Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp;



Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp;



Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our modern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-ruled-over-killer-whales-nbsp">Marine reptiles ruled over killer whales&nbsp;</h2>



Experts discovered that some of these reptiles could exceed 33 feet (10 meters) in length, hinting at a way of life that appears to have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkably powerful</a>.&nbsp;



According to their research, these creatures ruled the seventh level in a reconstructed Cretaceous food web, while present-day killer whales and great white sharks rarely pass the sixth.&nbsp;



At the heart of these findings is work by McGill University’s <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biology</a>, led by doctoral student Dirley Cortés and co-author Hans Larsson, who is a professor in the same department.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-reached-the-pinnacle">Marine reptiles reached the pinnacle</h2>



Large predators typically dominate the top ranks in any oceanic food chain. Scientists often call these ranks "<a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/06%3A_Ecology/6.05%3A_Trophic_Levels" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic levels</a>." 



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> systems reach a natural limit around the sixth trophic (or feeding) level, where species like orcas hover at the pinnacle of the energy pyramid.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to examine these possible ecological interactions,” said Cortés, who is lead author on the publication. 



By <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying</a> fossil evidence in the <a href="https://www2.sgc.gov.co/LibroGeologiaColombia/tgc/sgcpubesp36201913.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paja Formation</a>, the team determined that Mesozoic reptiles had apparently gone one level higher. 



These ancient animals likely feasted on anything in their path, which explains how their food web stacked up so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-a-lost-food-web">Reconstructing a lost food web</h2>



This investigation on ancient marine reptiles used body size, possible feeding tools, and comparisons with existing marine species to build a detailed framework for who ate whom in that vanished Colombian sea, where the warm climates of the Early Cretaceous allowed a surge in ocean diversity.&nbsp;



The Paja Formation’s fossil record reveals predators with robust jaws and swift movement, alongside an assortment of invertebrates that thrived in trophic levels beneath them.&nbsp;



Researchers drew upon modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-disease-is-pushing-caribbean-reefs-toward-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean reef</a> networks to cross-check their results. 



By comparing these fossils to present-day communities, the study uncovered what one of the paper’s authors described as "intricate links among prehistoric animals" that pushed the boundaries of the marine hierarchy.



“Understanding this complexity helps us trace how ecosystems evolve over time,” said Cortés.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-competition-shaped-the-seas">How competition shaped the seas</h2>



Marine food webs do not form overnight. Competition for resources tends to bring about new evolutionary strategies and unique feeding habits. 



During parts of the Mesozoic, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0501562102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> from marine predators and their potential prey made survival an ongoing challenge. 



A known surge in shell-crushing snails and other predatory invertebrates during this era has been labeled by paleontologists as the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>.&nbsp;



Ancient marine reptiles from the Paja Formation existed in this tense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> of changing prey, leading them to develop massive body sizes and formidable hunting styles.&nbsp;



“These findings illuminate how marine ecosystems developed through intense trophic competition and shaped the diversity we see today,” said <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Larsson</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



The close study of creatures that roamed the ocean so long ago is not just about cataloging exciting fossils. Discoveries like this tell us that life’s history is packed with surprising adaptations.&nbsp;



Paleontologists see a chance to compare these ancient networks with modern ones, thus providing fresh insights into how ecosystems recover from challenges such as climate change or habitat loss.&nbsp;



Researchers also note that these fossil communities remind us of how species at the top of the food chain can alter their entire environment, often making space for additional biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolution">A window into evolution</h2>



One important lesson from this work is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatic shifts</a> in ocean biodiversity occurred long before humans entered the picture. 



Marine reptiles vanished near the end of the Mesozoic, but the legacy of their top-heavy food webs is imprinted in the fossil record. 



Each puzzle piece from that record, from large jaws to specialized teeth, helps paint a more accurate picture of how Earth’s seas matured. 



The high trophic levels in the Paja Formation suggest that new habitats were emerging, allowing marine reptiles to reach body sizes and predatory niches that are rarely matched in modern times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-marine-reptiles-and-ecosystems">Ancient marine reptiles and ecosystems</h2>



Researchers plan to keep building models for other fossil sites. This work may reveal whether seventh-level predators were uncommon or if there were other pockets in Earth’s history where they thrived. 



