Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for years with their peculiar ability to eat the toxic creosote bush. Creosote leaves are laden with resin that would make most animals sick, but these tenacious creatures feast on it day after day.&nbsp;



For decades, researchers wondered whether woodrats adapted by evolving highly specialized enzymes or if they simply produce an enormous amount of more general detoxification enzymes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-eat-toxic-plants-without-harm">Woodrats eat toxic plants without harm</h2>



Scientists investigating this question observed that woodrats can live in areas where creosote has taken over.



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-rats-using-ultrasonic-sounds-to-enhance-their-sense-of-smell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> avoid the spindly green shrub because it’s coated with a chemical mix that can disrupt crucial processes in their bodies. Yet, these rodents thrive. 



In a recent study, researchers discovered a twist in the woodrat enzyme story: it isn’t about better tools, but more of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-survival-through-gene-duplication">Woodrat survival through gene duplication</h2>



This discovery was led by postdoctoral researcher Dylan Klure, along with a team of colleagues at the University of Utah. The experts zeroed in on how two woodrat species independently evolved to handle large doses of resin that would debilitate other mammals.&nbsp;



After comparing both creosote-tolerant and creosote-sensitive woodrats, the results pointed toward a surge in gene copies rather than improved enzyme function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-quick-jump-in-evolutionary-terms">A quick jump in evolutionary terms</h2>



Creosote may have entered the southwestern desert around the end of the last ice age, about 15,000 years ago.&nbsp;



“These woodrats have only been exposed to creosote bush for about 15,000 years, and in an evolutionary timescale, that’s very little time,” said Klure, postdoctoral researcher at the University of Utah and lead author of the study.&nbsp;



This short window hasn’t stopped woodrats from crafting a workable solution. When food is scarce, animals can either adapt to what’s available or starve. 



Woodrats apparently adapted by copying existing detoxification genes and pumping out the related enzymes at high levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-churning-out-enzymes">Woodrats churning out enzymes</h2>



According to the researchers, these detox genes are part of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35599377/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glucuronidation pathway.</a> In humans, this <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7660525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathway</a> helps metabolize a notable chunk of prescription drugs.&nbsp;



By mapping which genes were active in woodrats’ livers, the scientists found an abundance of duplicates that churn out enzymes strong enough to process resin toxins. 



The presence of multiple copies means a single woodrat can manufacture waves of enzyme molecules to quickly flush harmful compounds out of its system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-specialized-enzymes">An alternative to specialized enzymes</h2>



“Rather than new tools specially designed for metabolizing this toxin, evolution made use of existing machinery - just by making more of it,” said senior author Denise Dearing, professor of biology at the University of Utah.&nbsp;



This stands in contrast to earlier findings in other species where smaller numbers of finely tuned enzymes handle toxins. In the woodrats’ case, the key isn’t building a fancy detox gadget - it’s mass-producing what they already have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-woodrats-shift-to-toxic-plants">Why did woodrats shift to toxic plants?</h2>



Historically, woodrats dined on more abundant plants like juniper. However, climatic shifts dried up many parts of the Southwest, giving the <a href="https://btarboretum.org/creosote/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creosote bush</a> room to spread. This forced the local animals to either move or adapt.&nbsp;



Some rodent populations picked the new leaves, survived, and reproduced - thus passing along their genetic advantage to the next generation.



Over time, these gene duplications reached surprisingly high levels in regions where creosote has been around the longest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-nests-reveal-their-changing-diet">Woodrat nests reveal their changing diet</h2>



Paleontologists studying ancient woodrat nests found <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7081288/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that their diet mirrored changes in plant communities. Woodrats left behind “middens,” or nest sites stacked with plant fragments, seeds, and twigs.&nbsp;



By comparing fossils from different time periods, the experts traced the shift from juniper to creosote. 



The rodents’ DNA adapted alongside this changing meal plan, illustrating how an environmental upheaval can nudge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> down a new dietary path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzyme-gene-duplication-in-woodrats">Enzyme gene duplication in woodrats</h2>



The genetic shift happened separately in two species of woodrats that faced similar conditions. This kind of parallel evolution suggests a powerful nudge from nature.&nbsp;



“When creosote invades, it just takes over. It’s kind of an adapt-or-die situation,” said Klure. For woodrats, duplication of existing genes was apparently an easier workaround than redesigning detoxification enzymes from scratch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-humans">Implications for humans</h2>



Scientists see a parallel between woodrats’ enzyme explosion and differences in detoxifying chemicals among humans.



