Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

These days, plant-based alternatives to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-industry-is-not-threatened-by-plant-based-alternatives/">meat</a> can be found on supermarket shelves and freezers, and in restaurants in many places in the world. Vegan burgers, sausages, nuggets, mince and a variety of other food types are common-place and modern biotechnology, food technology, and process engineering makes these products look, taste and smell remarkably similar to their animal counterparts.&nbsp;



However, it remains that proteins from animal muscle are very different from plant proteins and this inevitably impacts the chemical interactions between ingredients as well as some of the physical and mechanical properties once the plant protein enters the mouth.



In&nbsp;research published today by the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a>, scientists from Germany – where consumers can choose from more than 1,200 different types of sausage – investigate the molecular function and effects of vegetable proteins of different origins to identify what makes plant-based meat substitutes different once they are being chewed.&nbsp;



“We use direct comparisons of meat-based, vegetarian with egg white, and pure vegan versions to show the differences in bite, chewing, mouthfeel, bolus formation, and associated enjoyment characteristics of the sausages,” said co-author Thomas A. Vilgis, from the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research.



In particular, the researchers considered differences in tensile strength between the types of sausages. They say that muscle proteins emulsify fats and oils in a very different way to plant proteins and this makes plant-based sausages feel different when we bite and chew them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The ‘crunch’ or ‘crack’ of meat sausages is inevitably different than that of vegan sausages, simply because the molecular properties of the proteins are markedly different,” said Vilgis.



In addition, the researchers also tested the sausages in terms of their rheology (flow of matter), and tribology (friction) while in the mouth. This allowed greater insight into the differences between the three types of sausage than is gained from sensory comparisons alone.&nbsp;



“We're looking much deeper than what is usually done in food technology, by taking into account the molecular properties of ingredients as much as possible,” Vilgis said.



“We are taking a closer look at the proteins as well as the sequence of amino acids, which we understand as a ‘code’ from which we can read certain properties to better understand the behavior of the sausages in the mouth when they are consumed. Thus, fundamental differences in the molecular structure and mouthfeel become immediately apparent.”



Building on the authors’ previous research of soft matter theory and theoretical polymer physics, the study represents an entirely new approach to experimental food science.



“We're working directly at the interface between basic science and technological application,” said Vilgis. “With these methods, it is possible to make predictions in how the physical properties of an alternative sausage can be improved – and make targeted developments.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Who says there’s no difference between meat and plant-based sausages?

These days, plant-based alternatives to meat can be found on...

Although medical advances are causing an increase in average life expectancy, the human brain begins to perform worse with age. At the neuronal level, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-reverse-the-aging-process-in-middle-aged-mice/">aging</a> manifests itself through anatomical changes in the grey and white matter in specific brain regions, while at the cognitive level, short- and long-term memory deteriorates, information-processing speed decreases, and control over linguistic, visuospatial, and executive skills declines.&nbsp;



However, the speed of aging varies, depending upon a person’s cognitive reserve – the brain’s ability to maintain optimal performance while coping with age-related changes. This reserve is built up over the course of life, as the brain strengthens various neural networks in response to different stimuli.&nbsp;



According to previous studies, the more complex these neural networks are, the greater a person’s cognitive reserve and thus capacity to cope with aging. While it is already well-known that cognitive reserve is influenced by various factors, such as physical activity, nutrition, level of education, career path, or socio-economic status, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.hse.ru/en/">HSE University</a> in Russia and <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/">Northumbria University</a> in the UK has found for the first time that bilingualism is another strongly beneficial factor for cognitive reserve, and could help slow down and mitigate the course of age-related changes in the brain.



By conducting an experiment that measured the speed of cognitive functioning of 63 healthy older adults (aged 60 or above), the scientists found that the more fluent the participants were in a second language, the faster they were in solving the tasks they were presented with.



