adjust their interception strategy to deal with obstacles in the environment.&nbsp;



“We used&nbsp;Holcocephala fusca&nbsp;because of its predictable interception path," said study co-author Samuel Fabian, who teamed up with Mary Sumner from the University of Minnesota for four weeks to film robber flies in 3D while they hunted a tiny bead that was pulled along a transparent fishing line. This species of robber fly is commonly known as a gnat ogre due to its prodigious hunting skill.



“Field experiments are a joy, because you get the most naturalistic behavior from free animals," said Fabian. Even though the flies were chasing a small, artificial bead on an invisible line, they were still very keen to intercept it. “If something is small enough, they generally seem to assume it’s food, the flies really didn’t know it’s not real prey, even when very close."



When he and Sumner analyzed the approach strategy of insects intercepting the bead, they found that the flies maintained the same line of sight to the target throughout their approach, in order to capture it successfully. However, when the researchers introduced a wide (5&nbsp;cm) or narrow (2.5&nbsp;cm) bar of black acrylic into the insects’ interception path, they took evasive action.



When the black bar blocked the interception path for more than 1 s, the insects often aborted the chase entirely. If their view was blocked for less than 1 s, they swerved away dramatically until they had passed the obstacle, then moved back to their interception course. Interestingly, when the flies could see the black bar but it did not obscure their view, they still veered away from it as they approached the bead, even though the bead remained in sight all the time.



The researchers wondered what strategy the robber flies were using to make these decisions as they approached the bead. The experts compared the insects’ flight paths and the paths they would have taken if there was no obstacle, and realized that the flies were using a very simple obstacle avoidance strategy;&nbsp;



“The faster the obstacle is getting larger in their field of view the more they turn away from it,” explained Fabian. However, after the fly has passed the obstacle and it begins to grow smaller, the fly is then drawn back toward the bead, resulting in the veering flight paths that Fabian and Sumner recorded, even when the fly’s view wasn’t obstructed.



The researchers concluded that the flies, whose brains are no larger than a grain of sand, are combining two different strategies when hunting prey in a cluttered environment. They use a conventional approach of flying in a direct line to the target when their view is unobstructed, but apply avoidance tactics when an obstacle is present in their view. This results in a simple, hybrid approach that allows them to intercept their prey while avoiding distractions and obstacles in their paths.&nbsp;



“They are paying attention to their surroundings even when focused on the target," concluded Fabian. He hopes to inspire robotic designs that use simpler and more computationally lightweight solutions for complex navigation problems in future.



The study is published today in the&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Robber flies avoid obstacles while they hunt moving prey

Robber flies (Asilidae) are predatory insects that feed by hunting...

The Snow Moon is the second <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/longest-full-moon-of-the-year-will-peak-saturday/">full moon</a> of the year. It will light up the nocturnal skies around the world for three days, from Tuesday, February 15 to Thursday, February 17, reaching its peak on Wednesday night. During the same night, Mercury will be located at the greatest distance west of the Sun, making it a bright yet challenging to observe “morning star” in mid-northern latitudes.



According to the <a href="https://www.farmersalmanac.com/">Maine Farmers’ Almanac</a>, the native tribes of what is now the northeastern United States called this the Snow Moon (or the Storm Moon) because it was often accompanied by heavy snowfall. Moreover, since bad weather and snowstorms often made hunting difficult, this moon was also referred to as the Hunger Moon.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In other parts of the world, the February full moon has different names, and is associated with various local religious and secular traditions. In the Purnimanta Hindu tradition, for instance, dating back to the Vedic era (1500 to 500 BCE), which ends each month on the full moon day, this full moon (“Purnima” in Hindi) is called Magha Purnima, since it occurs on the last day of the month of Magha, which is associated with austerity, performing acts of charity, and bathing in a sacred river.



For Buddhists, this moon corresponds with Māgha Pūjā, the second-most important festival of the year, celebrating the historical gathering of the Buddha with 1,250 of his first disciples. It is celebrated on the full moon day of the third lunar month in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. On this day, Buddhists celebrate the creation of an ideal and exemplary community through large, crowded celebrations, such as the Gangaramaya Navam, a procession of over 5,000 people and many elephants in Sri Lanka.



