Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Macro,Close,Up,Of,Fresh,Steamed,Blue,Sea,Mussels.

New research from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has found further evidence of microplastics in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/">food chain</a>.&nbsp;In southern Australia’s most popular and remote beaches, microplastics were found in blue mussels and the surrounding water. 



The research team considers this a warning that our food chains are now polluted with plastic waste. From wild-caught fish and ocean-farmed seafood, microplastics are polluting the Southern Ocean and gulf waters of South Australia.



The world’s oceans are littered with plastic waste that breaks down into smaller fragments, known as microplastics. The highest concentration of microplastics have been reported in the shallow sea floor in the Maldives and lowest reported in the surface waters of the Antarctic Southern Ocean.



To measure concentrations of microplastics, the researchers analyzed samples from 10 beaches in South Australia's coastline. These areas are important for shipping, fishing and tourism, along with other industries and local communities.



The results showed that microplastic concentrations in the intertidal water are low to moderate compared to global levels. Microplastic concentrations in mussels are also within the range reported globally.&nbsp;



Blue mussels were studied because they are directly affected by ecosystem conditions. This allowed the research team to investigate the types of pollution that are affecting the local environment, “and single use plastics was the main offender” said study senior author Professor Burke da Silva.



Microplastics are usually abundant in mussel samples near large towns and cities. The experts found that concentration levels were four times higher at Semaphore Beach compared to the more remote beaches.



“By investigating microplastic load in the mussel, we call attention to the implications of microplastic pollution on South Australia’s unique marine ecosystems and on the local human food chain,” said study first author Janet Klein.



The types of plastics found in these beaches were synthetic, suggesting they came from single-use, short-life cycle products, fabrics, ropes and cordage from the fishing industry.&nbsp;



“The areas examined include some biodiversity hotspots of global significance – including the breeding ground of the Great Cuttlefish in the Northern Spencer Gulf and marine ecosystems more diverse than the Great Barrier Reef (such as Coffin Bay), so cleanup and prevention measures are long overdue,” said Professor da Silva.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Apart from the harvesting of blue mussels, we also need to consider the impact of microplastic particles entering other parts of the human food chain with microplastic pollution expected to increase in the future.”



The findings demonstrate the urgent need to prevent plastic pollution. The research team concludes that this can only be done by working with the industries that produce these products, local communities, and government to best protect our ocean ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study confirms: microplastics have entered our food chain

New research from Flinders University has found further evidence of...

Vaccine,Against,Coronavirus,For,Kids,During,Outbreak,Concept.,Little,Girl

A new study published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2202826">New England Journal of Medicine</a> has evaluated the effectiveness of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pfizer-antibodies-decline-faster-than-those-induced-by-moderna/">Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine</a> in children ages 5-11 during the Omicron wave, and in adolescents ages 12-18 during both the Delta and the Omicron periods. The scientists found that vaccination with a primary series of Pfizer shots reduced the risk of COVID-19-related hospitalizations in children by two-thirds during the Omicron wave. 



Among vaccinated adolescents, protection against hospitalization was lower during the Omicron period than during the Delta period (as it happened in the case of adults too). However, levels of protection against highly severe cases remained high in vaccinated adolescents during both waves.



“Our study results are reassuring that COVID-19 vaccination in eligible children and adolescents continues to protect against the most severe outcomes associated with COVID-19, regardless of variant type,” said study co-author Bria Coates, a critical care physician at the <a href="https://www.luriechildrens.org/">Ann &amp; Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago</a> and assistant professor of Pediatrics at Northwestern University.&nbsp;



“It is difficult to predict whether the vaccine will be as effective against the current subvariant of Omicron, but most likely the level of protection would be similar. Our results reinforce the importance of COVID-19 vaccination, including receiving a booster dose for those ages 12 years and older, to protect against critical illness.”



According to Dr. Coates and her colleagues, during the Omicron period (December 19, 2021 – February 17, 2022), vaccination reduced the risk of hospitalization by 68 percent in children between 5 and 11. Since vaccination for this age group was not available during the Delta period, no comparative studies could be performed. 



However, for adolescents ages 12-18, protection against hospitalization declined from 92 percent during the Delta period (July 1, 2021 - December 18, 2021) to only 40 percent during the Omicron wave. Yet, protection against critical cases of COVID-19, requiring life-supporting interventions, remained high for adolescents during both Delta (96 percent) and Omicron (79 percent).