People vary in the number of detoxification genes they carry, partly due to ancestral diets rich in tough-to-digest plant toxins.&nbsp;



This might explain why individuals respond differently to medications or certain foods. Studying woodrats in controlled experiments could shine more light on these variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expansions-tell-a-bigger-story">Gene expansions tell a bigger story</h2>



At first glance, the woodrats’ solution seems simple: copy genes until you can safely eat a toxic shrub. Yet, this adaptation demonstrates that quantity sometimes trumps refinement in the race to survive.&nbsp;



Frequent duplications of existing detox genes allowed these rodents to remain in dry habitats overrun by a bush most mammals avoid. Such repeated expansions may be a more common strategy across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rodent-borne-diseases-spill-over-into-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a> than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp7978" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Woodrats duplicated their genes to survive eating poisonous plants

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for years with their peculiar ability to eat the toxic creosote bush. Creosote leaves are laden with resin that would make most animals sick, but these tenacious creatures feast on it day after day.&nbsp; For decades, researchers wondered whether woodrats adapted by evolving highly specialized enzymes or if they simply produce an enormous amount of more general detoxification enzymes. Woodrats eat toxic plants without harm Scientists investigating this question observed that woodrats can live in areas where creosote...

A groundbreaking study conducted by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has led to a significant shift in our understanding of the origins of plant branching. By investigating the mechanisms responsible for this process, the scientists have uncovered insights into the appearance of Earth's first land plants millions of years ago.



The research, which focused on vascular plants, has identified a common mechanism for branching despite the fact that these plants exhibit fundamentally different growth patterns.



"Diverse shapes abound in the dominant flowering plant group, and gardeners will be familiar with 'pinching out' plants' shoot tips to stimulate side branch growth, leading to a bushier overall form. However, unlike flowering plants, other vascular plants branch by splitting the shoot apex into two during growth, a process known as 'dichotomy,'" said Dr. Jill Harrison from Bristol's School of Biological Sciences.



The team examined lycophytes, an ancient vascular plant lineage that formed coal seams during the Carboniferous era, as they preserve the ancestral pattern of dichotomous branching. Through a series of surgical experiments on a lycophyte specimen, the researchers discovered that dichotomy is regulated by short-range auxin transport and coordinated in different parts of the plant by long-range auxin transport.



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/dev">Development</a>, reveal that both flowering and lycophyte branching are regulated by auxin transport. This suggests that similar mechanisms were present in the earliest vascular plants around 420 million years ago.&nbsp;



By combining this new knowledge with discoveries made in the non-vascular, non-branching moss group, the researchers were able to infer the appearance of the first land plants about 480 million years ago.



In a previous study, Dr. Harrison's lab disrupted auxin transport in a moss, causing it to branch in a manner akin to the earliest branching fossils. The combination of these studies implies that the earliest land plants were branched and that branching was lost during the evolution of non-vascular mosses.



Dr. Harrison emphasized the importance of this discovery: "The greening of the land by plants paved the way for all terrestrial life to evolve as it provided food for animals and oxygen to breathe, and branching was a key innovation in the radiation of land plants. Our work implies that branching evolved earlier than thought, which is an important evolutionary conclusion."



Moreover, the revelation that distantly related plants use the same genetic mechanisms to regulate branching offers significant potential for future applications. "The fact that we have shown that plants that are so distantly related use the same genetic mechanisms to regulate branching brings great potential to transfer knowledge in engineering plant shape to improve future productivity and yield," said Dr. Harrison.



Plants play a critical role in maintaining Earth's ecosystems and are essential for the survival of countless organisms, including humans. Here are some of the reasons why plants are so important to the Earth's ecosystems, and why determining exactly how plants evolved is vital to science as we strive to protect them during this period of climate change.