Although the Snow Moon will peak on Wednesday night, it will be almost as bright on Tuesday and Thursday too, offering additional chances to enjoy it.&nbsp;



“Seeing the Moon yourself shouldn’t be too difficult, as long as clouds aren’t in the way,” said Dr. Greg Brown, an astronomer at the <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/royal-observatory">Royal Observatory Greenwich</a>.&nbsp; “It will be easily the brightest object in the night sky and fully visible to the unaided eye; however, a pair of binoculars or a small telescope will enable you to see some of the smaller features on its surface.”



Although this year’s Snow Moon will not be as bright as the 2020 one - which was considered to be a “supermoon” that appeared significantly larger and brighter than normal due to the fact that its peak almost coincided with its perigee (the point in the orbit of the moon at which it is nearest to the Earth) - it will nevertheless offer viewers all around the world a dazzling visual spectacle.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Snow Moon will peak all over the world on Wednesday

The Snow Moon is the second full moon of the...

New research shows that people can’t tell the difference between images of real people’s faces and those generated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-will-be-a-game-changer-in-weather-forecasting/">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) programs. In fact, the study shows, people are more likely to trust the synthetic, AI-generated face than the real one. The researchers are calling for safeguards to prevent “deep fakes."



Already such AI-generated images, audio and video have been used to create propaganda, fraud, “revenge porn” and even comedic pieces.&nbsp;



Dr. Sophie Nightingale from <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a> and Professor Hany Farid from the University of California, Berkeley asked people to try and distinguish between AI-generated faces and images of real people.



In the first experiment, 315 people evaluated a subset of 125 images from a group of 800. The accuracy rate of identifying synthetic or real was 48 percent. In a second experiment, when 219 different participants were trained to identify synthetic faces, the accuracy rate rose to a mere 59 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our evaluation of the photo realism of AI-synthesized faces indicates that synthesis engines have passed through the uncanny valley and are capable of creating faces that are indistinguishable - and more trustworthy - than real faces," said the researchers.



Next, the scientists decided to have people evaluate how trustworthy they found the faces to see if there was a difference between synthetic and real. More than 200 participants evaluated trustworthiness in 128 facial images on a scale from 1(very untrustworthy) to 7 (very trustworthy). On average, the synthetic faces were rated as 7.7 percent more trustworthy than the real ones.&nbsp;



“Perhaps most pernicious is the consequence that in a digital world in which any image or video can be faked, the authenticity of any inconvenient or unwelcome recording can be called into question," said the researchers.



“Safeguards could include, for example, incorporating robust watermarks into the image- and video-synthesis networks that would provide a downstream mechanism for reliable identification."



"Because it is the democratization of access to this powerful technology that poses the most significant threat, we also encourage reconsideration of the often-laissez-faire approach to the public and unrestricted releasing of code for anyone to incorporate into any application.



“At this pivotal moment, and as other scientific and engineering fields have done, we encourage the graphics and vision community to develop guidelines for the creation and distribution of synthetic-media technologies that incorporate ethical guidelines for researchers, publishers, and media distributors.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People trust synthetic faces over real ones

New research shows that people can’t tell the difference between...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> has found the first tangible evidence that the ancestors of two of Australia’s most venomous snakes – a tiger and a brown “elapid” (front-fanged snakes) - arrived by sea rather than by land, which is the most common dispersal route of other Australian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-accelerates-aging-in-fish-amphibians-and-reptiles/">reptiles</a>.



“While we know all marine and semi-marine sea snakes descended from a common Australian land-based ancestor, the origin of Australian elapids has been debated for some time,” said study corresponding author David Adelson, a biologist at the University of Adelaide. “Some believe their ancestors travelled by land, whereas others hold the more contentious view that a marine or semi-marine ancestor swam here.”



By analyzing the genomes of these two elapid species and comparing them to those of marine and semi-marine elapid sea snakes and Asian elapids, Professor Adelson and his colleagues discovered that the ancestor of all Australian elapids seems to have accumulated self-replicating and self-mobilizing genes (“jumping genes”) which were not present in their land relatives but came from another source.



“In our research we found a number of genes that were present in the ancestor of all Australian elapids but could not be traced to a snake ancestor; instead they could be traced to similar transposable gene sequences found in marine life, including fish, sea squirts, sea urchins, bivalves, and turtles,” explained Adelson.



“This indicates the marine environment transferred the new genetic material into the snakes and offers new support to the argument that the first Australian elapids swam to our shores. They must have previously acquired the new genetic material during an ancestral period when they were adapted to marine life.”