During the Delta period, protection against hospitalization in adolescents remained consistent for over six months after receipt of a primary vaccination series. Although they were lower, the levels of protection against Omicron also stayed consistent over time after vaccination.



“This consistency in vaccine effectiveness during each variant suggests that the decline in protection among adolescents between the Delta and Omicron periods might be because the Omicron variant is more likely to escape control by the immune system, rather than waning immunity since vaccination,” explained Dr. Coates. “However, more data are needed to answer this question.”&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pfizer protects children and adolescents against severe COVID

A new study published in the&nbsp;New England Journal of Medicine...

A team of paleontologists led by the <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/">Swinburne University of Technology</a> in Melbourne has recently described the smallest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauropod-dinosaurs-lived-only-in-earths-warmer-regions/">sauropod</a> dinosaur ever discovered in Australia. Measuring 11 meters in length and weighting about 4.2 tons at its time of death, the juvenile Diamantinasaurus matildae, nicknamed “Ollie,” is the third of its species to be discovered. Its fossils – which included several thoracic vertebrae and ribs, together with a humerus, a scapula, a thumb claw, and a femur - were found on a sheep station near Winton in western Queensland in 2012.



Ollie roamed the Earth around 95 million years ago and, like his sauropod relatives, was an herbivorous dinosaur, feeding exclusively on plants such as&nbsp;conifers, angiosperms, ginkgoes, cycads, ferns, or horsetails. Since most other sauropods measured between 20 and 30 meters in length, researchers believe that Ollie was a juvenile dinosaur that died before reaching adulthood, most likely by getting stuck into the mud and sinking near a watering hole. The fact that Ollie’s bones were not completely fused confirm the hypothesis that the fossils belonged to a juvenile sauropod.



According to study lead author Samantha Rigby, a graduate student at Swinburne University, the discovery of these fossils will likely help researchers better understand the patterns of growth characterizing this dinosaur species. “I spent a really long time comparing Ollie with all of the adult specimens&nbsp;here in Winton and we found that Ollie is not an exact copy of the adult,” she said.&nbsp;



“The limb bones of this juvenile titanosaur grew at a more rapid rate than its back and shoulder bones. The bones are also narrower in width when compared with the robust limb bones of an adult Diamantinasaurus. Ollie's limbs were a lot more overgrown and, as he grew up, he grew into his limbs. He would have looked a bit weird with really long legs and a small body.”



Ollie’s bones are now part of the sauropod collection at the <a href="https://www.australianageofdinosaurs.com/">Australian Age of Dinosaurs</a>, a museum of Paleontology in Winton, Australia. These fossils will likely boost “dino-tourism,” by drawing many visitors from Australia and perhaps even abroad.



A detailed description of this dinosaur is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2021.2047991">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The smallest sauropod has been found in Australia

A team of paleontologists led by the Swinburne University of...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> and <a href="https://www.indiana.edu/">Indiana University Bloomington</a> has found that the&nbsp;legalization of recreational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-changes-mens-sperm/">marijuana</a> in various American states has significantly reduced the demand for prescription drugs that are used to treat conditions such as pain, depression, anxiety, psychosis, seizures, or insomnia.&nbsp;



While most previous research focused on the impact of medical marijuana on prescription drugs demand, or on the impact of recreational use legalization solely on opioid consumption, this is among the first studies to systematically investigate the impact of recreational marijuana legalization on the use of a wide range of prescription drugs.



The researchers based their study on an analysis of data collected from the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a> in all 50 states from 2011 to 2019 – a period in which the number of states allowing personal use of marijuana increased substantially, to about 20 (the use of medical marijuana prescribed by doctors is legalized in roughly twice as many states). This analysis revealed a significant change in the demand for prescription drugs, particularly those used to treat anxiety or sleep disorders (no strong impact was noticed on the demand for drugs used to combat nausea).



“These results have important implications,” said study lead author Shyam Raman, an expert in Health Economics at Cornell University. “The reductions in drug utilization that we find could lead to significant cost savings for state Medicaid programs. The results also indicate an opportunity to reduce the harm that can come with the dangerous side effects associated with some prescription drugs.”