In many regions, marine formations remain poorly understood, so there is every chance that the Paja Formation was not the only site containing marine reptiles with astonishing hunting powers.&nbsp;



More studies may show that, over millions of years, seas can produce predators more fearsome than anything we know today.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/202/1/zlad092/7275647?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.&nbsp;



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Prehistoric ocean monsters would have eaten killer whales as snacks

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp; Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp; Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has found that over 80 percent of premature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-in-europe-linked-to-over-20000-excess-deaths/">deaths</a> caused by exposure to small smoke particles in the United States result from human-ignited fires. According to the experts, human-ignited fires account for more than 67 percent of tiny smoke particles called PM2.5 which are known to degrade air quality and cause a variety of diseases and premature deaths.



Currently, the level of fire activity in the U.S. is increasing, with estimates suggesting that smoke from human-ignited fires accounted for 20,000 premature deaths in 2018 alone, or 270 percent more than there were in 2003, a year with a lower frequency of fire events.



“Fires not only threaten human lives, infrastructure, and ecosystems, but they are also a major cause for concern in terms of air quality,” explained study lead author Therese Carter, an expert in Atmospheric Chemistry at MIT. “High levels of smoke exposure can negatively impact human health resulting in conditions such as respiratory infections, lung cancer, heart disease, and even premature births. Our results show that a large and significant portion of harmful smoke particles result directly from human-lit fires.”



By using the Global Fire Emissions Database, the scientists quantified agricultural fire emissions and classified them into two categories: human versus natural ignition. Then, with the help of a chemical transport model, they simulated the concentrations of smoke particles across the U.S. The analysis revealed that a significant amount of PM2.5 in the country results from human-ignited fires and thus has the potential to be managed.



In order to mitigate the devastating health effects of pollution from small smoke particles, the authors recommend management plans to restrict the ignition of agricultural fires to periods when weather conditions would minimize health impacts.



“Now we know that humans can play a pivotal role in reducing PM2.5 concentrations, we should be putting policies, regulations, and management plans in place to reduce human-ignited fires. Efforts to minimize human-ignited fires should be focused on certain regions and ignition types in order to be more successful. Identifying and acknowledging the sources of these particles is the first step in a cleaner, healthier future,” Carter concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aca91f">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tens of thousands of premature deaths linked to human-ignited fires

A new study led by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has found that ants do not adjust their behavior in response to warmer temperatures and tend to persist in sub-optimal microhabitats even when optimal ones are available. These findings suggest that ants may not be able to adjust their behavior in response to climate change.



Ants are ectotherms - animals whose body temperature depends upon the environment. Although such animals experience a variety of temperatures in their lives, most of them prefer habitats that are slightly cooler than the optimal functioning temperature in which an ectothermic animal is able to best perform its life functions. Usually, if an ectotherm encounters an environment warmer than the optimal point, it risks approaching the lethal end of its physiology’s spectrum.



Until recently, little has been known about how – and if – insect ectotherms will adjust their behavior to avoid warmer yet sublethal temperatures in which functioning is possible but not optimal. Now, experts have counted and collected specimens from five different species of ants common in North Carolina and measured air temperatures at the collection sites, as well as the body temperature of the ants themselves. To determine each species’ preferred temperature, they collected some ants and placed them in a rectangular chamber with a controlled temperature gradient.



The analysis revealed that, while ants in the laboratory did have distinct thermal preferences, those in the wild were active in their preferred climates only slightly more often than expected by chance. In fact, most species were collected from warmer than optimal sites, thus suggesting a lack of awareness or some type of limitation in their capacity to adjust to rising temperatures.



“It’s interesting that the worker ants we observed were willing to put themselves in uncomfortable situations while foraging,” said study co-author Sara Prado, a research associate in Zoology at NC State. “I wonder if the food was ‘profitable’ enough for the ants to stretch their comfort levels, or if they are simply willing to sacrifice their well-being for the sake of the colony.”



“Warmer times and places make warmer ants, and they’re not adjusting their activity to match their preferred conditions,” added co-author Elsa Youngsteadt, a professor of Applied Ecology at the same university. “For now, this may be a tradeoff that works out fine for them. But if you think of the huge biomass of ants underfoot, their metabolic rates are all creeping upward as the climate changes. Even if it doesn’t kill them outright, what does that amped-up metabolism mean for their life cycle and even the whole forest ecosystem?”&nbsp;&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists aim to address these questions in the case of urban ants, which are currently living in even warmer temperatures.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13860">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ants are not properly adapting to warming temperatures

A new study led by North Carolina State University has...

