Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

It’s been long hypothesized that Stonehenge was a solar calendar of sorts. Specific alignments of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-may-be-the-original-source-of-earths-water/">Sun</a> with different stones is suggestive. Now, a new analysis of the famous stone ring reveals exactly how it may have functioned.&nbsp;



“The clear solstitial alignment of Stonehenge has prompted people to suggest that the site included some kind of calendar since the antiquarian William Stukeley,” said Professor Timothy Darvill of Bournemouth University. “Now, discoveries brought the issue into sharper focus and indicate the site was a calendar based on a tropical solar year of 365.25 days.”



According to Darvill’s analysis the calendar was based on what seems to us to be an unusual ten day week. Special stones seem to mark the beginning of each of the twelve months denoted by the circle.&nbsp;



“The proposed calendar works in a very straightforward way. Each of the 30 stones in the sarsen circle represents a day within a month, itself divided into three weeks each of 10 days,” said Professor Darvill.



Although seven day weeks seem natural to most of us, there is a precedence for ten day weeks. They were used in other parts of the world near the time that Stonehenge was built.&nbsp;



“Such a solar calendar was developed in the eastern Mediterranean in the centuries after 3000 BC and was adopted in Egypt as the Civil Calendar around 2700 and was widely used at the start of the Old Kingdom about 2600 BC,” explained Professor Darvill.



Although there isn’t solid evidence of travel between Stonehenge and the Mediterranean or Egypt yet, there is some evidence of distant travel from that time. The “Amesbury Archer,” a bronze age man whose burial was found nearby seems to have been born in the Alps and moved to Britain as a teenager.&nbsp;



Professor Darvill hopes that future research, possibly including DNA analysis will make a link between far flung cultures more clear. Still, his work has already furthered our understanding of Stonehenge.&nbsp;



“Finding a solar calendar represented in the architecture of Stonehenge opens up a whole new way of seeing the monument as a place for the living," said Darvill. "A place where the timing of ceremonies and festivals was connected to the very fabric of the universe and celestial movements in the heavens.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://antiquity.ac.uk/">Antiquity</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New analysis reveals that Stonehenge was a solar calendar

It’s been long hypothesized that Stonehenge was a solar calendar...

In response to the dire circumstances surrounding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-older-adults-develop-medical-conditions-after-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, countries pledged around $13 trillion in stimulus packages to help economic recovery. However, of this large sum of money that could have been used to restructure economies in a more visionary manner, only six percent of it was invested in projects that address climate change issues.&nbsp;



This is the finding of a <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> study, details of which are published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>. The authors analyzed over $13 trillion in COVID-19-related stimulus packages from 19 countries and the European Union, and found that the vast majority of recovery spending didn’t address climate issues at all. Moreover, three percent of the money went to support projects that are likely to increase greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“These economic recovery packages provided an opportunity for countries, including the United States, to really envision what they want their economies to look like going forward,” said co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.jhu.edu/ehe/faculty/scot-miller/">Scot Miller</a>, an assistant professor of environmental health and engineering at Johns Hopkins. “The pandemic could have been an opportunity to push countries toward greener economies and a lot of governments have failed to do so.”



The team of scientists analyzed each nation’s stimulus policy from the beginning of the pandemic in 2020 to well into 2021, identifying the percentage of funds allocated to projects that would lower greenhouse gas emissions, those that would increase them and those that would have no impact. The six percent of recovery funding that did support emission-reducing projects was invested in activities such as the development of electric vehicles and transit infrastructure, building energy efficient homes and offices, and carrying out research into renewable energy.&nbsp;



“Even though this was a public health crisis, in principle governments could have intervened in the economy in a way that changed everything, getting together to do something really big to meet the climate challenge,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://sais.jhu.edu/users/jnahm1">Jonas Nahm</a>, assistant professor of energy, resources, and environment at Johns Hopkins’ School of Advanced International Studies. “But the vast majority of the money spent has very tenuous relations to emissions so it was, overall, very disappointing.”



The team found that of green stimulus measures, only about 27 percent would directly reduce greenhouse emissions. The remaining approximately 72 percent would have only an indirect impact; these included projects like subsidies for biofuel producers in Brazil, or funding in Germany to aid the construction of electric vehicle charging stations.