However, as Raman and his colleagues warn, marijuana use is not completely harmless. For instance, many studies have shown that this drug can easily trigger anxiety, and even stronger mental disturbances, such as psychosis and schizophrenia. Moreover, patients who use marijuana to treat their various medical conditions tend to visit their doctors less often, thus creating discontinuities in primary care.&nbsp;



“The data used in this study does not capture patient-level wellness and as such, the long run effects of substitution away from pharmaceuticals to cannabis is still unknown. Hopefully, as newer data and more robust econometric methods become available, future researchers will be able to fully decompose the costs and benefits associated with the legalization of cannabis at the state level,” concluded the authors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/hec.4519">Health Economics</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marijuana use reduces demand for prescription drugs

A new study led by Cornell University and Indiana University...

A research team led by <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> has recently identified and described a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-reduces-the-hatching-success-of-a-keystone-fish-species/">species</a> of millipede from the Appalachian Mountains in the United States. The researchers named this species Nannaria swiftae, after famous musician Taylor Swift - an artist deeply admired by study lead author and entomologist Derek Hennen.



“Her music helped me get through the highs and lows of graduate school, so naming a new millipede species after her is my way of saying thanks,”&nbsp;explained Hennen.



Scientists have long suspected that twisted-claw millipedes include many more species than formally described until now. In order to expand our understanding of these creatures’ biodiversity, Hennen and his colleagues embarked on a multi-year project to collect new millipede specimens throughout the eastern United States. They travelled through 17 states, searching new millipedes under rocks, logs, or leaf litter.&nbsp;



By investigating over 1,800 specimens collected on their field trips or found in university and museum collections, the researchers have managed to describe 17 new species, including Nannaria marianae, which was named after Hennen’s wife. Most of these species preferred to live in forested habitats near streams, and were often found buried under the soil, thus exhibiting more cryptic behavior than many of their relatives.



Nannaria swiftae is between 18 and 38 millimeters long, has a shiny, caramel-brown to black body with white, red, or orange spots, and white legs. The males have small, twisted and flattened claws on their anterior legs (hence the common name “twisted-claw millipedes”). Together with the other species of millipedes discovered in the Appalachian Mountains, N.swiftae have a valuable role as decomposers. They feed on decaying leaves and other plant matter, and, by breaking down leaf litter, they release precious nutrients into the ecosystem.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, even more species of millipedes are expected to be discovered in the southern Appalachian Mountains in further expeditions.



A detailed description of this new species can be found in the open-source journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/73485/">ZooKeys</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Dr Derek Hennen



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Millipede discovered in the Appalachian Mountains named after Taylor Swift

A research team led by Virginia Tech has recently identified...

Fires across North America have become larger and more intense as a result of increased development, poor land-use policies, and climate change. A new paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a> sought to look more closely at how this change in fire intensity affects air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-is-a-growing-issue-for-migratory-birds/">pollution</a>.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR) discovered that harmful pollutants from fires in the Pacific Northwest affect places far away, like Colorado.&nbsp;



The fires in the Pacific Northwest are changing the seasonal air pollution pattern, causing a pollution spike in August.&nbsp;



“Wildfire emissions have increased so substantially that they’re changing the annual pattern of air quality across North America," said study lead author and NCAR scientist Rebecca Buchholz. "It’s quite clear that there is a new peak of air pollution in August that didn’t used (sic) to exist.”



Global inventories of wildfires and satellite-based observations of atmospheric chemistry enabled scientists to follow wildfire emissions in the Pacific Northwest, the central United States, and the Northeast from 2002 through 2018.



To measure the level of pollution, the researchers calculated carbon monoxide levels because this gas is an indicator of other air pollutants. They discovered that carbon monoxide increased in August, which is the peak burning season in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp;



The experts also determined that the increase in carbon monoxide was not because of pollution blowing in from Asia, fires in other regions of North America, or an increase in fossil fuel emissions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Multiple lines of evidence point to the worsening wildfires in the Pacific Northwest as the cause of degraded air quality,” said Buchholz. “It’s particularly unfortunate that these fires are undermining the gains that society has made in reducing pollution overall.”



The increase in fires in the Pacific Northwest could impact people all over the United States. The research shows the pollutants could affect four million people in the Pacific Northwest, 23 million in the Central U.S., and 72 million in the Northeast.