<ol>
<li>Oxygen production: Through the process of photosynthesis, plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen they release is vital for the survival of aerobic organisms, including humans and other animals.</li>



<li>Carbon sequestration: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, using it for photosynthesis and storing it in their tissues. This process, known as carbon sequestration, helps to mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.</li>



<li>Food source: Plants form the basis of the food chain, providing energy and nutrients for herbivores, which in turn are consumed by carnivores and omnivores. Without plants, the entire food chain would collapse, causing a massive loss of biodiversity and ecological imbalance.</li>



<li>Habitat provision: Plants create habitats for various organisms, including insects, birds, and mammals. These habitats offer shelter, protection from predators, and breeding grounds for countless species.</li>



<li>Soil formation and preservation: Plant roots help to bind and stabilize the soil, reducing erosion and promoting the formation of new soil. Decomposing plant material also contributes to the formation of nutrient-rich humus, which is essential for the growth of other plants and the overall health of the ecosystem.</li>



<li>Nutrient cycling: Plants play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, taking up nutrients from the soil and incorporating them into their tissues. When plants die and decompose, these nutrients are released back into the soil, making them available for use by other organisms.</li>



<li>Water cycle regulation: Plants help regulate the water cycle by absorbing water from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere through transpiration. This process contributes to the formation of clouds and precipitation, ensuring a continuous supply of water for the ecosystem.</li>



<li>Climate regulation: Plants influence local and global climate through the processes of evapotranspiration, carbon sequestration, and albedo (the reflection of solar radiation). By affecting temperature, humidity, and other climatic factors, plants play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of the Earth's ecosystems.</li>



<li>Medicinal resources: Many plants have medicinal properties and are used to treat various health conditions. They are an essential source of pharmaceutical compounds and play a significant role in the development of new medicines.</li>



<li>Aesthetic and cultural value: Plants contribute to the aesthetic beauty of our environment and have significant cultural value in many societies. They have inspired art, literature, and countless human traditions and beliefs throughout history.</li>
</ol>



In summary, plants are indispensable for maintaining the balance and functioning of Earth's ecosystems. They provide oxygen, food, shelter, and countless other benefits that are essential for the survival of organisms and the health of the planet.



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What did the first plants on Earth look like?

A groundbreaking study conducted by researchers at the University of...

In the rapidly urbanizing world we live in, urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-and-green-spaces-are-beneficial-in-all-stages-of-life/">green spaces</a> such as parks and gardens serve as vital connections to nature for city dwellers. Not only do these green areas contribute to our physical and mental well-being, but they also play a crucial role in regulating heat waves, floods, and carbon sequestration.&nbsp;



However, until recently, the factors affecting carbon sequestration in urban green spaces remained largely unknown, leaving considerable uncertainty in future predictions about the magnitude of carbon sequestration in these ecosystems.



A groundbreaking study led by the <a href="https://www.irnas.csic.es/en/laboratorio-de-biodiversidad-y-funcionamiento-ecosistemico-biofunlab/">BioFunLab research group</a> sheds light on this critical issue, as they collected samples from 56 cities across all continents. The study emphasizes the importance of urban green spaces as carbon reservoirs, with soil carbon levels equivalent to those found in natural areas near cities.&nbsp;



"Our study shows that urban parks in green spaces around the world have an equivalent amount of carbon in the soil to natural areas near our cities, highlighting the role of our parks in a context of climate change," said lead author Manuel Delgado Baquerizo.



The research also reveals that the carbon stored in natural areas and urban parks is controlled by similar climatic factors. "Warmer cities have lower soil carbon content in urban parks and natural ecosystems, which is not good news in our fight against climate change in a warmer world," said Delgado Baquerizo.



However, the researchers found that carbon levels in cities and natural areas are regulated by different biological factors. While carbon in natural areas is closely linked to the primary productivity of the ecosystem, soil microbes play a crucial role in determining carbon levels in urban parks and gardens.&nbsp;



Tadeo Sáez, a member of BioFunLab and co-author of the paper, explained that ecosystem management, such as mowing, is essential in explaining carbon sequestration in urban green spaces. "Our study demonstrates that soil microbes are the main drivers of carbon in urban areas."



The researchers also discovered that the role of microbes as carbon regulators in urban parks has its drawbacks. "Carbon in park and garden soils is more vulnerable to loss through microbial respiration in response to global warming," said Delgado Baquerizo. "These soils have a high proportion of genes associated with the decomposition and mineralization of organic matter," added Tadeo Sáez.