South Korea and the European Union each devoted 30 percent of their stimulus money to funding green projects, while Brazil, Germany and Italy invested more than 20 percent. France spent ten percent of its recovery money on green projects, but the majority of countries, including the United States, Japan, Russia, and the United Kingdom, paid almost no attention to climate-related projects and spent less than five percent of their stimulus packages in this area.&nbsp;



Governments clearly did not prioritize climate protection over economic growth in the attempts to recover from the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. This is common during economic downturns, the authors say, yet stimulus spending during recessions offers an opportunity to combine climate and economic objectives. In the aftermath of the 2009 recession, for instance, 16% of global stimulus spending targeted emissions-reducing activities.



The trillions of dollars pledged by countries around the world to stimulate economic recovery were spent, instead, mainly on unconditional checks issued to individuals and businesses. They could have been invested in technology, infrastructure, and research and development to meet the climate goals of the Paris Agreement, creating jobs and economic recovery along the way.&nbsp; Signatories to the Agreement have 2030 deadlines to meet concerning interim emissions goals, and recovery funding could have been used to support their attempts to reach these targets.&nbsp;



“If there was ever an opportunity to tie economic recovery with these climate goals that are drawing closer by the day, this would have been the time to do it,” Miller said. “In the months and years ahead, we shouldn’t forget about climate and greenhouse gas emissions goals when devising economic recovery measures. These 2030 climate goals are coming faster and sooner than we think and we can’t put off thinking about climate change until the pandemic is over.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic stimulus funding could have been used to address climate crisis

In response to the dire circumstances surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic,...

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly common practice in conservation. DNA found in the environment has been used to detect endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-are-making-a-comeback-in-the-cayman-islands/">turtles</a> in Vietnam, and has also been used in demanding environments like the Amazon and Mt. Everest.&nbsp;



In an attempt to monitor whale and dolphin populations, many of which are endangered, researchers from three universities and the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) have turned to eDNA collected from water samples. This method can be used in concert with other monitoring methods, including acoustic surveys. It’s even possible that eDNA may one day be used to identify individual animals.&nbsp;



Whales and dolphins are increasingly in need of protection and careful monitoring. Plans by the Biden administration, the state of New York (where the study was carried out) and others to increase offshore wind administration pose potential threats to whales. This on top of threats from fishing gear, whaling, pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-whales-are-killed-by-ship-strikes-each-year/">strikes with ships</a>. 



Environmental DNA could be one more tool to help understand and protect whales and dolphins. WCS has already been working to develop guidelines for wind energy to make it as whale and dolphin friendly as possible.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 



“Determining how cetaceans and other threatened marine animals use coastal habitats is critical to their effective conservation," said study lead author Dr. Elizabeth Alter of California State University.



"By generating eDNA data in parallel with survey data, it will be possible to gain a clearer understanding of how this tool can be used in management and conservation contexts to monitor species of conservation concern over large marine ecosystems.”



Not only are whales and dolphins detectable with eDNA, so are some of their prey species, such as fish. Monitoring whales, dolphins, and smaller animals may provide a greater understanding of the state of various populations and the habitats that are suitable for them.&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Howard C. Rosenbaum is the director of WCS’s Ocean Giants Program and a senior scientist at the NY Aquarium.



“Innovation and application of new techniques, such as the possibility of using eDNA, that leads to having better information about distribution of whales, dolphins and their prey is so important today, especially where potential impacts in these habitats may be increasing human activities," said Dr. Rosenbaum.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Environmental DNA collected from water used to monitor whales

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-fruit-warns-the-rest-of-the-plant-when-attacked/">Tomatoes</a> have been domesticated by native American cultures thousands of years ago. However, since very few tomato archaeological remains have been found, the precise history of this plant’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cat-brains-shrank-in-size-as-they-became-domesticated/">domestication</a> remains a mystery. While some scientists claim that the domestication occurred in Mesoamerica, the region comprising Mexico and Central America, others argue that this process happened in Peru and Ecuador. 



By analyzing the whole genome of 628 wild and cultivated tomato plants, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.upv.es/en/">Polytechnic University of Valencia</a> in Spain has discovered that the history of the American tomato is more complex than initially thought.