Rows,Of,Young,Corn,Plants,On,A,Fertile,Field,With

To solve global issues such as the climate crisis, biodiversity loss, and pollution, humanity will need to move to a circular ecology, where most resources are recycled. According to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1038175">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>, human waste products such as urine and feces may also be used to create products that could act as excellent and safe agricultural fertilizers, since they contain important nutrients, including nitrogen, potassium, boron, zinc, iron, calcium, and magnesium.



“Here we show that products derived from recycling human urine and feces are viable and safe nitrogen fertilizers for cabbage cultivation. The fertilizers from nitrified human urine gave similar yields as a conventional fertilizer product, and did not show any risk regarding transmission of pathogens or pharmaceuticals,” said study lead author Franziska Häfner, a PhD student in Agricultural Sciences at the University of Hohenheim.



“The combined application of nitrified urine fertilizers and fecal compost led to slightly lower crop yields, but may increase soil carbon content in the long term, promoting climate-resilient food production.”



The scientists compared the marketable crop yield of white cabbage grown between June and October 2019 at the Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (IGZ) on plots with sandy, loamy, and silty soil enriched with four recycled fertilizers. As a benchmark fertilizer, they used the commercially available organic vinasse, which is produced through the fermentation of biomass residues from bioethanol production.



Moreover, the researchers also tested two types of “nitrified urine fertilizers” (NUFs) – products synthesized from urine collected separately from feces, such as Aurin or CROP – in which nitrogen-containing compounds are converted by microorganisms in ammonium and nitrate. The effects of NUFs on cabbage growth were assessed both when applied separately to the soil and in combination with fecal compost.



The analysis showed that the marketable yield ranged from 35 to 72 metric tons per hectare, and was highest on plots fertilized by Aurin, CROP, or vinasse, lowest on plots fertilized only by fecal compost, and intermediate for fecal compost augmented with NUFs.



To test the risk of contamination with various products contained in human waste, the scientists screened for the presence of 310 chemicals in the fecal compost, including pharmaceuticals, flame retardants, UV filters, corrosion inhibitors, rubber additives, and insect repellants. They found that only 6.5 percent of such substances were present above the limit of detection, and only the painkiller anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen and the anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug carbamazepine were detectable in the edible parts of the cabbages, at insignificant concentrations (1.05 to 2.8 μg per kg).



“In general, the risk for human health of pharmaceutical compounds entering the food system by means of fecal compost use, seems low,” the authors reported.



“Our study results demonstrate that nitrified urine fertilizers such as Aurin and CROP have a huge potential as fertilizer in agriculture. They argue for a greater use of these recycled products in the future,” said study lead author Ariane Krause, a researcher at IGZ.



“If correctly prepared and quality-controlled, up to 25 percent of conventional synthetic mineral fertilizers in Germany could be replaced by recycling fertilizers from human urine and feces. Combined with an agricultural transition involving the reduction of livestock farming and plant cultivation for fodder, even less synthetic fertilizer would be necessary, resulting for example in lower consumption of fossil natural gas,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Human waste could be used as sustainable fertilizer

To solve global issues such as the climate crisis, biodiversity...

Since the beginning of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-may-trigger-the-deadliest-wave-of-the-covid-19-pandemic/">Covid-19</a> pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 has infected over 600 million people worldwide, resulting in 6.57 million confirmed deaths worldwide - a major underestimate, with studies arguing that this value has already tipped 20 million. Yet, information about factors affecting the probability of infection or experiencing a severe course of the disease remain scarce and often speculative.



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://cuni.cz/uken-1.html">Charles University</a> in the Czech Republic has surveyed over 30,000 internet users, who shared their information about their exposure to 105 risk factors for Covid-19, including behavioral traits such as taking vitamins and supplements, being actively engaged in sports, keeping pets, swimming in cold water, walking in nature, volunteering, singing, or smoking tobacco or marijuana.



The analysis revealed that people who live in larger cities and have a higher level of education, especially women, had a lower risk of infection, while larger household sizes and the number of children were associated with a higher risk of infection. Moreover, people living on their own had a lower chance of catching Covid-19.&nbsp;



Quite surprisingly, active involvement in sports, frequent singing, and cold-water swimming increased the risk of infection, while tobacco smoking and marijuana use (in women) had a relatively strong protective effect on both infection and the development of severe illness. However, the most substantial protective factors appeared to be strict adherence to mask-wearing, as well the consumption of vitamins and supplements, particularly vitamin D.