The scientists identified 14 transfer events of genetic material from other marine organisms, with eight genes being present only in the marine and semi-marine sea snake genomes. Thus, the major genetic differences between land and marine/semi-marine snakes appears to be a consequence of migration into a marine environment.



“This is the first time that jumping genes have been used to confirm the evolutionary history of any animal species, and this research definitively proved that the common ancestor of all Australian elapids adapted to a marine environment. It may also have made it easier for the subsequent land to marine transition of sea snakes,” Professor Adelson&nbsp;concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/13/2/217">Genes</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancestors of Australia’s most poisonous snakes arrived by sea

A new study led by the University of Adelaide has...

Lichens are composite organisms consisting of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salamanders-have-an-intriguing-partnership-with-algae/" data-type="news" data-id="1897737">algae</a> living among the filaments of various species of fungi in symbiotic relationships. While the fungi are providing the physical structure, the algae use photosynthesis to supply the necessary nutrients. 



Lichens grow everywhere, from the Arctic tundra to the bark of trees in common backyards, and play a large variety of important ecologic roles, from creating oxygen to serving as food for reindeer and other animals.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago has characterized these algae’s preferred climates and found that their ability to change climatic preferences happens very slowly, during millions of years. This means that they will likely be severely impacted by the rapid climate change the Earth is currently experiencing, and face – together with the lichens they are a part of – an increased risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-currently-in-progress/">extinction</a>.



In order to determine how much time it took algae to change under evolutionary pressures in the past, the scientists created family trees showing how different algae are related to each other, and calibrated it by using age estimates from previous work. Moreover, by comparing the DNA-based relationships of different species of modern algae to one another and looking at the environments in which they lived, they identified the climatic preferences of various species of algae.



By performing a series of statistical analyses on the data they collected, the researchers found that it could take hundreds of thousands, or even millions of years, for these algae to adapt to the temperature changes that we will witness over the course of this century.



“I was shocked,” said study lead author Matthew Nelsen, a research scientist at the Field Museum. “I should have known better from the other papers I’ve read, but I was disturbed to see it. It's so close to home, on a group of organisms near and dear to my heart.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to Nelsen, losing lichens could have profound effects on their ecosystems. &nbsp;“Lichens are the dominant vegetation on 7 percent of the Earth’s surface. They play roles in ecosystem hydrology by retaining moisture. They also play roles in carbon and nitrogen cycling, and some of them are used by animals for food or nesting materials.”



The research results are an important step forward in predicting climate change’s effects, and an incentive to take this phenomenon seriously and work toward systemic changes to mitigate its worse effects.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.791546/full">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lichens cannot adapt as fast as Earth's temperature is changing

Lichens are composite organisms consisting of algae living among the...

A new study out of the University of York-led <a href="https://www.globalpharms.org/">Global Monitoring of Pharmaceuticals Project</a> has looked at the presence of pharmaceuticals in 258 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dissolved-in-rivers-is-damaging-our-planet/">rivers</a> across the globe. Major river systems such as the Thames in London and the Amazon in Brazil were evaluated to measure the presence of 61 pharmaceuticals, including carbamazepine, metformin and caffeine.



While previous research has monitored pharmaceuticals in rivers, the new study is the first of its kind to measure a wide variety of contaminants on a global scale.&nbsp;



“With 127 collaborators across 86 institutions worldwide, the Global Monitoring of Pharmaceuticals Project is an excellent example of how the global scientific community can come together to tackle large-scale environmental issues," said Dr John Wilkinson, who led the research.



“We’ve known for over two decades now that pharmaceuticals make their way into the aquatic environment where they may affect the biology of living organisms. But one of the largest problems we have faced in tackling this issue is that we have not been very representative when monitoring these contaminants, with almost all of the data focused on a select few areas in North America, Western Europe and China.”



The researchers set out to capture the extent of pharmaceutical pollution across the globe. The experts gathered water samples from a range of sites spanning from a Yanomami Village in Venezuela, where modern medicines are not used, to some of the world’s most populated cities such as Delhi, London, New York, Lagos, Las Vegas, and Guangzhou.



Additionally, the study authors considered factors such as political instability and evaluated areas such as Baghdad and the Palestinian West Bank. To reflect variations in climate, samples were collected from high altitude alpine tundra in Colorado and polar regions in Antarctica, to Tunisian deserts.