The genomic analyses revealed that, while most of the contemporary cultivated tomato is very similar to the wild Mesoamerican plants (Solanum lycopersicum&nbsp;var.&nbsp;cerasiforme), wild Ecuadorian and Peruvian species (S. pimpinellifolium) have also been involved in its domestication.



According to the scientists, the domestication process started with the Mesoamerican materials, which migrated southward to a region located between the foot of the Andes and the Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">rainforest</a> in Peru and Ecuador called Ceja de Montaña. This initial migration was probably fast and most likely due to the emergence of commercial relationships between different Mesoamerican and Ecuadorian and Peruvian cultures.



More recently though, some of these plants, very similar to the ones still grown in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador, migrated back to Mexico. Surprisingly, the vintage Yucatan tomatoes are more similar to the ones found in&nbsp;Ceja de Montaña than to their wild counterparts found in Mexico, suggesting that some wild tomatoes migrated southward and, then, went back as cultivated.



These voyages would change the tomato forever. Growers from&nbsp;Ceja de Montaña did not use pure Mesoamerican plants, but rather admixtures created by crossing the newly arrived plants with wild varieties from coastal Peru and Ecuador. This hybridization between Mesoamerican and Ecuatorial plants was necessary for the adaptation of northern tomatoes to the climate and latitude of Ecuador.



These complex movements between Mesoamerican and Ecuatorial territories were only the beginning of the tomato’s trip around the world. After being introduced in Europe in the 16th century by the Spanish conquistadores, many more different genetic varieties were and continue to be created according to various people’s needs, uses, and tastes. From a secondary crop used mainly to prepare sauces by some Mesoamerican populations, the tomato spread around the world and became one of the most famous and widely consumed vegetable.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tomato domestication was more complex than previously thought

Tomatoes have been domesticated by native American cultures thousands of...

An international team of archaeologists led by the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> and the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> has recently discovered an innovative 40,000-year-old culture in a well-preserved Paleolithic site in northern China. This previously unidentified set of cultural innovations found at the site of Xiambei in the Nihewan Basin consists of a set of distinct blade-like stone tools, together with the earliest known evidence of ochre processing in Eastern Asia.



“One main layer of the site contains the earliest known ochre-processing feature in East Asia, a distinctive&nbsp;miniaturized stone tool assemblage with bladelet-like tools bearing traces of hafting, and a bone tool,” reported study lead author Dr. Shixia Yang, a researcher at the Max Plank Institute and the Chinese Academy.



By using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to establish the chronology of a 290-cm-deep section of the site, the researchers found that the main cultural layer discovered at Xiambei is 41,000 to 39,000 years old. Although no hominin remains were found at Xiambei, the presence of modern human fossils at sites located nearby suggests that the visitors to Xiambei were probably Homo sapiens, although genetic and cultural exchanges with archaic groups of Denisovans or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">Neanderthals</a> are not excluded.



According to the scientists, the different types of ochre found at this site were brought to Xiambei and processed through pounding and abrasion to produce powders of different color and consistency. Some of the blade-like stone tools showed clear evidence of hafting to a handle, with functional and residue analysis suggesting that they were used for boring, hide scraping, whittling plant material, and cutting soft animal matter. These hafted, multipurpose tools are evidence of a complex technical system for transforming raw materials not seen at older or slightly younger archeological sites.



“The ability of hominins to live in northern latitudes, with cold and highly seasonal environments, was likely facilitated by the evolution of culture in the form of economic, social, and symbolic adaptations,” said Dr. Yang. “The finds at Xiamabei are helping us to understand these adaptations and their potential role in human migration.”



According to Dr. Yang and her colleagues, the record emerging from Eastern Asia shows that a variety of adaptations were taking place as modern humans entered the region 40,000 years ago that challenge previous ideas of continuous cultural innovation and the existence of a fully formed set of adaptations that enabled early humans to expand from Africa all over the globe.