Yet, the most unexpected result was a positive correlation between the severity of disease and adherence to mask wearing and social distancing. The scientists speculate this is because people with comorbidities (such as diabetes, obesity, or chronic respiratory illnesses) tried hard to avoid infection and adhered more strictly to non-pharmaceutical protective measures such as mask-wearing. However, when they did become infected, they often had a more severe course of the disease due to their underlying health factors.



“This preregistered longitudinal study is of explorative nature. Therefore, although the observed effects were strong and remained highly significant even after correction for multiple tests, it will be necessary to confirm their existence in future independent studies,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biomethods/bpac030">Biology Methods and Protocols</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Study reveals surprising risk factors for Covid-19

Since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 has infected...

Insulin is an essential hormone for humans and many other animals, helping to regulate sugar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-before-breakfast-has-a-negative-impact-on-metabolism/">metabolism</a>. In order to clarify how this process functions, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/home/">Julius Maximilians University of Würzburg</a> (JMU) has used the fruit fly&nbsp;Drosophila melanogaster&nbsp;as a case study.



While this fly also secretes insulin after meals, this hormone does not come from the pancreas as in humans, but is instead released by nerve cells in the brain. By measuring the activity of insulin-producing cells in walking and flying Drosophila, the experts found that physical activity has a strong effect on these cells: when the fly starts to move, its insulin-producing cells are immediately inhibited, whereas when it stops moving, the activity of these cells rapidly increases and rises above normal levels. According to the scientists, the fast, behavior-dependent inhibition of insulin-producing cells is actively controlled by neural pathways.



“We hypothesize that the low activity of insulin-producing cells during walking and flight contributes to the provision of sugars to meet the increased energy demand,” said study lead author Sander Liessem, an expert in Neurobiology and Genetics at JMU. “We suspect that the increased activity after exercise helps to replenish the fly’s energy stores, for example in the muscles.”



The researchers argued that, although the release of insulin in fruit flies is mediated by different cells than in humans, the insulin molecule and its functions have not changed much in the course of evolution. Thus, these findings could contribute to human health too, by highlighting a possible link explaining how physical activity could positively affect insulin regulation via neuronal signaling pathways.



In future studies, the scientists aim to investigate which neurotransmitters and neural circuits are responsible for the activity changes observed in insulin-producing cells in flies, and what other factors – such as the age of the flies or their nutritional states – could have an influence on these cells. Ultimately, the researchers plan to bring these two questions together: how does the brain control movement, and how does the nervous system ensure that the energy balance is regulated accordingly?



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.12.005">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Physical activity curbs insulin production

Insulin is an essential hormone for humans and many other...

According to a new survey study of over 13,000 people across 122 countries, bonding with family members is linked to behaviors that can improve health during crises such as the pandemic. During the first wave of the pandemic, strong social bonds were associated with healthy behaviors like hand washing, mask wearing, and social distancing.



The researchers found that 46 percent of people who had strong family <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-can-ease-stress-among-elephants/">bonds</a> washed hands consistently at the onset of the pandemic, compared to 32 percent who did not have strong connections with their families. In addition, 54 percent of people who lacked close family bonds reported they never wore a mask.&nbsp;



Despite the fact that people with strong family ties constituted only 27 percent of the entire sample, they represented 73 percent of those who engaged in social distancing, 35 percent of those who washed their hands regularly, and 36 percent of those who consistently wore masks.



The analysis also revealed that having strong bonds with both close social circles and more extended groups led to better mental health and wellbeing. Moreover, the larger the number of groups people had stronger bonds with, the higher their engagement in health behaviors and the better their self-reported mental wellbeing. These findings suggest that public health communication should hocus on smaller networks as well as on multiple groups, particularly in times of crisis such as the Covid pandemic.



“This research speaks to the universal need to belong – this is one of the reasons we felt it was so important to include a truly diverse sample from across the globe. Wherever you are in the world, other people matter to you,” said study corresponding author Martha Newson, an anthropologist at the <a href="https://www.kent.ac.uk/">University of Kent</a>.



“We found that having lots of groups was important to encourage better health behaviors, including bonding to abstract groups like your country or government, but most important of all are our closest friends and family - groups that we have likely recognized as being important since the beginning of human history.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“At times of turmoil, such as during disasters, social crises, or pandemics, our social bonds can be key to receiving support. We look out to people we trust and identify with as we decide what course of action to take. That’s why our close bonds with family – the people many of us share significant life events with and learn from – can promote healthy behaviors,” added study lead author Bahar Tunçgenç, a senior lecturer in Psychology at <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/">Nottingham Trent University</a>.