As a result of this global effort, key takeaways include:



<ul><li>pharmaceutical pollution is contaminating water on every continent&nbsp;</li><li>strong correlations between the socioeconomic status of a country and higher pollution of pharmaceuticals in its rivers (with lower-middle income nations the most polluted)</li><li>high levels of pharmaceutical pollution associated with regions of high median age as well as high local unemployment and poverty rates</li><li>the most polluted countries have been researched the least (namely sub-saharan Africa, South America and parts of southern Asia)</li><li>the activities most associated with the highest levels of pharmaceutical pollution included rubbish dumping along river banks, inadequate wastewater infrastructure and pharmaceutical manufacturing, and the dumping of the contents of residual septic tanks into rivers.</li></ul>



The researchers hope that continuous monitoring of pharmaceuticals in the environment can inform the development of strategies that work to limit pollution and reduce the associated effects.&nbsp;



The data for specific rivers will be available in the supplemental information on the <a href="https://www.globalpharms.org/">Global Monitoring of Pharmaceuticals Project</a> website.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pharmaceutical pollution is contaminating water on every continent

A new study out of the University of York-led Global...

Vaccination is an effective public health measure, and is used all over the world to prevent people from succumbing to various different pathogens, yet vaccine efficacy varies across different populations. Since it is important that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-making-vaccines-easier-to-swallow/">vaccines</a> are as effective as possible in producing the relevant antibody responses, scientists are interested in investigating any factors that may improve vaccine efficacy.&nbsp;



In a recent study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/brain-behavior-and-immunity">Brain, Behavior and Immunity</a>, researchers from Iowa State University show that even a short stint of moderate physical exercise, taken just after being vaccinated, can improve the development of antibodies and boost immunity.&nbsp;



Antibodies are protein molecules produced by the white blood cells of the body’s immune system. They function in a “search and destroy” capacity to identify and eradicate pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites, that have entered a person’s body. Vaccines help the immune system learn how to identify the presence of foreign invading organisms, and also to defend the body by producing a ready army of antibodies.&nbsp;



The researchers measured the levels of antibodies present in people who had cycled on a stationary bike or gone for a brisk walk, for 90 minutes, immediately after receiving a vaccination. Three different vaccines were used in the study, namely those against the 2009 pandemic influenza (H1N1), against seasonal influenza, and against COVID-19.



The results showed that participants who had exercised immediately after being vaccinated had more antibodies in their blood four weeks later than those who had remained sitting or who had carried on with their daily routines. In addition, exercising did not increase the side effects of vaccination. This result was consistent for all three different vaccines.&nbsp;



“Our preliminary results are the first to demonstrate a specific amount of [exercise] time can enhance the body’s antibody response to the Pfizer-BioNtech COVID-19 vaccine and two vaccines for influenza,” said study lead author Professor Marian Kohut.



The researchers said the study’s findings could directly benefit people with a range of fitness levels. Nearly half of the participants in the experiment had a BMI in the overweight or obese category. During 90 minutes of exercise, they focused on maintaining a pace that kept their heart rate around 120–140 beats per minute, rather than focusing on distance traveled.



Interestingly, the researchers also tested whether a 45-minute exercise session would also result in increased numbers of antibodies. They found that the shorter session of physical exercise did not have the same effect. They did not test whether 60 minutes of exercise would boost immunity in the same way, but suggest that this could be an area of further study in the future.&nbsp;



Although the reason that exercise boosts the immune system is not yet clear, Kohut explains that several factors could be involved. Doing physical exercise increases blood and lymph flow, which helps circulate immune cells and bring them into contact with foreign pathogens in the body. This would lead to an immune response that would increase the number of circulating antibodies.&nbsp;



The scientists also conducted similar experiments on mouse models that were vaccinated with influenza A vaccine and then allowed to run on a treadmill. Those that had a 90-minute post-vaccination exercise session also had higher levels of antibodies in their blood. Data from the mouse experiments also suggested a type of protein (interfeon alpha) produced during exercise helps generate virus-specific antibodies and T-cells (a type of white blood cell).



“But a lot more research is needed to answer the why and how. There are so many changes that take place when we exercise – metabolic, biochemical, neuroendocrine, circulatory. So, there’s probably a combination of factors that contribute to the antibody response we found in our study,” said Professor Kohut.



The researchers are continuing to track the antibody response in the participants six months post-immunization and have launched another study that focuses on the effects of exercise on people who receive booster shots.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise after vaccination improves antibody levels

Vaccination is an effective public health measure, and is used...