Moreover, the team found that from 2012 to 2018, deaths due to respiratory illness in Colorado increased when fires in the Pacific Northwest, not Colorado, created more emissions in August.&nbsp;



“It’s clear that more research is needed into the health implications of all this smoke," concluded Buchholz. "We may already be seeing the consequences of these fires on the health of residents who live hundreds or even thousands of miles downwind.”



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fires in the Pacific Northwest have altered air pollution patterns

Fires across North America have become larger and more intense...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.sfn.org/">Society for Neuroscience</a> describes an "alarm system" in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-of-how-exercise-protects-brain-health/">brain</a> that helps suppress unwanted thoughts. According to the experts, this brain region proactively detects unwanted memories and responds by alerting other areas of the brain to inhibit them.&nbsp;



"Preventing unwanted memories from coming to mind is an adaptive ability of humans. This ability relies on inhibitory control processes in the prefrontal cortex to modulate hippocampal retrieval processes. How and when reminders to unwelcome memories come to trigger prefrontal control mechanisms remains unknown," wrote study lead author Maité Crespo García and colleagues.



As study participants executed a memory task, the experts measured brain activity with both EEG and fMRI. The volunteers were asked to memorize sets of words, such as gate and train. They were instructed to either recall the pair of words by association (see a gate, think about a train), or to focus only on the cue word (see a gate, only think about the gate).&nbsp;



When the participants were proactively suppressing a memory, the experts found&nbsp; that activity increased in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a brain region&nbsp; cognitive control. This area of the brain connects to both the emotional limbic system and the cognitive prefrontal cortex. The ACC plays an important role in "affect-regulation," the ability to control uncomfortable emotions.



Elevated activity in the ACC was detected within the first 500 milliseconds of the proactive memory suppression task, according to the study authors. The ACC was found to relay information to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), which then inhibited activity in the hippocampus - a region that regulates memory recall.&nbsp;



When memory suppression was successful, activity levels in the ACC and DLPFC remained low throughout the remainder of the trial. On the other hand, if the memory was not quickly suppressed, the anterior cingulate cortex ramped up its activity to alert the DLPFC to stop the intrusion.



"Here we acquired neuroimaging data with both high spatial and temporal resolution as participants suppressed specific memories," explained the researchers.



"We found that the anterior cingulate cortex detects the need for memory control, responding both proactively to early warning signals about unwelcome content and reactively to intrusive thoughts themselves."



"When unwanted traces emerge in awareness, anterior cingulate communicates with prefrontal cortex and triggers top-down inhibitory control over the hippocampus through specific neural oscillatory networks."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/">JNeurosci</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Our brain has an alert system to shut down unwanted memories

A new study published by the Society for Neuroscience describes...

As cities expand, more of the surface area of the ground becomes covered with materials that are impervious to rainwater. In cities across the US, roads, rooftops, parking lots, sidewalks and driveways increased by an average of 326,000 hectares per year between 2012 and 2017.



These surfaces do not allow rainwater to percolate through and reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-remove-toxic-metals-from-soil/">soil</a> underneath. Instead, water that falls on these surfaces usually flows away into storm drains and sewer systems. If the downfall is excessive, the rainwater can cause local flooding that affects residents and may cause damage and destruction. In many cities, green infrastructure (GI) such as bioswales or channels with permeable surfaces, or interconnected networks of green space that conserve natural ecosystems, have been introduced into the worst affected urban areas to help with storm water drainage.



Although municipalities now can invest in green infrastructure to mitigate the effects of pluvial floods, they have to select the most appropriate areas in which to employ this technology. Cities including Portland, Phoenix and Atlanta have developed plans and invested in implementing GI but there is a perception that the deployment of the GI may not be equitable in terms of the socio-economic status, race or risk of the population.&nbsp;



A recent study by researchers from Portland State University considers demographic data obtained from the 2011 census along with an identification of the geographic areas prone to rainwater flooding in three US cities, namely Portland, Phoenix and Atlanta. This information is used to assess whether the GI is distributed in these cities in an equitable and appropriate manner in order to mitigate flood risks.&nbsp;