“At the same time, having strong social connections – no matter how abstract or distant these might be – is crucial for promoting mental health. Our research shows that close and extended social bonds offer different sources of support and direction,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add3715">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Strong social bonds promote healthy behaviors

According to a new survey study of over 13,000 people...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> (UT) has provided a first glimpse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/">dinosaur</a> and bird diversity in Patagonia during the Late Cretaceous, before the asteroid strike that wiped-out all the non-avian dinosaurs. The fossils the experts discovered and analyzed represent the first record of theropods – a group of dinosaurs including both modern birds and their non-avian dinosaur relatives – from the Chilean areas of Patagonia. The findings include both giant megaraptors and birds from the group that nowadays includes most modern avian species.



“The fauna of Patagonia leading up to the mass extinction was really diverse,” said study lead author Sarah Davis, who completed this research as part of her doctoral studies in Geosciences at UT. “You’ve got your large theropod carnivores and smaller carnivores as well as these bird groups coexisting alongside other reptiles and small mammals.”



The scientists focused specifically on theropods, with fossils dating from 75 to 66 million years ago. The analysis revealed that in prehistoric Patagonia, two groups of predatory theropods - megaraptors and unenlagiines – were found. While megaraptors reached over 25 feet in length and were among the largest animals in that region, the unelagiines ranged from chicken-size to over ten feet tall and were likely covered in feathers like their close relatives, the velociraptors.



The bird fossils the scientists discovered were also from two different groups - enantiornithines and ornithurines. The former (resembling sparrows but with beaks with teeth) had once been the most abundant birds on Earth, but are now extinct. By contrast, the latter include all modern birds living today.



Some previous studies suggested that the Southern Hemisphere may have faced less extreme or more gradual climatic changes after the asteroid struck 66 million years ago, thus making Patagonia and other regions a refuge for animals that survived the extinction. The new findings could help in investigating this theory by constructing a record of prehistoric life before and after the mass extinction event.



“We still need to know how life made its way in that apocalyptic scenario and gave rise to our southern environments in South America, New Zealand, and Australia,” said co-author Marcelo Leppe, the director of the <a href="https://www.inach.cl/inach/">Chilean Antarctic Institute</a>. “Here theropods are still present — no longer as dinosaurs as imposing as megaraptorids — but as the diverse array of birds found in the forests, swamps, and marshes of Patagonia, and in Antarctica and Australia.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2022.104163">Journal of South American Earth Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fossils highlight dinosaur diversity in prehistoric Patagonia

A new study led by the University of Texas at...

According to a new analyses conducted by <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>, the Earth’s average temperature in 2022 tied with that of 2015 as the fifth warmest on record. As our planet’s climate continues to warm, global temperatures in 2022 were 1.6 degrees Fahrenheit (0.89 Celsius) above the average for NASA’s baseline period (1951-1980).



“This warming trend is alarming,” said NASA Administrator Bill Nelson. “Our warming climate is already making a mark: forest fires are intensifying; hurricanes are getting stronger; droughts are wreaking havoc, and sea levels are rising. NASA is deepening our commitment to do our part in addressing climate change. Our Earth System Observatory will provide state-of-the-art data to support our climate modeling, analysis, and predictions to help humanity confront our planet’s changing climate.”



The analysis revealed that the past nine years were the warmest since modern recordkeeping began in 1880, with the Earth in 2022 being about two degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 Celsius) warmer than in the late 19th century. “The reason for the warming trend is that human activities continue to pump enormous amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and the long-term planetary impacts will also continue,” said Gavin Schmidt, an expert in Climate Modeling at NASA.



After a short-lived dip at the beginning of 2020 – due to Covid-19 related lockdowns – greenhouse gas emissions bounced back, with CO2 emissions reaching their highest levels on record in 2022, and methane emissions continuing to rise alarmingly too. The Arctic is experiencing the strongest warming trends, close to four times the global average.



Communities around the globe are currently experiencing increasingly negative impacts of global warming, such as intensified rainfall and tropical storms, and more severe droughts. If the climate continues to warm at this unprecedented pace, such extreme weather events will become more frequent and their consequences will be more dramatic, endangering not only human populations all around the world, but also a variety of vital ecosystems that sustain our planet. Massive reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, together with a rapid switch to sustainable energy sources, are urgently needed to save our planet from a climate catastrophe.