The theory of sexual selection, first proposed by Charles Darwin, is often used to understand why male birds have brighter colors or more elaborate adornments than females. These attributes would normally make the males more conspicuous to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/">predators</a>, or less agile when moving around, and could be seen as disadvantages in terms of survival. Darwin proposed that males carrying these “disadvantages” were more often selected as mates by females, who thus drove the selection for these features.



In a new study, researchers used a genetic analysis of male yellowthroats to investigate the link between conspicuous coloration and genes for enhanced survival, such as for robust immunity or stress resistance.&nbsp;This type of investigation has only become possible in the past five years, due to advances in DNA analysis technology.



Yellowthroats are small songbirds that have olive backs, wings and tails but bright yellow throats. In addition to having bold yellow patches on their chests, males also have a very noticeable black mask that runs from the sides of the face, across the eyes and up to the forehead. These features stand out, visually, and certainly make male yellowthroats very conspicuous. The aim of the study was to find out whether the size of these adornments signals the presence of male genes that are superior in terms of survival.&nbsp;



The research involved a comparative study of two different populations of yellowthroats. Peter Dunn and Linda Whittingham at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, tracked female preferences for male ornaments in&nbsp;Wisconsin, while Corey&nbsp;Freeman-Gallant at Skidmore College studied preferences in&nbsp;upstate New York.&nbsp;&nbsp;Interestingly, the females in these two populations prefer different male ornaments.&nbsp;



“We found that the particular ornaments that females tended to prefer in each of our locations didn’t match,” said Dunn, distinguished professor of biological sciences, “even though both characteristics are found among males in both areas.”&nbsp;



Females in the Wisconsin population preferentially selected males with a large black facial mask, while females in the New York population chose males with large yellow “bibs.”&nbsp;



To investigate the relationship between these sexually selected ornaments and genes that influence male fitness, the researchers analyzed the genetic basis of the ornaments in birds with larger-sized features. They found that, despite being produced by different pigments in different parts of the body, the size of the ornament preferred by females in each population was linked to numerous genes that influence&nbsp;beneficial survival traits.



This finding indicates that a large, yellow chest patch or a large black mask present in a male actually signals the presence of other genes for enhanced fitness in that male. A female choosing to mate with a male having a large ornament of this type would thus be choosing superior genes for her offspring.&nbsp;



There have been very few studies that examined the female appeal of male ornaments in different populations. Dunn refers to studies of swallows that indicate females in some locations prefer longer tails, while in other locations they preferentially select males with browner bellies.&nbsp;And even fewer studies have investigated the size of ornaments at the level of genes.



“With this study, we not only found genes related to ornaments, but we also showed that similar genes can be linked to different types of ornaments in different populations,” Dunn said. “It brings us much closer to understanding the function of ornaments.”



The findings don’t explain why the females have different preferences geographically, said Dunn, but they have implications for evolution. The availability of more than one ornament as a mating signal allows females to potentially respond to a different choice if their environment changes.



Although theory predicts that flashy or large ornaments in males are present because they are selected for by females, this may not always be true. Ornaments may also be present because they serve some other purpose, for example antlers and horns may be used in conflicts between males. For this reason, it was necessary to prove the link between female selection of features and the presence of genes for enhanced fitness.



“What we consider flashy characteristics may not be limited to mate choice. For example, they may be used in interactions between two males,” explained Dunn.



In this study, the presence of large ornaments was related to the presence of superior genes and therefore an enhanced chance of survival in offspring. Even though females from the two populations selected different ornaments in males, both of these ornaments were linked to the same superior genes. By choosing males with large ornaments, the females were thus also choosing the best possible genetic input for their offspring.&nbsp;



Nicholas Sly, a&nbsp;postdoctoral researcher at UW-Milwaukee,&nbsp;was first author on the research paper.&nbsp;



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female yellowthroats choose flashy features in superior males

The theory of sexual selection, first proposed by Charles Darwin,...

Artist’s Impression of Exoplanet HD 106906b

A new study led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has recently identified a ring of planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-pieces-of-debris-threaten-the-space-economy/">debris</a> with moon-size structures orbiting a white dwarf star located 117 light years away from the Earth. The scientists believe that these 65 evenly spaced clouds of planetary debris that are orbiting the white dwarf every 25 hours could be kept in such a precise arrangement by a nearby planet located in the “habitable zone” of the star, where the temperature may be right for water and thus life to exist. This is the first time that a potentially life-supporting planet has been found orbiting a white dwarf.