The researchers divided pluvial flood zones into four categories – Vulnerable, Managed,&nbsp;Prepared, and&nbsp;Low Concern&nbsp;– based on the potential flood area and the density of GI infrastructure. They then investigated how GI, racial groups, and economically disadvantaged groups are distributed with respect to the areas at risk of pluvial flooding.&nbsp;



Study lead author Arun Pallathadka is a PhD student in the Earth, Environment and Society program at Portland State University. According to Pallathadka, the research team found that the placement of GI in each of the cities did not consistently overlap with areas prone to rainwater flooding. Furthermore, non-white and low-income populations were found to be more vulnerable to flood risk. The results, published recently in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/landscape-and-urban-planning">Landscape and Urban Planning</a> indicated inequalities and the potential for discriminatory flood-risk management measures.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For example, in Phoenix and Portland, low-income and non-white populations were more likely to be exposed to pluvial flooding than were high-income and white populations. However, there has been increased investment in GI in these two cities, particularly in neighborhoods with higher populations of non-white and low-income residents, marking a transition to more equitable flood risk management.&nbsp;



In Atlanta, the risk of rainwater flooding was relatively low for non-white and low-income residents. In fact, the relationships were reversed, with white populations tending to be more exposed to pluvial flooding. However, GI usage is more frequent where the at-risk white population lives, indicating that there may be active efforts to manage flood risk in these communities. The researchers also found that GI investment increased over time in areas with predominantly white populations.&nbsp;



“Flooding is the costliest natural hazard,” said Pallathadka. “But when we talk about flooding, the focus is often on the floodplain, on rivers. But with climate change, we're expecting an increase in flooding associated with rainfall events. We wanted to know where the hotspots in cities are associated with a risk of flooding from rain, who are the people living in those communities, and where are cities placing infrastructure to help reduce the hazards.”



The researchers found that in Phoenix and Portland, non-white and low-income populations more often lived in areas classified as Vulnerable&nbsp;or&nbsp;Managed, in terms of flood risk, than white and high-income populations. In contrast, white and high-income populations more often lived in areas that were Prepared&nbsp;or&nbsp;of Low Concern. In Atlanta, non-white and low-income populations were more likely to live in&nbsp;Low Concern&nbsp;areas than were white and high-income populations, but white and high-income populations were more likely to live in&nbsp;Prepared&nbsp;and&nbsp;Managed&nbsp;areas.



In the past, urban planning has often been used as a tool, wielded by whites and the wealthy, for discrimination against ethnic minorities and impoverished groups. The results of the current study both reinforce and challenge the argument that urban resources are unequally shared.&nbsp;



The study authors have developed a system to categorize neighbourhood flood risk levels that can be applied by researchers, city planners and policymakers to other cities.&nbsp;This tool can be used to help guide future investments in GI such that neighborhoods most at risk of flooding from rainfall events will receive the required infrastructure.&nbsp;



The methods used by the team provide cities with a novel approach to assessing the need for GI in neighborhoods prone to rainwater flooding while also planning for the equitable distribution of those resources as they move ahead under the threat of increasing extreme precipitation events associated with a warming planet.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do cities address the hazards of rainwater floods equitably?

As cities expand, more of the surface area of the...

Humans all over the world produce billions of tons of solid waste annually, with 70 percent of this refuse ending up deposited in landfills, where it slowly decays. What at first sight may seem to be an inert accumulation of useless debris is in fact a complex ecosystem, with vast communities of microbes feeding on the waste and converting it into carbon dioxide and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-suggests-that-all-living-organisms-produce-methane/">methane</a>.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) has explored the microbial communities residing in leachate (a liquid percolating through solid waste in landfills) at the Salt River Landfill in Scottsdale, and has argued that the methane produced by these microorganisms could be converted into carbon-neutral fuels and electricity, or even used without additional processing for heating homes.&nbsp;



“I think of a landfill as like a big carbon buffet to these microorganisms,” said study lead author Mark Reynolds, a researcher in Environmental Biotechnology at ASU. “Our trash is mostly paper-heavy and it’s really rich in cellulose and hemicellulose. These are readily degradable under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions.”



Municipal solid waste landfills accounted for over 15 percent of methane emissions in 2019, representing the third largest source of methane emissions worldwide. Most of the methane released by microorganisms in landfills is captured as biogas and subsequently flared off and converted into carbon dioxide. Although this method limits methane’s impact on the climate, it is only a short-term solution to the problem of emissions from landfills.