NASA's&nbsp;full dataset of global surface temperatures&nbsp;through 2022 is available <a href="https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/">here</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 was the fifth warmest year on record

According to a new analyses conducted by NASA, the Earth’s...

Melted,Chocolate,Swirl,Background

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> has recently decoded the physical process which takes place in the mouth when chocolate is eaten, as it changes from a solid into a smooth emulsion that tastes so good to most people. These findings may help develop a new generation of luxury chocolates that will still have the same feel but be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-eating-patterns-reduce-the-risk-of-premature-death/">healthier</a>.



In the moments after the chocolate enters the mouth, the unique, tasty sensation arises from the way the chocolate is lubricated, either from the ingredients in the chocolate itself, or from saliva, or a combination of the two. Fat plays a key role in the first part of this process, after which cocoa particles are released and become more important in terms of tactile sensation. Thus, fat inside the chocolate in fact plays a rather limited role, so it could be reduced without losing the irresistible feel or sensation of chocolate.



&nbsp;“Lubrication science&nbsp;gives mechanistic insights into how food actually feels in the mouth. You can use that knowledge to design food with better taste, texture, or health benefits,” said study senior author Anwesha Sarkar, a professor of Colloids and Surfaces at Leeds.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“If a chocolate has five percent fat or 50 percent fat it will still form droplets in the mouth and that gives you the chocolate sensation. However, it is the location of the fat in the make-up of the chocolate which matters in each stage of lubrication, and that has been rarely researched.&nbsp;We are showing that the fat layer needs to be on the outer layer of the chocolate, this matters the most, followed by effective coating of the cocoa particles by fat, which help to make chocolate feel so good.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists conducted tests using a luxury brand of dark chocolate on an artificial 3D tongue-like surface. Then, through analytical techniques from a field of engineering called tribology – which investigates how surfaces and fluids interact – they discovered that, when chocolate gets into contact with the tongue, it releases a fatty film which makes it feel smooth throughout the entire time it is in the mouth.



“With the understanding of the physical mechanisms that happen as people eat chocolate, we believe that a next generation of chocolate can be developed that offers the feel and sensation of high-fat chocolate yet is a healthier choice,” said study lead author Siavash Soltanahmadi, an expert in Food Science and Nutrition at Leeds.&nbsp;



“Our research opens the possibility that manufacturers can intelligently design dark chocolate to reduce the overall fat content.&nbsp;We believe dark chocolate can be produced in a gradient-layered architecture with fat covering the surface of chocolates and particles to offer the sought after self-indulging experience without adding too much fat inside the body of the chocolate,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c13017">ACS Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces</a>.&nbsp;



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Why eating chocolate feels so good

A team of researchers led by the University of Leeds...

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are considered to be one of the most contaminated cetacean species in the world. Being apex predators and capable of long-range migrations across oceans, these mammals consume prey from many locations in the world. Since toxins are often accumulated up the food chain, killer whale tissues may be a resting place for toxins that have entered the marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-connect-with-the-environment-through-story-writing/">environment</a>, and its organisms, from human activities.&nbsp;



The authors of a new research study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c04126">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>, state that the potential health implications of selected ‘contaminants of emerging concern’ (CECs) and new persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in endangered Southern Resident and threatened Bigg’s (Transient) killer whales in the Northeastern Pacific (NEP) have not yet been documented. They set out to analyze samples of muscle and liver tissue from six individuals of each of these populations that were been stranded on the coast of British Colombia, Canada, between 2006 and 2018.



The researchers discovered that the whale tissue contained an array of chemical pollutants. The most prevalent were the CEC’s known as alkylphenols and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).&nbsp;



Just under half of the total pollutant load identified was derived from a substance called 4-nonylphenol or 4NP. &nbsp;This compound is used in the processing of pulp and paper, as well as in the production of soap, detergents and textiles. It can leak into the ocean via sewage treatment plants and industrial runoffs, where it is ingested by smaller organisms and moves up the food chain to reach top predators such as killer whales. The substance is listed as toxic in Canada, and can interact with the nervous system and influence cognitive function.&nbsp;



“This research is a wake-up call. Southern residents are an endangered population [of killer whales] and it could be that contaminants are contributing to their population decline. We can’t wait to protect this species,” said co-author Dr. Juan José Alava, principal investigator of the ocean pollution research unit at the Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries (IOF).