While very large stars become black holes when they die, smaller ones such as our Sun become white dwarves – stars that have burned through all their hydrogen fuel and lost their outer layer. They are usually the size of a planet and emit a bluish-white light after they are formed. By using data from ground- and space-based telescopes, an international team of researchers measured light from a white dwarf in the Milky Way known as WD1054-226 and, to their surprise, found pronounced dips in light corresponding to the 65 clouds of planetary debris orbiting the star.



“The moon-sized structures we have observed are irregular and dusty (e.g. comet-like) rather than solid, spherical bodies. Their absolute regularity, one passing in front of the star every 23 minutes, is a mystery we cannot currently explain,” said study lead author Jay Farihi, a professor of Astrophysics at UCL.



“An exciting possibility is that these bodies are kept in such an evenly-spaced orbital pattern because of the gravitational influence of a nearby planet. Without this influence, friction and collisions would cause the structures to disperse, losing the precise regularity that is observed. A precedent for this 'shepherding' is the way the gravitational pull of moons around Neptune and Saturn help to create stable ring structures orbiting these planets.”



More evidence is needed to confirm the presence of the planet. However, if this hypothesis turns out to be true, the planet’s position relative to its star would be perfect to theoretically allow liquid water – a crucial pre-requisite of life - to exist on its surface. Moreover, it could suggest that more planets like this probably exist around other white dwarves in our galaxy and beyond. “Usually in astronomy, if we find one, it usually means that it's common,” said Prof Farihi.



A comprehensive description of the white dwarf and the potentially life-supporting planet orbiting it can be found in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/511/2/1647/6524236?login=false">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomic Society</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble, M. Kornmesser



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Astronomers have found a planet that could support life

A new study led by University College London (UCL) has...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/">Universität Hamburg</a> are providing new details about the extent of coastal erosion throughout the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-are-transforming-arctic-coasts/">Arctic</a>. The team used a combination of computational models to investigate the magnitude and speed of coastal changes across the rapidly warming region.



“We have run through a range of scenarios, depending on how much greenhouse gases humanity will emit in the coming years,” said study’s lead author Dr. David Nielsen.



“According to the study, not only is more and more land mass being lost in absolute terms; with each degree of temperature increase, the annual rate of erosion increases – in meters, but also in millions of tons of carbon released.”



As global warming causes an increasing amount of permafrost to thaw and sea ice to melt, the soil is becoming less stable and more likely to erode. Soil erosion damages infrastructure and threatens coastal communities. Erosion also releases carbon (which was once stored in the soil) into the ocean and the atmosphere, which can boost global warming in a reinforcing feedback loop.&nbsp;



The new study shows that at the current rate of emissions, the rate of Arctic coastal erosion could more than double by the end of the century. This translates to enormous losses of up to three meters of soil per year.



“Our findings also show that a shift toward greater sustainability and significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions could slow the acceleration in the second half of the century. However, it won’t be possible to stop the loss of land mass entirely," explained Dr. Nielsen.



In collaboration with experts at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, and the German Meteorological Service, Dr. Nielsen has calculated the future balance for the entire Arctic coast. This is a challenging task, considering that coastal erosion varies greatly from one region to another.&nbsp;



“In the Arctic, erosion is always a combination of thermal and mechanical factors,” explained Dr. Nielsen. “Depending on the location and shape of the respective coast, we expect to see varying wave heights. With increasing temperature, the range of the waves also increases, because the sea ice disappears. In addition, the ice-free period in the summer is lengthened, making coasts even more vulnerable.”



According to the study authors, entire villages in Alaska are already facing the need for relocation as a result of costal erosion. By the end of the century, different emission scenarios lead to substantially different projections in terms of societal impacts, said the researchers. While the exact consequences for humans and wildlife are uncertain, what is made clear in the study is that the pace of Arctic soil erosion is increasing alongside global warming.&nbsp;



"The sensitivity of Arctic coastal erosion to climate change increases with time in our simulations, and is tightly related with the Arctic amplification after its onset," wrote the study authors. "Arctic coastal erosion increases more rapidly in response to increasing global mean surface air temperature in the future scenarios than it does in the historical period."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coastal erosion is picking up speed across the Arctic

Scientists at Universität Hamburg are providing new details about the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...