Given the importance of urban parks as carbon reservoirs in a world where seven out of ten people will live in cities by 2050, the researchers conclude that future parks and urban policies should take soil microbiomes into account to maintain soil carbon and its capacity to support multiple ecosystem services, as well as the sustainability of our parks.&nbsp;



"Our study demonstrates the importance of parks as carbon reservoirs in an urbanized world, where 7 out of 10 people will live in cities by 2050. Future parks and urban policies should take into account the soil microbiome to maintain soil carbon and its capacity to maintain multiple ecosystem services as well as the sustainability of our parks," said Delgado Baquerizo.



The proportion of the population with access to urban green spaces can vary significantly depending on the city, country, and region in question. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that urban residents should have access to at least 9 square meters of green space per capita, and that green spaces should be within a 15-minute walk (or 300 meters) of every resident's home.



It's essential for city planners and policymakers to prioritize the creation and maintenance of urban green spaces, as they contribute to the overall quality of life, promote physical and mental health, and offer environmental benefits such as carbon sequestration and heat regulation.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01646-z">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Parks play an integral role in the fight against climate change

In the rapidly urbanizing world we live in, urban green...

Climate change has predominantly been studied in the context of larger, long-lived species with low reproductive rates. However, researchers from the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/home.html">German Primate Center</a> – Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, in collaboration with colleagues from the University of Zurich, have turned their attention to the often overlooked smaller species with high reproductive rates, focusing on the mouse lemurs of Madagascar. These tiny creatures, known for their ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, could provide critical insights into the impact of climate change on biodiversity in the tropics.



Mouse lemurs thrive in the forests of Madagascar, where they depend on the five-month rainy season to produce offspring and build up a fat reserve to endure the cool dry season when food becomes scarce. But with the rainy season growing drier and the dry season warmer due to climate change, can mouse lemurs continue to adapt and survive? The researchers' long-term data analysis suggests that climate change is causing significant destabilization in mouse lemur populations, putting them at an increased risk of extinction.



Claudia Fichtel and Peter Kappeler from the German Primate Center have been studying lemurs in Madagascar for many years, compiling an invaluable data set that spans 26 years, from 1994 to 2020. Their work has centered on the demographic structure of a mouse lemur population at the DPZ research station in Madagascar. During the same period, climate data revealed a trend of increasingly drier rainy seasons and warmer dry seasons in the region.



In collaboration with their University of Zurich colleagues, Fichtel and Kappeler analyzed the data and discovered an alarming correlation between climate change and the stability of the mouse lemur population. They observed a rise in mortality rates alongside increasing reproductive rates in the lemurs.&nbsp;



"These opposing trends have prevented a collapse of the mouse lemur population, but have nevertheless led to a destabilization of the population, as the already fast life cycle of the animals has been further accelerated," explained Fichtel.



Mouse lemurs have been living on Madagascar for millions of years. The exact time of their arrival on the island is challenging to pinpoint, but fossil and genetic evidence suggests that lemurs have inhabited Madagascar for at least 50 million years. The ancestors of modern lemurs likely reached Madagascar by rafting on vegetation mats from mainland Africa, after which they diversified into the many different lemur species we see today, including mouse lemurs.



This fluctuation in population size, driven by climate change, poses a significant threat to the survival of mouse lemurs and could ultimately result in the extinction of the species. Peter Kappeler notes that "even an animal species that is supposedly able to adapt easily to changing environmental conditions thanks to a high reproductive rate is threatened in its survival by climate changes." This is particularly concerning, as lemurs are endemic to Madagascar and are considered the world's most endangered mammals.



Claudia Fichtel emphasizes the importance of incorporating demographic stability data when assessing the extinction risk of a species, although she acknowledges that such long-term observations are not yet available for many animal species. The researchers' findings serve as a stark warning of the potential biodiversity losses in the tropics due to climate change, even among species previously believed to be adaptable to environmental shifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214244120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Mouse lemurs of Madagascar are threatened with extinction

Climate change has predominantly been studied in the context of...

Each year, millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-adapt-their-gut-microbes-along-the-journey/">birds</a> crash into windows in cities along their migratory path, many of them losing their lives. Although window collisions are considered a major problem for a variety of species of birds, the bodies of these birds can often be a treasure trove of scientific information.&nbsp;



In a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>, a team of researchers has analyzed fecal samples from 747 birds that crashed into Chicago buildings over a period of three years to investigate the composition of their gut microbiomes. The analysis revealed that the population of microorganisms in these birds’ guts are significantly different from that typically found in mammals.