“Unlike other factors that shape cognitive reserve, bilingualism is unique in that it is constantly present in our lives. We can take up and give up physical exercise, go on one diet or another, or change jobs, but language remains with us all the time. We communicate, watch movies, and read books, and the language centers are constantly working in our mind,” explained study lead author Federico Gallo, a Junior Research Fellow at HSE.&nbsp;



“We witnessed an interesting phenomenon in this experiment: with a high level of language proficiency, the correlation between successful conflict resolution and other components of cognitive reserve disappeared. This suggests that bilingualism’s benefits on cognitive reserve might be stronger than those of other known factors.”



According to Dr. Gallo and his colleagues, proficiency in two or more languages improves brain functioning not only in healthy people, but also in those with various neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, bilingualism seems to improve not only the executive functioning of the brain, but also episodic, working, and semantic memory, together with overall intelligence.



“There are no really effective drugs available today to prevent or slow down brain ageing. It takes enormous financial resources to develop pharmaceutical treatments. Therefore, finding and researching alternative, non-drug ways to slow down cognitive ageing should become a priority in science. In the long term, we plan to study how the benefits of bilingualism on ageing may vary with different language pairs,” Dr. Gallo concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780261/full#B42">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Speaking multiple languages slows down brain aging

Although medical advances are causing an increase in average life...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> and <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/">Macquarie University</a> in Australia has found that sharks’ response to the smell of food declined if not sufficiently rewarded by the promise of eating. These findings suggest that sharks can learn to avoid wasting time and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-burn-energy-during-speedy-swims-for-survival/">energy</a> on food sources that are inaccessible. Since wildlife tourism often uses food or smell to attract sharks to the proximity of visitors, understanding sharks’ habituation to food-related olfactory cues is necessary to help this type of tourism run smoothly.



The scientists used three groups of captive Port Jackson sharks to study their response to smell across different reward frequencies. While the first group was rewarded with food each time they reached a target and the second one was rewarded every other day, the third one was never rewarded.&nbsp;



The sharks that were always rewarded learned quickly the task and became faster and better at reaching the target. In the case of the un-rewarded sharks though, the scientists observed a reduction of their natural response to the smell of potential food, with some sharks not even leaving their starting position after a few trials.



“Our study revealed that while shark behavior can change when frequently rewarded with food, the learnt response diminishes when reward frequency is decreased and even disappears when no reward is provided,” said study lead author Dennis Heinrich, a recent PhD graduate from Flinders University.



“The observed decline in response to a repeated stimulus, or habituation, may act as a driver of optimal foraging strategies, enabling sharks to quickly abandon low-yielding foraging patches in search of more productive sites.”



In future research, the scientists want to test these findings with species that are more commonly targeted by wildlife tourism, such as white sharks, and investigate whether habituation can be detected at tourist locations.



“The knowledge gained from this study can help account for learnt behaviors and habituation when managing wildlife tourism moving forward,” said study senior author Charlie Huvenaars, a marine biologist at Flinders University. “A balance needs to be found between attracting sharks for tourism purposes and minimizing behavioral response and possible learnt behaviors.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000334722200063X?via%3Dihub">Animal Behavior</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sharks learn to stop wasting time on prey they can't catch

A new study led by Flinders University and Macquarie University...

Headaches are a common human affliction that affect people all over the world. They can be debilitating and result in loss of function in some people. But there are several different types of headaches and the causes are often not well understood. In addition, the methodology used to study headache prevalence has varied considerably in the past, which makes it challenging to estimate the global incidence of headache episodes.&nbsp;



In recent research, scientists from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) reviewed 357 publications, published between 1961 and the end of 2020, in an effort to estimate the global prevalence of headaches. The majority of publications considered in the review reported on headache incidence in adults between 20 and 65, but some also included adolescents and children down to the age of five, as well as elderly people over the age of 65.&nbsp;



Lars Jacob Stovner, professor of neurology at NTNU, and colleagues, quantified the differences in methods between the studies they reviewed. For example, while most studies reported headache prevalence in participants during the past year, some considered headache occurrence across the whole lifetime. And yet others reported headache prevalence over much shorter time periods, even within the previous day only. The researchers modelled these differences in methods and assessed how they may have impacted estimates in headache prevalence.