4NP is a CEC, which means it is a pollutant found in the environment that has, as yet, not been well studied. Because its effects are not yet understood, its use is not strictly regulated or monitored. “Very little is known of both the prevalence and health implications of 4NP as it has been studied in few marine mammals. This study is the first to find 4NP in killer whales,” said first author Kiah Lee, who undertook the research as an undergraduate at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Colombia</a>.



“This investigation is another example of an approach that takes into account the health of people, animals and the environment, using killer whales as a case study to better understand the potential impacts of these and other compounds on animal and ecosystem health,” said study co-author Dr. Stephen Raverty, IOF adjunct professor and veterinary pathologist with the B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food.



The remaining 54 percent of pollutants identified in the killer whale tissues belong to a group of compounds known as ‘forever chemicals’ because they persist in the environment. They are widely used in food-packaging materials, stain and water-repellent fabrics, cookware, and fire extinguishers. Many are listed as new persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These substances are toxic and are released into the environment through human activities, thus adversely affecting the health of humans and animals. Many of them are banned in Canada.



The most common pollutant from this group, present in the whale tissue, was 7:3-fluorotelomer carboxylic acid, or 7:3 FTCA. There are currently no restrictions on the production or use of 7:3 FTCA, but one of its potential parent chemicals is on a list of toxic substances proposed to be recognized as a new POP by the European Chemical Agency, under an international agreement, the Stockholm Convention, on POPs.



“This compound has not been found in B.C. before and it was found in killer whales, which are top predators. That means the contaminants are making their way through the food system,” said Dr. Alava.



In a further aspect of the current research, the scientists analyzed the pollutant content of tissues in a fetus found in one of the dead southern resident females. They found that all the pollutants present in the mother’s tissues were also present in the fetus, implying that all of these compounds are transferred across the placenta. Maternal transfer ratios indicated that 4NP was the most easily transferred contaminant, with a maternal transfer rate as high as 95.1 percent.&nbsp;



The study authors said that although too few killer whales have been screened for CECs and new POPs to infer the magnitude of contamination impact, these results raise concerns regarding pathological implications and potential impacts on fetal development and production of a viable neonate.



The experts encourage governments to help protect the endangered southern resident killer whales, and other marine life, by halting production of the chemicals of concern, including 4NP, and emerging POPs like 7:3 FTCA, as well as identifying and addressing potential sources of marine pollution in B.C. and Canada.



It's not just the killer whales that are affected, said Dr. Alava. “We are mammals, we eat Pacific salmon as well, so we need to think about how this could affect our health as well as other seafood that we consume.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Toxin from toilet paper production found in killer whales

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are considered to be one of...

Tyrannosaurus Rex, a fierce predator that lived in the Cretaceous Period (83.6 to 66 million years ago) has long been thought to be a big, dimwitted brute. However, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a>, T. rex may have been much smarter than scientists previously believed it to be. In fact, this creature’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitual-social-media-checking-affects-adolescent-brain-development/">brain</a> has likely contained enough neurons to potentially allow it to solve complex problems and even form cultures.



“What if the asteroid [which wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago] hadn’t happened? That’s a whole other world that would have been terrifying,” said study author Suzana Herculano-Houzel, a neuroscientist and biologist at Vanderbilt.



Since the soft tissues that make up dinosaurs’ gray matter has not been conserved, Herculano-Houzel looked at T. rex’s bony brain case and compared it to the skeleton of its living relatives: birds. Extrapolating from an examination of the brains of emus and ostriches, she estimated that T. rex’s cerebrum had as many as three billion neurons, which is comparable to a baboon’s brain. In such a case, the dinosaur may have been able to use tools and even pass down acquired knowledge through generations.



Thus, while prior research argued that T. rex was a solitary, dumb beast, these new findings suggest that it may have been a clever social animal working in packs. This is confirmed by other studies that found mass burial sites in Utah and Montana, indicating that the carnivores moved in groups like wolves, as well as by the discovery of other fossils of male therapods guarding clutches of eggs (a social behavior frequently seen in modern birds).&nbsp;



Herculano-Houzel’s investigations hinge on treating theropods as a separate, warm-blooded group of dinosaurs – which may even have had feathers - instead of lumping T. rex and its relatives with all the rest of the dinosaurs. However, further research is needed to unearth more evidence of T. rex’s rich cognitive and social capacities.



“If they were hunters, maybe you find evidence of them hunting in groups, using some sort of social communication,” Herculano-Houzel concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/cne.25453">Journal of Comparative Neurology</a>.&nbsp;



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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T. rex may have had brains and brawn

Tyrannosaurus Rex, a fierce predator that lived in the Cretaceous...