“In humans, the gut microbiome - the collection of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes living in our digestive tracts - is incredibly important to our general health and can even influence our behavior. But scientists are still trying to figure out how significant a role the microbiome has with birds,” said Heather Skeen, a research associate at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago.



In mammals, different species usually have their own signature arrays of gut microbes which help them digest food and ward off disease. According to DNA studies, these relationships often go back millions of years, with different species co-evolving with their microbiomes in a symbiotic relationship benefiting both the animal and their microbes.&nbsp;



However, the situation seems to be highly different in birds. “Bird gut microbiomes don’t seem to be as closely tied to host species, so we want to know what does influence them. The goal of this study was to see if bird microbiomes are consistent, or if they change over short time periods,” Skeen explained.



The analysis of fecal samples from 747 birds that crashed into Chicago buildings, belonging to four common species of songbirds called thrushes – supplemented with additional samples collected from thrushes in their summer breeding ground in Michigan, Minnesota, and Manitoba – revealed that, unlike in mammals, the different bird species did not seem to have their own unique set of microbes. By contrast, their gut microbiome appeared to change from season to season and year to year. These findings suggest that birds’ microbiomes are more connected to the environment around them than in the case of mammals.



However, further research is needed to clarify how birds manage to properly digest food and have functional immune systems that can efficiently fight off parasites, if their microbiomes change so much in just a few months.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Birds have surprising gut microbiome composition

Each year, millions of birds crash into windows in cities...

Overweight or obese people are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. This problem is often addressed through behavioral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/getting-more-sleep-can-boost-weight-loss/">weight loss</a> programs, which encourage lifestyle changes such as eating healthier and increasing physical activity.&nbsp;



A new review study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.122.009348">Circulation:&nbsp;Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes</a> has identified a consistent decrease in risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes for at least five years after behavioral weight loss programs, even if some weight was eventually regained during that period.



“Many doctors and patients recognize that weight loss is often followed by weight regain, and they fear that this renders an attempt to lose weight pointless,” said study co-senior author Susan A. Jebb, a professor of Diet and Population Health at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>. “This concept has become a barrier to offering support to people to lose weight. For people with overweight or obesity issues, losing weight is an effective way to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.”



According to Professor Jebb, while many studies have already provided evidence that weight loss significantly improves heart health and reduces the risk of diabetes, most of them look at whether new treatments are effective and focus on weight change in the short-term rather than the effect on later disease.&nbsp;



"Individual studies are often too small to detect differences between groups in the incidence of cardiovascular conditions because, fortunately, they affect only a small proportion of the whole group, and studies may not continue long enough to see the effects on ‘hard’ outcomes, such as a new diagnosis of type 2 diabetes or a&nbsp;heart attack.”



To overcome these limitations, the researchers analyzed 124 studies totaling over 50,000 participants, with an average follow-up of 28 months. The investigation revealed that, compared to people in less intensive programs and those in no weight loss programs, participants who lost weight through an intensive program had significantly lower risk factors for developing both cardiovascular disease and diabetes, exhibiting lower systolic blood pressure, reduced HbA1c (a protein in red blood cells involved in diabetes), and decreased levels of bad cholesterol.



Although this study had several limitations too – for instance, the information included in the review was not updated after 2019 and the reviewed studies were published solely in English – it nevertheless suggests that intensive weight loss programs might have major long-term clinical benefits. However, further research is needed to compare different types of weight loss interventions, their long-term impact, and how their positive outcomes may be diminished by regaining weight.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Heart health benefits of weight loss persist for years

Overweight or obese people are at increased risk for cardiovascular...

The Greenland Ice Sheet, a massive body of ice covering an area of 1.7 million square kilometers (660,200 square miles) in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-will-soon-vanish-during-the-summer/">Arctic</a>, has the potential to raise global sea levels by about seven meters (23 feet) if it were to melt completely.&nbsp;



Understanding the timeline and rate of this melting process is crucial for scientists, as it helps them predict and prepare for the potential impacts on coastal regions worldwide. However, determining the rate at which the ice sheet could melt has proven to be challenging due to the myriad of factors that influence it.