Based on the 357 publications reviewed, the authors estimate that 52 percent of the global population experience a headache disorder within a given year, with 14 percent reporting a migraine, 26 percent reporting a tension-type headache and 4.6 percent reporting a headache for 15 or more days per month. From the 12 studies that reported whether participants had experienced a headache the previous day, the authors estimate that 15.8 percent of the world’s population have a headache on any given day, and almost half of those individuals (7 percent) report having a migraine.



“We found that the prevalence of headache disorders remains high worldwide and the burden of different types may impact many," said study lead author Lars Jacob Stovner. "We should endeavor to reduce this burden through prevention and better treatment. To measure the effect of such efforts, we must be able to monitor prevalence and burden in societies. Our study helps us understand how to improve our methods.”



Further findings from the study, published today in <a href="https://thejournalofheadacheandpain.biomedcentral.com/">The Journal of Headache and Pain</a>, include the fact that all types of headaches were more common in females than males, most markedly for migraines (17 percent in females compared to 8.6 percent in males) and headaches that lasted for 15 or more days per month (6 percent in females compared to 2.9 percent in males).



When trying to interpret the effects that study methods had on headache estimates, the researchers calculated the amount of variation in migraine prevalence that was explained by various methodological factors, such as screening questions, sample size, publication year, and how diagnostic criteria were applied. These variables explained a total of 29.9 percent of the differences in migraine estimates and even less for other headache disorders. This suggests that there may be other methodological factors accounting for the greater variations across the studies.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the researchers found that year of publication accounted for six percent of the variation in headache estimates, with more recent studies being associated with higher estimates of headache prevalence. The publication year did not account for the variation in other headache types, leading the authors to propose that this might reflect a real increase in migraine occurrence over the past three to four decades. Alternatively, this finding could indicate that the diagnosis of migraines has improved during this time.&nbsp;



The study authors acknowledge that the majority of studies they reviewed came from high-income countries with good healthcare systems so the findings may not reflect the situation in all countries. Further investigation into the situation in middle and low-income countries would help present a more accurate global estimate. However, the authors did use a wide range of studies for their review, thus obtaining data from as many countries as possible. These studies sampled participants within and outside of clinical settings, including employees of a company, university students and hospital staff, amongst others.



“Compared to our previous report and global estimates, the data does suggest that headache and migraine rates may be increasing," said Lars Jacob Stovner. "However, given that we could explain only 30 percent or less of the variation in headache estimates with the measures we looked at, it would be premature to conclude headaches are definitively increasing. What is clear is that overall, headache disorders are highly prevalent worldwide and can be a high burden. It may also be of interest in future to analyze the different causes of headaches that varied across groups to target prevention and treatment more effectively.”



The researchers conclude that this study provides a baseline for how to estimate headache rates across the world and future research could build on this to improve methods for measuring the success of interventions and treatment.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Headaches impact more than 50 percent of people

Headaches are a common human affliction that affect people all...

With the transition to green energy becoming ever more pressing, countries are looking to expand their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-energy-create-jobs-coal/">renewable energy</a> infrastructure in order to meet future energy requirements. In Europe and northern Africa, this means the establishment of many more onshore wind turbines and electrical power cables to connect them to the grid. Such developments are essential in order to prevent runaway climate change, but may prove disastrous for populations of birds that risk collisions with this infrastructure.



New research led by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) has used GPS location data from 65 bird tracking studies in order to identify the locations where birds fly more often at danger height and would therefore be at increased risk of colliding with wind turbines and power lines. They also assessed the locations of planned green energy infrastructure developments and identified potential collision hotspots where birds may be at increased risk of destruction.



The results, published today in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>, show that areas where birds are most vulnerable to collisions are particularly concentrated within important migration routes, along coastlines and near breeding locations. There was a high movement of individuals through the bottlenecks of the European-African Flyway, such as southern Iberia, as well as Sinai, the Gulf of Iskenderun and the Bosporus in Turkey. In addition, movement hotspots included the western Mediterranean coast of France and the Moroccan coast – around the Strait of Gibraltar – eastern Romania, and the Baltic coast of Germany.