In addition to its negative impact on the climate, the lost methane is a missed opportunity to use a valuable resource. According to the researchers, about one-fifth of United States’ landfills could be suitable for methane capture and processing, if various hurdles (including economic ones) are overcome.&nbsp;



By understanding how microorganisms degrading municipal solid waste generate methane (particularly the methanogenic microbes Archaea – the real “workhorses” in the methane producing cycle), scientists hope to boost methane production. This gas could then be harvested and used to produce carbon-neutral fuels and electricity, or even to heat homes (without the need for additional processing).&nbsp;



Further research is needed to clarify the distinctions between various microbial communities that produce methane in landfills - such as that between arid landfill microbes and those residing in landfills from subtropical or temperate climates - and to explore the use of bio-stimulants or other techniques that could be employed to modify methane production.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/aem.02438-21">Microbial Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microbes in landfills produce valuable methane

Humans all over the world produce billions of tons of...

A tropical plant species that was believed to have gone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumer-choice-are-fueling-the-extinction-crisis-abroad/">extinct</a> nearly four decades ago has been rediscovered in Ecuador, according to a new study from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a>.&nbsp;



The South American wildflower was first discovered in the 1980s. In 2000, the plant was named Gasteranthus extinctus - in anticipation of its extinction. Much of the forest habitat that these tropical plants depend upon have been cleared or converted for farming.&nbsp;



An international team of plant scientists, including Professor Kenneth Feeley and graduate student Riley Fortier, took an expedition to the Centinela Ridge in western Ecuador to search for Gasteranthus extinctus. Upon their arrival, the experts split up into three groups to explore the forest patches that were still intact.



“Almost immediately, two of the teams found the plant growing along streams,” said Fortier. “We were definitely excited to see it, and because of how bright the flowers are, once we knew what to look for, it was easy to find.”&nbsp;



The plants were also found outside of the Centinela Ridge, which suggests that they are more widespread than expected.&nbsp;



“This is a call for optimism - it shows that some of these species that we thought were extinct are not, and that these little patches of forest that are left behind can help save the diversity of plants and animals in this area,” said Professor Feeley.&nbsp;



“Some of these species have been able to hang on for a long time, but that area is still losing forest as they continue to clear it for agricultural land, so we need to save what we have now to prevent any actual extinctions.”&nbsp;



Professor Feeley said he hopes that this expedition will spark others to explore the remaining forests and discover what other tropical species may or may not be extinct today.&nbsp;



“This highlights a problem of the tropics, which is that we have so little information; until you send a team of top botanists to a location, you’ll never know what is really there,” said Professor Feeley. "The fact that we can’t even be confident about if a species is either alive or extinct just highlights that we need more people out there looking for these species.”&nbsp;



The experts are working with local organizations to protect the two remaining patches of forest that exist in the area. According to Fortier, these two spots represent just 100 hectares of land but contain a host of rare plant species.



“Right now, these forests could be cut down any day, so we want to push to protect them,” said Fortier.



“When botanists first collected plants there, they noted the immense biodiversity of the region, but before they did anything about it, they returned and were completely alarmed by the deforestation,” said Professor Feeley. “Unfortunately, deforestation can happen quicker than science can.”&nbsp;



The study authors emphasized the importance of conserving this diversity to help counter the effects of climate change.&nbsp;



“Preserving biodiversity, especially local biodiversity, is more than just plants and animals. It’s also preserving the water cycle, our food, and much more,” said Fortier. “We are ensuring an easier life for humankind in the long run.”



Image Credit: Photo by Riley Fortier



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/">PhytoKeys</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Back from the dead: Tropical plant rediscovered after 40 years

A tropical plant species that was believed to have gone...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF) has found that people who are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pfizer-antibodies-decline-faster-than-those-induced-by-moderna/">vaccinated</a> against SARS-CoV-2 and have a history of certain psychiatric conditions are at a higher risk of developing breakthrough infections. According to the scientists, this phenomenon may be caused by impaired immune responses, as well as risky behaviors associated with some mental disorders.