“Our findings show that current evolutionary scenarios are too simple,” said study co-author Michael Petraglia, a professor of Human Evolution and Prehistory at the Max Planck Institute. “Modern humans, and our culture, emerged through repeated but differing episodes of genetic and social exchanges over large geographic areas, rather than as a single, rapid dispersal wave across Asia,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04445-2">Nature</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Evidence of innovative 40,000-year-old culture found in China

An international team of archaeologists led by the Max Planck...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> reveals why exercise becomes harder when you don't do it very often. The experts have linked low levels of physical activity to the deactivation of a vital protein in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watermelon-may-provide-health-benefits-to-the-entire-body/">body</a>.&nbsp;



The research shows that a lack of exercise deactivates the Piezo1 protein, a blood flow sensor, which then reduces the density of capillaries carrying blood to the muscles. When this occurs, blood flow is restricted and physical activity becomes more difficult. According to the study authors, this phenomenon can lead to a reduction in how much exercise is even possible.



"Physical fitness is important for survival," wrote the study authors. "Lack of physical activity results in detraining, lower performance, and ultimately, incapacity. At least 2,500 years ago it was first documented that exercise is good for health."



"Since the first epidemiological studies, research has continued to bestow on us a wealth of evidence that exercise protects against a host of ailments and life-threatening conditions that affect large numbers of people in 21st-century societies through heart attacks, strokes, diabetes, depression, dementia, cancer, osteoporosis, chronic kidney disease, and sexual dysfunction. Exercise is commonly encouraged, even prescribed, as therapy."



The researchers conducted their study using a mouse model, but the Piezo1 protein is also found in humans, which suggests that the outcome of low physical activity is the same.&nbsp;



"Unfortunately, many people fail to exercise enough, for reasons such as injury and computer usage. This puts people at more risk of disease. The less people exercise, the less fit they become, often leading to a downward spiral," said study lead author Fiona Bartoli.



“Although many responses to exercise are known, how the benefits of exercise are initially triggered at a molecular level is mysterious. Our study highlights the crucial link between physical activity and physical performance made at this level by Piezo1. Keeping our Piezo1s active by exercising may be crucial in our physical performance and health.”&nbsp;



Professor David Beech said that the research sheds new light on how Piezo1’s role in blood vessels is connected to physical activity. "A lot was already known about its role in blood vessel development, but far less was known about its contribution to vessel maintenance in adults."&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our discovery also provides an opportunity to think about how loss of muscle function could be treated in new ways: if we activate Piezo1, it might help to maintain exercise capability.”&nbsp;



The study was funded by the British Heart Foundation and is published in the <a href="https://www.jci.org/">Journal of Clinical Investigation</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise literally becomes harder when you don't do it

A new study from the University of Leeds reveals why...

A new study suggests that losing sleep to keep up with the demands of the day is not unique to humans. An international team of scientists has examined sleep behavior among baboons at the Mpala Research Centre in Kenya. The research is the first of its kind to investigate the sleeping habits of a group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-primates-go-extinct-so-will-their-parasites/">primates</a> in the wild. 



Study senior author Meg Crofoot is the director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies at the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>. She was the first to apply GPS tracking and accelerometry technology to study social behavior in primate societies.



The study revealed that even when the baboons were sleep deprived, they still dedicated time and energy to other priorities - such as socializing or watching out for predators - rather than catching up on lost sleep.&nbsp;



“We discovered that sleep is a collective behavior in baboon groups. Group-mates were highly coordinated in their patterns of awakening during the night, which in turn led to shorter and more fragmented sleep," said Crofoot. "Our results show that these highly gregarious animals are balancing their physiological need for sleep with the social pressures of group living.”



Previous studies on animal sleep behavior, which were based on animals in a laboratory setting, revealed patterns of sleep homeostasis. This is a balance in which animals who are sleep deprived will sleep longer or more deeply than usual to compensate for the sleep debt.



The results of the baboon study, however, reveal that animals in the wild face a number of demands that disrupt sleep homeostasis. The baboons were found to sacrifice sleep to stay awake in new environments and to remain close to their group-mates. Regardless of how much they had slept the previous night, or how much energy they had burned up the previous day, the baboons stayed awake and vigilant.&nbsp;



"The competing priorities that lead humans to accumulate sleep debt might seem unique to a modern, industrialized society like ours. But our findings demonstrate that non-human primates also sacrifice sleep, even when it might be unhealthy to do so, to partake in other activities," said study lead author Carter Loftus from UC Davis.