The GPS location and altitude data that the researchers used related to 1,454 birds from 27 different species. &nbsp;Dangerous heights for flying were considered to be 10–60 meters above ground for collision with power lines and 15-135 meters for wind turbines. The data showed that the risk of collision varied between species, with the large, soaring birds being most vulnerable. Species such as the Eurasian spoonbill, European eagle owl, whooper swan, Iberian imperial eagle and white stork were among those that fly consistently at heights where they risk collision.



The authors produced vulnerability maps identifying probable collision hotspots where birds would be more sensitive to onshore wind turbine or power line development. They say that the development of new wind turbines and transmission power lines should be minimized in these areas, and that if new energy infrastructure is developed there, it will need to take into account mitigation factors to reduce the risks to birds.



“We know from previous research that there are many more suitable locations to build wind turbines than we need in order to meet our clean energy targets up to 2050,” said Jethro Gauld, lead author and PhD researcher in UEA’s School of Environmental Sciences.



“If we can do a better job of assessing risks to biodiversity, such as collision risk for birds, into the planning process at an early stage we can help limit the impact of these developments on wildlife while still achieving our climate targets.”



“Our results will help achieve this and in doing so provide better outcomes for people and wildlife.”



Dr Aldina Franco, the project supervisor at UEA,&nbsp;said: “This collaborative study, including research from 51 researchers and 15 countries, is a great example of where working together can start to answer some of the big questions around the threats that African-Eurasian migrants face on their long annual journeys.”



According to Phil Atkinson, project supervisor&nbsp;from the British Trust for Ornithology, the use of high precision GPS devices allow experts to study birds’ movements in huge detail. "Birds do not respect country boundaries, and power lines and wind turbines impact migratory birds across their annual cycle, especially for large soaring birds such as raptors and storks.”



In the second phase of their study, the researchers overlaid their vulnerability maps derived from bird behavioral data on the locations of existing energy infrastructure to identify areas where birds are most exposed to current collision risks with wind turbines and power lines.&nbsp;



“Our maps can also help target measures to reduce risks where previously built developments are already causing problems," said Gauld. "They highlight the areas where existing energy infrastructure is already providing a source of collision risk for these birds. It is therefore a key conservation priority for additional measures to reduce collision risk are implemented in these vulnerability hotspots.”



“Such measures can include marking power lines to make them more visible, and implementing systems to allow shutdown of wind turbines during periods of high bird traffic."



The transition to zero carbon energy will necessitate the construction of many new windfarms in the near future. For example, European onshore wind energy capacity is projected to grow nearly fourfold by 2050, and countries in the Middle East and North Africa, such as Morocco and Tunisia, also have their targets to increase the share of electricity supply from onshore wind. In addition to this, there will be a huge investment in new high voltage power lines, with an estimated fivefold increase in transmission capacity required between 2010 and 2050.&nbsp;



Although these developments are essential, they will pose a challenge to wildlife, particularly birds and bats that fly at danger heights and are at risk of collision and electrocution. The researchers hope the study provides a method which other researchers and practitioners involved in environmental impact assessments for renewables can replicate as more data from tracking studies becomes available.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds threatened by collisions with green energy infrastructure

With the transition to green energy becoming ever more pressing,...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.sfn.org/">Society for Neuroscience</a>, experts have discovered that the strength of a specific brain circuit predicts a child’s ability to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-are-dying-in-alarming-numbers/">numbers</a>. Training programs designed to target this brain circuit may improve math learning for children across a range of abilities, according to the researchers.



The intraparietal sulcus (IPS), located on the lateral surface of the parietal lobe, was known to play a a role in number processing, yet the circuit's involvement in learning number sense was not known.



"Mathematical skill development relies on number sense, the ability to discriminate between quantities," explained study lead author Dr. Hyesang Chang of Stanford University.



The experts conducted a four-week training program which involved mapping symbols to the amounts they represent. During the training, the researchers studied synchronized activity between the hippocampus and other brain regions in nearly 100 children between the ages of seven and ten.



The brain scans revealed that connectivity between the hippocampus and the IPS before training predicted a child's ability to learn number sense. The children with more synchronized activity in this brain circuit were able to learn more during the course.