The researchers investigated a cohort of 263,697 fully vaccinated <a href="https://www.va.gov/">United States Department of Veterans Affairs</a> patients who had at least one SARS-CoV-2 test recorded in the electronic health record, and had no history of SARS-CoV-2 infection prior to vaccination. They found that patients over 65 with psychiatric disorders had a heightened risk of up to 24 percent for breakthrough infections.&nbsp;



The risks were higher for people with substance abuse disorder (24 percent), followed by those with psychotic (23 percent), bipolar (16 percent), adjustment (14 percent), and anxiety (12 percent) disorders. For younger participants with psychiatric issues, the risks were up to 11 percent higher than for those without a history of mental illness.&nbsp;



For both age groups, data was adjusted for sex, age, race, ethnicity, and vaccine type, as well as for various comorbidities, including obesity, diabetes, HIV, cancer, sleep apnea, or cardiovascular, lung, kidney, and liver diseases.



“Our research suggests that increased breakthrough infections in people with psychiatric disorders cannot be entirely explained by socio-demographic factors or pre-existing conditions,” said study senior author Aoife O’Donovan, an associate professor of Psychiatry at UCSF. “It’s possible that immunity following vaccination wanes more quickly or more strongly for people with psychiatric disorders and/or they could have less protection to newer variants.”



Moreover, according to a previous study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335521003624">Preventive Medicine Reports</a>, individuals with elevated anxiety levels and post-traumatic stress disorder – conditions associated with increased impulsivity - were more likely to engage in various behaviors that put them at higher risk for COVID-19.&nbsp;



These findings suggest that psychiatric disorders should be considered highly significant factors for SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections. “Mental health is important to consider in conjunction with other risk factors, and some patients should be prioritized for boosters and other critical preventive efforts,” concluded Professor O’Donovan.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2791033?utm_source=For_The_Media&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=ftm_links&amp;utm_term=041422">JAMA Network Open</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mental illness increases risk of breakthrough COVID infections

A new study led by the University of California, San...

A new study led by the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a> and NASA's <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) has revealed a more complete picture of trends in Neptune’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-vegetation-are-a-key-driver-of-global-temperatures/">temperatures</a> than ever before. The scientists combined all existing thermal infrared images of Neptune gathered from multiple observatories over almost two decades. They found a significant decline in the planet's thermal brightness, suggesting that globally-averaged temperatures in Neptune’s stratosphere have dropped by about eight degrees Celsius from 2003 to 2018.&nbsp;



“This change was unexpected. Since we have been observing Neptune during its early southern summer, we would expect temperatures to be slowly growing warmer, not colder,” said study lead author Dr. Michael Roman, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Leicester.



Neptune has an axial tilt, so it also experiences different seasons, just like the Earth. However, since it is located at a greater distance from the Sun, Neptune takes over 165 years to complete an orbit around the Sun. This causes its seasons to change slowly, lasting more than 40 Earth-years each. “Our data cover less than half of a Neptune season, so no one was expecting to see large and rapid changes,” said study co-author Glenn Orton, a senior research scientist at JPL.



Further satellite observations of Neptune’s south pole revealed that, after the cooling observed from 2003 to 2018, Neptune’s polar stratosphere warmed by 11°C between 2018 and 2020. Such unexpected polar warming has never been observed on this planet before and challenges scientists’ understanding of Neptune’s atmospheric variability.&nbsp;



“Temperature variations may be related to seasonal changes in Neptune's atmospheric chemistry, which can alter how effectively the atmosphere cools. But random variability in weather patterns or even a response to the 11-year solar activity cycle may also have an effect,” explained Dr. Roman.



Scientists argued that the 11-year solar cycle – characterized by periodic variations in the Sun’s activity and sunspots – could affect Neptune’s brightness and thus its stratospheric temperatures. However, follow-up observations of Neptune’s temperatures and cloud patterns are needed in the coming years in order to further assess any possible connections between these parameters.



Initiating observations later this year with the newly developed <a href="https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST) will be crucial to answer these questions. “The exquisite sensitivity of the space telescope's mid-infrared instrument, MIRI, will provide unprecedented new maps of the chemistry and temperatures in Neptune's atmosphere, helping to better identify the nature of these recent changes,” said co-author Leigh Fletcher, a professor of Planetary Science at the University of Leicester.



The study is published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac5aa4">Planetary Science Journal</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious temperature swings on Neptune have scientists puzzled

A new study led by the University of Leicester and...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...