"The tradeoff between sleep and other pressing demands on our time is, therefore, one that we have likely been navigating throughout our evolution.”



“Baboons are highly vulnerable to night-time predation and their fitness depends on maintaining strong social bonds. Trading off sleep to maintain alertness in novel, risky environments and to remain close to group-mates during the night may therefore represent an essential adaptation.”



According to Crofoot, the study opens an exciting new frontier of scientific inquiry into the dynamics of sleep.



“The accelerometry-based method can be easily and cheaply integrated into studies tracking animals in their natural habitats, allowing us to massively expand what we know about sleep across a range of species," explained Crofoot. "In the same way, the technique can be applied to many individuals at the same time, paving the way for understanding how sleeping in groups shapes the structures of animal societies.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Primates sacrifice sleep to meet life's daily demands

A new study suggests that losing sleep to keep up...

The San Andreas Fault is an 800-mile-long sliding tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. It cleaves California from north to south, as the two tectonic plates slowly grind against each other, threatening to give rise to massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-linked-to-earthquakes-more-than-1200-miles-away/">earthquakes</a>.&nbsp;



San Andreas comprises three major sections which can move independently. In the southern and the northern sections, the plates are locked most of the time, causing stresses to build over years, decades, or even centuries, and occasionally leading to large earthquakes, such as the catastrophic one from San Francisco in 1906 that had a magnitude of 7.9 and killed over 3,000 people.&nbsp;



In the central section though, which separates the other two, the plates slip past each other slowly, at a steady 26 millimeters rate each year. Until recently, scientists thought that this so-called “<a href="http://funnel.sfsu.edu/creep/WhatsCreepPage.html">aseismic creep</a>” prevents stresses from building and does not lead to large earthquakes.



However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G49451.1/612167/History-of-earthquakes-along-the-creeping-section">Geology</a> suggests that this central creeping section of the San Andreas Fault has in fact hosted many major earthquakes throughout history, some of them possibly happening fairly recently. By using novel chemical-analysis methods to calculate the degrees of heating that the sedimentary rocks withstood in the distant past - a sign that earthquakes took place there - the researchers argue that the creep may have witnessed over 100 earthquakes during its history. Some of these quakes may have been even larger than the disastrous 1906 San Francisco one.



“The creeping section is a difficult place to do Paleoseismology, because evidence for earthquakes can be easily erased by the creep,” said Morgan Page, a seismologist at the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a>. “If this holds up, this is the first evidence of a big seismic rupture in this part of the fault.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Ultimately, our work points to the potential for higher magnitude earthquakes in central California and highlights the importance of including the central (San Andreas Fault) and other creeping faults in seismic hazard analysis,” the study authors added.



However, according to the researchers, although massive earthquakes did occur along the creep and thus they could happen again, since tectonic strain is not currently accumulating at significant rates in the area, no such disastrous events are foreseen in the near future.



“People should not be alarmed,” concluded study co-author Stephen Cox, a geologist at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>.&nbsp; “Building codes in California are now quite good. Seismic events are inevitable. Work like this helps us figure out what is the biggest possible event, and helps everyone prepare.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Slow-moving section of the San Andreas Fault could produce major activity

The San Andreas Fault is an 800-mile-long sliding tectonic boundary...

The neem tree is a plant with impressive antimicrobial properties. The bark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-botanical-extract-extend-the-lifespan-of-humans/">extract</a> been used to treat malaria, internal ulcers, skin and other diseases. Now, a collaborative team of researchers has demonstrated that neem tree bark could possibly be used to treat and reduce the spread of COVID-19.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Maria Nagel is a research professor in the Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology at the University of Colorado School of Medicine.



“The goal of this research is to develop a Neem-based medication that can reduce the risk of serious illness when someone is infected with coronaviruses,” said Dr. Nagel.



“We hope that scientists won’t have to continuously develop new therapies every time a new SARS-CoV-2 variant emerges. Just like how we take penicillin for strep throat, we envision taking the Neem-based drug for COVID, allowing us to resume our normal lives without fear of hospitalization and death.”