In a groundbreaking new study, climate scientist Dennis Höning from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and his team have identified two critical tipping points that could determine the fate of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Tipping points are thresholds where a system's behavior undergoes an irreversible change, and in this case, could lead to the permanent loss of large portions of the ice sheet.&nbsp;



According to the study, published in AGU's journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022GL101827">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, if humanity releases 1,000 gigatons of carbon into the atmosphere, it will trigger the melting of the southern portion of the ice sheet.&nbsp;



A more alarming tipping point of 2,500 gigatons of carbon would result in the near-total loss of the ice sheet. Currently, we have emitted about 500 gigatons of carbon, placing us halfway to the first tipping point.



"The first tipping point is not far from today's climate conditions, so we're in danger of crossing it," said Höning. "Once we start sliding, we will fall off this cliff and cannot climb back up."



Between 2003 and 2016, the Greenland Ice Sheet has already experienced significant melting, losing approximately 255 gigatons (billions of tons) of ice each year. A complex interplay of factors, including air and water temperature, ocean currents, precipitation, and others, influences the rate and location of ice loss.&nbsp;



The difficulty in predicting how these factors interact, coupled with the long timescales needed to study such a massive ice sheet, has made it challenging for researchers to accurately forecast how the ice sheet might respond to various climate and carbon emissions scenarios.



Previous research suggested that global warming between one and three degrees Celsius (1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit) could irreversibly lead to the melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet. However, this new study employed a more comprehensive model, combining a whole Earth system model that takes into account all key climate feedback processes with an ice sheet behavior model.&nbsp;



The researchers conducted a series of 20,000-year-long simulations with carbon emissions ranging from 0 to 4,000 gigatons to identify the equilibrium states of the ice sheet and the critical tipping points.



As the ice sheet melts, its surface will be exposed to warmer air temperatures at lower elevations, creating a feedback loop that accelerates the melting process. Höning explains that a brief temperature increase of two degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) would not trigger this feedback loop, but maintaining elevated global air temperatures for hundreds of years or longer would.&nbsp;



Once the ice sheet crosses the tipping point, its continued melting becomes inevitable, and even a reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide to pre-industrial levels would not be sufficient to regrow the ice sheet significantly.



"We cannot continue carbon emissions at the same rate for much longer without risking crossing the tipping points," Höning warned. "Most of the ice sheet melting won't occur in the next decade, but it won't be too long before we will not be able to work against it anymore."



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Greenland Ice Sheet is approaching a critical tipping point 

The Greenland Ice Sheet, a massive body of ice covering...

Turtles and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodiles-weighed-1000-pounds-and-walked-on-two-legs/">crocodiles</a> are two of the most endangered animal groups on Earth, with about half of these species currently threatened. To inform conservation efforts, it is crucial to gain a better understanding of which species are currently facing the highest risk of extinction and why.



Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has found that the most endangered turtle and crocodile species are those that evolved unique life strategies, or ways of dividing their resources and energy for survival, reproduction, and growth. Such species usually play highly specific roles in their ecosystems – including seed dispersal, creating habitats for other species by making burrows, or acting as predators that help maintain balance in their ecosystem - which are unlikely to be replaced by other species if they disappeared.



The experts used state-of-the-art models to simulate extinctions caused by human-led threats to assess how species with different life strategies might be impacted. “A key finding is that the threats do not affect all species equally; they tend to impact particular life history strategies. For example, unsustainable consumption of turtles and crocodiles mainly affects the longest-lived species with the largest clutch sizes, such as sea turtles,” explained senior author Rob Salguero-Gómez, a biologist at Oxford.



The analysis revealed that, if all critically endangered species of turtles, tortoises, and crocodiles went extinct, 13 percent of unique life strategies would be lost. Currently, major threats to all of these species include habitat loss, climate change, and global trade, while species with unique life strategies are also particularly affected by unsustainable local consumption, diseases, and pollution.&nbsp;



For instance, turtles and crocodiles with “slow” life histories – characterized by late maturity and low numbers of offspring – are particularly vulnerable to threats from invasive species and diseases, while species with high reproduction output (higher clutch sizes), such as freshwater turtles and saltwater crocodiles, face significant threats from pollution and unsustainable local consumption.