"Our integrated number sense training program was effective in children across a wide a range of math abilities, including children with learning difficulties," said Dr. Chang. "We identify hippocampal-parietal circuits that predict individual differences in learning gains."



"Our study identifies a novel brain circuit predictive of the acquistion of foundational number sense skills and delineates a robust target for effective interventions and monitoring response to cognitive training."



According to Dr. Chang, number sense in early childhood is predictive of academic and professional success, and deficits are thought to underlie lifelong impairments in mathematical abilities.



"Despite its importance, the brain circuit mechanisms that support number sense learning remain poorly understood."



"Here, we designed a theoretically motivated training program to determine brain circuit mechanisms underlying foundational number sense learning in female and male elementary school-aged children."



"Our four-week integrative number sense training program gradually strengthened the understanding of the relations between symbolic Arabic numerals and non-symbolic representations of quantity."



"Crucially, the strength of pre-training functional connectivity between the hippocampus and intraparietal sulcus, brain regions implicated in associative learning and quantity discrimination, respectively, predicted individual differences in number sense learning across typically developing children and children with learning difficulties."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/">JNeurosci</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain circuit strength predicts math learning ability in children

In a new study from the Society for Neuroscience, experts...

Climate variability may not have served as one of the biggest drivers of human and mammal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-eyes-catch-a-glimpse-of-evolutionary-history/">evolution</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>.&nbsp;



The researchers compared environmental data and fossil records of large mammals that lived across Africa during the last four million years. The results contradict the long-standing theory that climate shifts repeatedly prompted evolutionary changes in early humans and other mammals.&nbsp;



The Plio-Pleistocene is a period in Earth's history that spans the last five million years, including the last ice age about 20,000 years ago.&nbsp;



Over this time period, the researchers observed a long-term trend of increasing environmental variability across Africa. However, this variation did not strongly correspond with rates of species origination or extinction, indicating that environmental variability and species turnover are not closely related.&nbsp;



According to study first author Professor Andrew Cohen, the idea that long-term trends toward a wetter or drier climate may have been a driver of human evolution goes back to the time of Charles Darwin. In the late 1990s, a new theory was introduced - the influential variability selection hypothesis.



"The idea here is that it's not just the direction of climate change that was important as a driver for evolutionary novelty in the hominin lineage, but the variability in the environmental and climate conditions," explained Professor Cohen. "As our ancestors faced rapidly shifting conditions, this hypothesis suggests they had to be more resourceful and capable of dealing with many different contingencies, which, in turn, led to new species appearing while others went extinct."



While the study authors acknowledge that the variability selection hypothesis could still be correct but operating at different scales, they hope to encourage the scientific community to think about the variability selection hypothesis in a more critical way - "rather than just accepting it as an underlying principle of how we look at the fossil record in Africa, and especially the human fossil record," said Professor Cohen.



"We don't say that environmental variability is not important for human evolution, but the data we have currently compiled is very inconsistent with that idea."



"If environmental variability was as important as it has been made out to be, we would expect to see that long-term trend of increasing variability mirrored in evolutionary turnover in all kinds of species, including hominins, but we just don't see that."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate variability may not be strongly linked to human evolution

Climate variability may not have served as one of the...

Interoception refers to the ability of sensing the internal state of one’s body, such as observing when the heart starts racing or breathing quickens. Since impaired interoceptive awareness is linked to decreased capacity to regulate emotions and increased susceptibility to mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression, or even to neurodegenerative diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-build-a-supermolecule-that-may-treat-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a>, understanding its ontogenetic and phylogenetic origins is crucial for future psychologic and neuropsychiatric research.&nbsp;



Now, a study led by the <a href="https://cnprc.ucdavis.edu/">California National Primate Research Center</a> at the University of California, Davis has found the first clear evidence of interoception in the animal kingdom: rhesus monkeys seem to be able to perceive and monitor their own heartbeats.