Neem tree bark extract was tested on animal models in laboratories in India, where it seemed to be effective against COVID. Computer modeling suggests that the neem extract binds to COVID, making it unable to enter into human or animal cells.&nbsp;



In the lab at CU, neem bark extract was tested on human lungs as a preventative measure against COVID. The extract not only protected against the virus, but also&nbsp; prevented the virus from reproducing and spreading.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The next step in our research is to identify the specific components in neem bark extract that are antiviral. Because these components bind to various regions of SARS-CoV-2, we believe that it will be effective on emerging variants with spike mutations,” said Dr. Nagel. “We will then determine the formulation of dosage for an antiviral drug to treat coronavirus infections.”



The researchers hope that this is the first step toward developing important antivirals in the fight against coronavirus.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neem tree bark has the potential to treat coronaviruses

The neem tree is a plant with impressive antimicrobial properties....

The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai (HTHH) undersea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanoes-stabilize-temperatures-at-earths-surface/">volcano</a>, located close to the Tonga Islands in the Pacific Ocean, erupted violently on January 15, 2022, raising widespread public concern about its effect on global warming. Usually, the sulfur dioxide (SO2) reaching the stratosphere after volcanic eruptions is oxidized and transformed into sulfate aerosols, which linger in the air for one or two years, reducing solar radiation, and contributing to a short period of global cooling.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, a new analysis of the potential cooling effect of the Tonga eruption has concluded that the impact will be much smaller than initially thought, and will not succeed in offsetting the longer-term global warming tendency of our planet.



The largest volcanic eruption of the last 500 years – that of Mount Tambora in Indonesia in April 1815 – caused the so-called “year without summer” in many parts of the world, with a reduction of average surface temperature over the tropics and the northern hemisphere by 0.4 to 0.8°C. However, the Tambora volcano emitted 53 to 58 terrograms (Tg) of SO2. &nbsp;



Compared to this, HTHH’s 0.4 Tg sulfur dioxide emissions will most probably have a significantly smaller impact, regardless of the initial estimate that global surface air temperatures may decrease by 0.03 to 0.1°C over the next one to two years as a result of the Tonga eruption. 



“This reported initial estimate may have overestimated the impact as it did not take into account the location where the eruption occurred, which alters the spatial distribution of stratospheric sulfate aerosols - a variable that can alter results substantially,” explained study co-author Tianjun Zhou of the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a> at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.



“This is because southern hemisphere volcanic eruption emissions are largely confined to circulating in the same hemisphere and the tropics, with less of an impact on the northern hemisphere. This in turn leads to a weaker global cooling than those of northern hemispheric and tropical volcanoes.”



By comparing the Tonga eruption with several other major historical eruptions, Professor Zhou and his colleagues showed that, in the first year after the HTHH eruption, the global mean surface temperature will decrease by only 0.004°C. The eruption’s cooling effect will be stronger in the southern hemisphere, with a decrease of 0.01°C occurring in parts of Australia and South America.



However, if HTHH will erupt again, the situation may change dramatically. Such an event is quite possible, since this volcano has already erupted many times over the past century. “As a result, we should keep monitoring the activity of HTHH in the coming days, months, and years,” concluded Professor Zhou.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-022-2034-1">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tonga eruption will not contribute much to global cooling

The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai (HTHH) undersea volcano, located close to...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11692-022-09561-5">Evolutionary Biology</a> has argued that the most iconic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">dinosaur</a>, Tyrannosaurus Rex, should actually be split into three different species, with T.rex being joined by Tyrannosaurus imperator (“emperor tyrant lizard”) and Tyrannosaurus regina (“tyrant lizard queen”). This proposal has started a fierce debate in the paleontology community, with many of the world’s leading experts on T.rex being highly skeptical of the study results.



Paleontologists have in fact discussed the notion of multiple Tyrannosaurus species for decades. Due to this predator’s large habitat, extending on the territory of ancient North America from Western Canada to New Mexico, and considering the long period of time (over a million years) that the creature had roamed these regions, there was a significant possibility for Tyrannosaurus populations to drift apart and form multiple species. Moreover, several differences that paleontologists identified in the existent fossils could also be proof that more Tyrannosaurus species may have existed, as the authors of the current study argue.