“The main threat to the viability of these groups of reptiles is habitat loss and fragmentation, which is especially common in species inhabiting the Northern hemisphere. The disappearance of wetlands, increasing urbanization, and the development of intensive agriculture, which already have tangible effects, will likely continue to negatively affect these species and their ability to persist in the mid- to long-term,” said lead author Roberto Rodriguez, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.ua.es/en/">University of Alicante</a> who conducted this research during a fellowship at Oxford.



These findings highlight the urgent need for effective management strategies to protect species overall, while paying particular attention to those with unique life history strategies, whose functions would be most difficult to replace in their ecosystems. Citizens willing to help protect these animals should refrain from purchasing products made from them, support organizations involved in conservation projects, perform responsible ecotourism, and engage in citizen science activities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37089-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Turtles with unique features are most likely to go extinct

Turtles and crocodiles are two of the most endangered animal...

On Tuesday, March 28, 2023, a rare cosmic event is set to light up the night sky, with five planets – Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, Uranus, and Mars - perfectly aligning at the same time, along with the Moon and a beautiful star cluster known as Messier 35 (M35). This will be the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-planetary-alignment-will-be-visible-during-june/">planetary alignment</a> since June 2022, when Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were seen together in a unique event that had not occurred in two decades.



While the previous “parade of planets” was easier to spot with the naked eye, the best way to see this one is to use binoculars and look west approximately 20 minutes after sunset. While Venus – the third brightest object in the sky, after the Sun and the Moon – will be quite easy to see with the naked eye, some of the other planets, such as Uranus and Mercury may be more difficult to spot, particularly from the proximity of city lights. Moreover, since Jupiter and Mercury will only be visible for less than an hour before they disappear over the western horizon, passionate stargazers should make sure they don’t miss this window of opportunity.&nbsp;



Jupiter and Mercury will appear near the horizon, at a magnitude of -1.2 and -1.3, respectively, and will be located in the constellation Pisces, separated by approximately one degree. Higher up in the sky, Venus will shine brightly from the constellation Aries, with a magnitude of -4.0. While these three planets will be easily visible with the naked eye, binoculars might be necessary to spot Uranus, located at about 2° from Venus and shining with a magnitude of 5.8. Finally, Mars will join the parade higher in the sky, close to the first quarter Moon in the constellation Gemini, at a magnitude of 0.9.



Although March 28 is the perfect time for observing this celestial event, the alignment will be visible a few days before and after that date. “Don’t forget to look to the sky&nbsp;the end of the month for the planetary alignment which will have at least five planets – plus the Moon – all visible in almost an arc shape as seen from Earth,”&nbsp;world-famous former&nbsp;astronaut&nbsp;Buzz Aldrin&nbsp;<a href="https://twitter.com/TheRealBuzz/status/1636325054219710464?s=20">tweeted</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Five planets will align in the sky tonight

On Tuesday, March 28, 2023, a rare cosmic event is...

In a recently released global water security assessment, United Nations water experts have raised major concerns, revealing that a majority of the world's population currently lives in water-insecure countries. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-water-reservoir-found-on-the-moons-surface/">Water</a> security is crucial to development, and the report suggests that we are far from achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 of "clean water and sanitation for all" by 2030.



The report was released on the second day of the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/conferences/water2023">UN 2023 Water Conference</a> and provides a multidimensional comparison of water security affecting 7.8 billion people across 186 countries. It offers insights midway through the Water Action Decade (2018-2028) and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.



Dr. Charlotte MacAlister, the report's lead author and senior water security researcher at the <a href="https://unu.edu/">United Nations University</a> Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), emphasized the importance of water security.



"Without water security, countries are simply incapable of supporting freshwater ecosystems, livelihoods and human well-being," said Dr. MacAlister. She urged for policy discussions to center around these development challenges in the remaining seven years to fulfill SDG 6.



The assessment, published by UNU-INWEH, also known as the UN Think Tank on Water, criticizes the policymakers' primary focus on water scarcity mitigation. The experts argue that this narrow interpretation of water security has derailed the world from meeting SDG 6 by 2030.



To provide a more accurate understanding of global water security, the UNU-INWEH report evaluated water security across ten components: drinking water, sanitation, good health, water quality, water availability, water value, water governance, human safety, economic safety, and water resource stability. The findings are alarming, with 78 percent of the global population (6.1 billion people) currently living in water-insecure countries.