“Interoception is hugely important for emotion regulation and mental health in adults, and yet we know very little about how it develops in early infancy or comes to be across evolutionary time,” said study co-author Manos Tsakiris, a professor of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.royalholloway.ac.uk/">Royal Holloway, University of London</a>. “The work we present here represents a first successful attempt to fill these gaps.”&nbsp;



Professor Tsakiris and his colleagues monitored four rhesus monkeys which were placed in front of an infrared eye tracker that bounced and generated a sound either synchronous or asynchronous with the monkeys’ heartbeats. All the monkeys spent more time observing the stimuli presented out of rhythm with their heartbeat, suggesting that they were conscious of their own heartbeats and were thus surprised by the out-of-sync stimuli. These results match those from similar experiments performed on human infants, and provide the first behavioral evidence that rhesus monkeys have a well-developed interoceptive sense.



“This model will be used in future translational studies of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s,” said study lead author Eliza Bliss-Moreau, an associate professor of Psychology at UC Davis. “If we can measure interoception, we can track it as a behavioral biomarker of disease progression.”&nbsp;



Further research is needed to study the mechanisms of interoception in other animals and clarify the extent to which disruption in animals’ ability to sense their internal states could also be linked to neurological and psychiatric disorders.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2119868119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rhesus monkeys can sense their own heartbeat

Interoception refers to the ability of sensing the internal state...

Agriculture will play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-hit-a-new-record-in-2021/">emissions</a> and limiting global warming, according to the latest report by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.



Professor Brent Sohngen of <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> was the lead author of the IPCC report’s section on agriculture. This portion of the document, which spanned about 130 pages, explains how agriculture, forests, and related land use can contribute to both climate change and climate mitigation.



“The key message is that there are a lot of actions in the agricultural land-use sectors that people around the world can undertake to mitigate climate change,” said Professor Sohngen, who has worked with the IPCC since the late 1990s.



Agriculture and land use changes such as deforestation account for about 22 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions. If these numbers could be reduced, either by curbing deforestation or turning to alternative biofuels, between 9 and 11 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year could be mitigated, explained Professor Sohngen.



The IPCC report warns that if people and governments do not begin to take climate warnings seriously, global warming could soon become twice as catastrophic as it is now. The document states that while many nations have previously promised to limit warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, it will take real change - not political promises - to ensure humanity does not waste its last chance.



Experts from more than 165 countries reviewed over 18,000 scientific papers to compile the IPCC report. They found some good news in the fact that the key technologies and policies needed to limit global warming already exist. According to the researchers, solar and wind power are some of the best ways we have to combat climate change.&nbsp;



“Now there are more options and more ways for people to get involved in mitigating climate change that are within the realm of being cost effective,” said Professor Sohngen. “Part of the reason why people are more optimistic about this report is because we’ve actually made progress on reducing emissions through mitigation actions.”



“The scientific literature suggests that if we do want to stay under the 1.5 degree target, we have to really scale up financing. We’ve estimated that about $50 to $250 billion per year over the next decade is needed to achieve some of the goals in the land-use sector for mitigation.”



Professor Sohngen said that he’s optimistic about how the public will respond to the report.&nbsp;



“There’s undoubtedly some approaches to climate change that we’re not thinking about now that hopefully, the next generation of scientists will think about in the future. I think that this report is an opportunity for people to study and to develop new methods, and better solutions to the climate crisis.”



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Agriculture could play a key role in limiting global warming

Agriculture will play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas...

Non-native lionfish have become increasingly common in parts of the Mediterranean. Growing numbers of lionfish threaten local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> by dominating native fish species and disrupting food chains.&nbsp;



In a new study from the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a>, experts have developed a plan to help communities minimize the impact of lionfish in the Mediterranean Sea.



Lionfish were first spotted in the Mediterranean in 2012 off the coast of the Lebanon. Since that time, there have been sightings as far west as Sicily, and as far north as the Adriatic Sea near Croatia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



A major expansion of the Suez Canal in 2015, which deepened the main waterway, further facilitated the invasion of lionfish in the Mediterranean.



The researchers said that increasing lionfish densities – combined with the species’ generalist diet and consumption of ecologically and socio-economically important fish – has the potential to result in further disruption of an already stressed marine environment.



Now, the team has published a Guide to Lionfish Management in the Mediterranean, which features a series of recommendations that could help manage lionfish populations.