According to a research team led by independent paleontologist Gregory Paul, the known Tyrannosaurus fossils vary more than the bones of other large predatory dinosaurs, and can be split into three different clusters, based on the stoutness of the skeletons and the presence of certain chisel-like teeth.&nbsp;



By measuring the femurs and lower jaw teeth of 37 Tyrannosaurus skeletons, most of them found within the Hell Creek Formation – a geological formation of Upper Cretaceous rocks in North America – Paul and his colleagues showed that the fossils could be split into three distinct clusters: one found in the oldest rock layers, with robust skeletons and two pairs of chisel-like teeth (T.imperator), and two found in the younger, upper layers. Although each of these younger specimens had only a single pair of chisel-like teeth, one of them had a more robust (T.rex) and the other a spindlier, more gracile skeleton (T.regina).



This proposal was already criticized by several established, world-leading paleontologists. For instance, according to Jingmai O’Connor – an associate curator of fossil reptiles at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago - the femur proportions of all three proposed species overlap rather than showing clear separations, as do the time periods when the dinosaurs were supposed to live. To her, this suggests a continuous spectrum of change, which Paul and his team arbitrarily split into three species.



“The diagnoses provided for each species are incredibly vague, using words like ‘usually’ and ‘generally.’ Even in well-preserved specimens, the authors are unable to refer them to a specific species,” Dr. O’Connor said.&nbsp;



Similar views were expressed by Professor Thomas Carr, a T.rex expert at <a href="https://www.carthage.edu/">Carthage College</a>, or Professor Steve Brusatte, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I understand the temptation to divide T.rex into different species, because there is some variation in the fossil bones that we have. But ultimately, to me, this variation is very minor and not indicative of meaningful biological separation of distinct species that can be defined based on clear, explicit, consistent differences,” Professor Brusatte said.



The careful investigation of a larger number of fossils is needed in order to settle this debate. Unfortunately, as Paul argues, it could take several decades until enough specimens will allow a more scientific, statistical analysis.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Were there three distinct species of Tyrannosaurus Rex?

A new study published in the journal Evolutionary Biology has...

Ecuador is a stunning paradise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a>. From the Galapagos to the high Andes mountains and the eastern Amazon, the unique landscapes are home to a remarkable variety of plants and animals. Taking this into account, it is not very surprising that a new orchid species would be discovered in the cloud forest of Ecuador.&nbsp;



The new orchid, which has been named Maxillaria anacatalina-portillae, was formally described by Polish orchidologists working with an Ecuadorian company specializing in orchid research and supply.&nbsp;



For several years, Polish scientists from the University of Gdańsk have been aiming their research at the tropical genus Maxillaria with the goal of better understanding its abundance of species. The research has taken the scientists to herbariums across Europe and the Americas as well as on field research in South America.&nbsp;



The first specimen of Maxillaria anacatalina-portillae was collected not by a Polish scientist but by Alex Portilla, a photographer and sales manager at Ecuagenera, an Ecuadorian company that works with orchids.&nbsp;



The orchid was collected from a restricted area in the northern province of Carchi. Portilla photographed the orchid in its natural environment before taking it back to a greenhouse to be cultivated and sold. The orchid was marketed as a different species in the same genus Maxillaria sanderiana "xanthina."



At the same time, Professor Dariusz L. Szlachetko and Dr. Monika M. Lipińska happened upon the same plants several times. Intrigued by the uniquely colored flowers and following a hunch that they may represent a new species, they teamed up with Dr. Natalia Olędrzyńska and Aidar A. Sumbembayev.&nbsp;



Together the scientists analyzed the morphology and phylogenetics of the plants. Samples were used from plants grown by hobbyists as well as commercial greenhouses, including critical plants purchased from Ecuagenera.&nbsp;



The new species was named in honor of Alex Portilla’s daughter, Ana Catalina Portilla Schröder.



&nbsp;The research is published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/">PhytoKeys</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Alex Portilla



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New and endangered orchid discovered in Ecuador

Ecuador is a stunning paradise of biodiversity. From the Galapagos...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...