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) is found on the main islands of Japan, except Hokkaido, and is the most northerly occurring non-human primate in the world. In addition, in parts of its range it inhabits sub-alpine regions&nbsp;of the Japanese Alps (elevation 1500–1600&nbsp;m), which become extremely cold and harsh during winters. Since the monkeys have little access to their preferred diet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-and-vegetables-can-reduce-adhd-symptoms/">fruits</a>, seeds, flowers and leaves when snow covers the ground, scientists have wondered what they eat in order to survive.



Previous research involving the DNA analysis of fecal samples from macaques living in Chubu Sangaku National Park during winter revealed evidence not only of the bark and leaves of bamboo (that stand out above the snow), but also of freshwater fish, mollusks and aquatic arthropods. It is very rare for monkeys to eat fish, unless the fish are dead or dying, trapped in receding pools. A research team led by scientists from <a href="https://www.shinshu-u.ac.jp/english/">Shinshu University</a> therefore decided to investigate how and where the macaques are catching fish to supplement their winter diet.&nbsp;



Between mid- and late January, 2022, the researchers entered the Kamikochi area of the Chubu Sangaku National Park in the Japanese Alps on a daily basis. They located troops of monkeys by tracking their footprints in the snow, and then followed them and observed their behavior along the Azusa River. The team used several cameras, including a shoulder-mount camcorder, to record macaque behavior. In this way, they followed three different troops of macaques, one for five days, one for four days and one for three days.&nbsp;



In addition, 12 infrared sensor cameras were set up as trail camera traps to record macaque behavior, for two months from the end of January 2022. The cameras were positioned in three areas – a small wetland and two small, spring-fed streams. The cameras recorded 1,122 instances of macaque behavior, with each recording lasting one minute. The researchers analyzed all photographic footage and divided the different behaviors into categories.&nbsp;



The results, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23799-1">Scientific Reports</a>, identified 14 cases of macaques hunting for actively swimming fish, and then consuming them. Their behavior along the river also included grabbing drifting invertebrates from the surface of the water, turning over pebbles and capturing food from beneath, and feeding on riverine plants. When fishing, a monkey commonly chased a fish into shallow water, where it attempted to hide between the rocks. The monkey then held the fish down in the stream with both hands and grabbed it with the mouth.&nbsp;



The river and associated small streams are supplied with warmer water from many groundwater springs and active volcanoes in the area, such that their waters keep a stable temperature of around 5–6&nbsp;°C, despite the snow and cold conditions. The streams thus flow throughout the winter and are accessible to the monkeys.&nbsp;



The catching and feeding behavior recorded in this study appears to be an extension of existing, documented behaviors of feeding on vegetation that grows above the surface of the snow, as well as on aquatic plant matter. These types of vegetation also often carry insects, a food source that is readily utilized by the macaques. The streams containing aquatic plants are also home to many cold-water salmonids, so it is a small step for the macaques to transition from locating insects in streams to locating fish.&nbsp;



“Video analysis has also shown that, during these behaviors, when the fish are nearby, [the monkeys’] attention is diverted to the fish. We interpreted this sequence of behavior as a pre-adaptation to fish-eating, and that fish-eating behavior may have evolved through these several stages,” said Masaki Takenaka and Koji Tojo, both from the Department of Biology at Shinshu University.



These “pre-adaptations” are the proposed mechanism for the evolution of the novel fish-hunting and eating behaviors observed, hypothesize the authors. They state that the macaques do not choose to eat fish as a preferred food source, but pressures brought about by the harsh winter conditions and the shortage of other suitable foods make this unique fishing behavior a matter of survival.&nbsp;



The researchers now wish to investigate how the fishing behavior is spread between members of the macaque group. Not all of them hunt for fish, or accept fish as a food, as evidenced by the fact that only 20 percent of fecal samples over three winters contained DNA from brown trout.&nbsp;



“Having obtained evidence that Japanese macaques in the Kamikochi area catch and eat live fish, the next step for us in this research was to investigate how these fish-eating behaviors spread within the macaque group," said Tojo. "Is it genetic? Is it a kind of culture that can be transmitted within the group?”&nbsp;



Now, after identifying 200 individuals across four distinct groups, Tojo and the team seek to identify relationships based on these individuals and their fish-seeking (or fish-avoidance) behavior, to see how it may be passed on to other individuals in the group and to future generations.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Japanese snow monkeys have learned to fish for food

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) is found on the main...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...