For example, the experts advise that a supply chain could be created between fishers, markets, and consumers to make lionfish a component of the region’s fishing industry.



The researchers are also calling for legal changes to permit lionfish removals across the Mediterranean, and for the species to be included on the European Union list of invasive species of concern.



“The lionfish invasion is the fastest ever reported in the Mediterranean Sea. Our research has shown that between 2018-2020 alone, there was a 400% increase in the numbers of lionfish in areas off Cyprus where fishing was restricted within Marine Protected Areas," said Professor Jason Hall-Spencer. "However, we have also seen there is both an understanding within communities of the need for action, and a willingness to get involved.&nbsp;



"The Mediterranean Sea’s lionfish populations are unlikely to be eradicated, and our changing climate and warming ocean means they are in fact more likely to spread further. Only through improvements to the biosecurity of the Suez Canal can we avoid more and more invasive species flooding into the Mediterranean Sea.”



The Guide has been endorsed by HSH the Sovereign Prince Albert II of Monaco. The Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation works to protect the environment and promote sustainable development.



Writing in the Guide’s foreword, the Prince said: “The proliferation of the lionfish in the Mediterranean is a major threat to our sea’s ecosystems. That is why it is important to do all we can to prevent, inhibit and limit it. This is what the solutions presented in this Guide very effectively set out, based on both sound scientific expertise and conclusive feedback.”



The research was funded by the <a href="https://european-union.europa.eu/index_en">European Union</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lionfish invasion is the fastest ever reported in the Mediterranean

Non-native lionfish have become increasingly common in parts of the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF) and <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-can-safely-treat-mental-health-disorders/">psilocybin</a> – the active compound found in magic mushrooms - fosters greater connectivity between different regions of the brains in depressed individuals. This frees individuals from ingrained patterns of self-focus and excessive rumination, and thus significantly alleviates their symptoms of depression.



The study comprised of nearly 60 people who had participated in two psilocybin trials. In the first one, all of the participants had treatment-resistant depression and knew that they were given psilocybin. In the second one, the participants were depressed, but not as severely as those in the first cohort, and they were not told whether they were given psilocybin or an antidepressant called escitalopram.



The researchers performed fMRI scans of the participants’ brains, and noticed that the psilocybin treatment helped reduce connections within brain areas which are tightly connected in depression, and increase connections to other regions of the brain that are not well integrated in patients with chronic depression. Participants on psilocybin have also shown improved cognitive functioning and appeared to be less emotionally avoidant as before. These changes lasted at least until the end of the observation period, almost three weeks after a second psilocybin dose. No such changes were found in the brains of those who took escitalopram, suggesting that psilocybin acts differently on the brain than common antidepressants.&nbsp;



Psilocybin and other serotonergic psychedelics such as ayahuasca affect 5-HT2A receptors, which are numerous in brain areas that become overactive in depression. According to the scientists, psychedelic drugs may briefly disrupt these connections, and help rewire the brain in new ways in the days and weeks after treatment.



“In previous studies we had seen a similar effect in the brain when people were scanned whilst on a psychedelic, but here we’re seeing it weeks after treatment for depression, which suggests a carry-over of the acute drug action,” said study senior author Robin Carhart-Harris, the director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://urldefense.com/v3/__https:/u7061146.ct.sendgrid.net/ls/click?upn=4tNED-2FM8iDZJQyQ53jATUc5LV6xmdjlu4kjOmPya1BBNWgCSFrmapx50Dp5Vwi9y79HedMZU-2B6BcrYQNXRV0kQ-3D-3DNfw4_-2B8U3saH9uHKGZR0jGbnM48xs9UKOGr0-2Bs51-2Byf3OYxWbALGeyg62AFeErK6qQy2Zg3SWdKNIQd90HGY7deh4qSTwEwRJz9grjEztoSQB124NBGw18zQNWQYBUhusWkvKDmOiyAD8kssD8TLxklF3ttL-2FNU7oiFJo-2BdZmvFAThrzku5Plujt-2Bx1VDtUMkkSa6I1R8ZGNKfU-2FoMAT5iB5zkll5NpxmyW6yRhLo4uofTnN3qotllzM0kw3ogQbqe59540NLWgwlF1jVnBQNFwZbBVQsss-2Bymg-2BfeJ4l7ZXtK9IQo4m4Mn1cdyMVCMRmG6LG45EcaCXBzOpxsYPwmPBM-2F3ICIW-2BBLhLwRyJyCviBScY-3D__;!!LQC6Cpwp!6VjNgc6Ka4L4qUM6SMDUdghS144vfH4p9kq_c7ZZYo0H4bam_to6fLQ1gl4e-KigaQ8SRA$">Neuroscape Psychedelics Division</a>&nbsp;at UCSF.



“We don’t yet know how long the changes in brain activity seen with psilocybin therapy last, and we need to do more research to understand this. We do know that some people relapse, and it may be that after a while their brains revert to the rigid patterns of activity we see in depression.”



While these findings are generally encouraging, scientists claim that patients with depression should not attempt to self-medicate with hallucinogenic mushrooms. The treatment should take place under controlled, clinical conditions, using fixed dosages, and involving appropriate psychological support before, during, and after taking the psychoactive drugs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nm/">Nature Medicine</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Psilocybin can treat depression by restructuring the brain

A new study led by the University of California, San...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a> has identified certain personality traits that are linked with higher levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/">cognitive</a> functioning later in life.&nbsp;



The experts report that individuals who are organized with more self-discipline are less likely to develop mild cognitive impairment as older adults. On the other hand, people who are emotionally unstable are more likely to experience cognitive decline.



The research was focused on the “Big Five” personality traits, including conscientiousness, neuroticism and extraversion. The experts wanted to investigate the role that these traits play in cognitive functioning later in life.



“Personality traits reflect relatively enduring patterns of thinking and behaving, which may cumulatively affect engagement in healthy and unhealthy behaviors and thought patterns across the lifespan,” said study lead author Dr. Tomiko Yoneda of the University of Victoria.&nbsp;



“The accumulation of lifelong experiences may then contribute to susceptibility of particular diseases or disorders, such as mild cognitive impairment, or contribute to individual differences in the ability to withstand age-related neurological changes.”



Individuals who are more responsible, organized, hard-working and goal-oriented tend to have higher scores in conscientiousness. People who struggle with mood swings, anxiety, depression, self-doubt and other negative feelings often score high on neuroticism.



Extraverts are individuals who are energized by social engagement. According to Dr. Yoneda, extraverts tend to be enthusiastic, gregarious, talkative and assertive.



To examine the relationship between personality traits and cognitive impairment, the researchers analyzed data from nearly 2,000 participants in the Rush Memory and Aging Project. These participants had received a personality assessment and annual assessments of their cognitive abilities.



The analysis showed that individuals who scored high on conscientiousness or low in neuroticism were substantially less likely to develop cognitive impairment over the course of the study.



“Scoring approximately six more points on a conscientiousness scale ranging 0 to 48 was associated with a 22 percent decreased risk of transitioning from normal cognitive functioning to mild cognitive impairment,” said Dr. Yoneda. “Additionally, scoring approximately seven more points on a neuroticism scale of 0 to 48 was associated with a 12 percent increased risk of transition.”



The experts also found that participants who scored high on extraversion tended to maintain normal cognitive functioning longer than others.



In particular, 80-year-old participants who were high in conscientiousness were estimated to live nearly two years longer without cognitive impairment. Extraversion was associated with healthy cognition for approximately one extra year, while high neuroticism was associated with at least one less year of healthy cognitive functioning.&nbsp;



Furthermore, individuals lower in neuroticism and higher in extraversion were found to be more likely to recover to normal cognitive function after receiving a previous diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment. This suggests that some personality traits are protective even after an individual starts to progress to dementia.&nbsp;



The findings highlight the harms associated with the long-term experience of perceived stress and emotional instability, said Dr. Yoneda. He noted that the results on extraversion may be indicative of the benefits of social interaction for improving cognitive outcomes.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Certain personality traits protect cognitive function in late life

A new study published by the American Psychological Association has...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...