UNU-INWEH's Director, Professor Kaveh Madani, praised the report as "a major contribution" to the UN 2023 Water Conference, held from March 22-24 in New York. He highlighted the need for targeted policy, funding, and action to accelerate progress, meet the 2030 Agenda, and ensure that the most vulnerable and insecure are not left behind.



The global assessment's key findings expose numerous challenges, such as the critical levels of water security faced by Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) due to various compounding factors. The report identified 23 countries as critically water-insecure, including 16 LDCs and 7 SIDS.



Furthermore, the assessment found that only 33 countries from three geographic regions are water-secure. Sweden tops the list, followed by numerous European countries, New Zealand, Cyprus, Australia, Japan, Israel, Kuwait, and Malaysia in the Asia-Pacific region, and Canada and the USA in the Americas.



The report also emphasized that abundant natural water availability does not guarantee water security. Many countries in Africa, the Asia-Pacific, and the Americas with abundant freshwater resources suffer from high rates of WASH-attributed (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) deaths due to limited WASH access, poor water quality, and water having low economic value despite potentially high economic losses due to floods or droughts.



Additionally, access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation remains a distant dream for over half the global population. More than 70 percent (close to 5.5 billion people) do not have safe water access, with Africa having the lowest levels of access at just 15 percent of the region's population.



Worryingly, the situation is not improving. More people die globally from a lack of safe WASH services than those killed in water-related disasters, and 2019 saw increased rates of WASH-attributed mortality in 164 countries.



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UN: World is falling way behind on water security targets

In a recently released global water security assessment, United Nations...

The universal appeal of art and its ability to evoke a range of emotions has long captivated audiences and artists alike. But despite its importance in human culture, the underlying mechanisms that drive our emotional responses to art have remained largely unexplored.&nbsp;



Now, a groundbreaking study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en">University of Turku</a> and Aalto University sheds new light on how viewing visual art affects our emotions and offers potential applications for mental health rehabilitation and care.



The study, which included a diverse sample of 1,186 participants from various countries, involved subjects viewing and assessing over 300 different artworks. The participants' eye movements were recorded as they viewed the art and they were asked to describe the feelings and emotions evoked by each piece. The study employed a combination of online surveys and laboratory-based eye movement recordings to gather data.



"Viewing the art evoked many different kinds of feelings and emotions in people. Even though many of the pieces handled sad or scary topics, the emotions that the people experienced were mainly positive," said study lead author Professor Lauri Nummenmaa from the Turku PET Centre at the University of Turku.



Intriguingly, the researchers found a correlation between the strength of the subject's bodily sensations and the intensity of the emotions they experienced, suggesting that our bodies play a crucial role in the aesthetic experience.



Study co-author Riitta Hari from Aalto University explained that human figures in the artworks were the most interesting subjects and received the most attention from viewers. "People have a tendency to empathize with each other's emotions, and this is probably also the case when we view human figures in art," said Hari.&nbsp;



This empathetic response to human emotions in art may occur through a process known as "mirroring," where the emotions portrayed in the artwork are absorbed by the viewer, often without conscious awareness.



The findings of this study indicate that the emotions and bodily sensations evoked by art can have a profound impact on our overall experience of it. "Bodily sensations can draw people to art: art evokes feelings in the body, and such stimulation of the body's pleasure centers feels pleasant to the viewer," said Professor Nummenmaa.&nbsp;



These insights open up exciting possibilities for leveraging the emotional power of art in mental health rehabilitation and care settings, where it could provide a valuable tool for emotional expression and healing.



One of the most popular theories explaining the emotional impact of art on humans is the concept of emotional resonance or aesthetic resonance. This theory suggests that when people encounter a work of art, they experience an emotional response as a result of a connection or resonance with the piece. The connection can be based on various factors, such as personal experiences, cultural context, or innate human tendencies.



A key aspect of emotional resonance is the idea of empathy and our ability to recognize and relate to the emotions of others. When we view art that depicts human figures, emotions, or situations, we tend to empathize with the subjects and experience emotions similar to those being portrayed. This empathetic response can be triggered by the brain's mirror neuron system, which allows us to understand and share the emotions of others by simulating their experiences internally.



Another component of the emotional impact of art is the role of our cognitive and emotional processing systems. Art can activate various cognitive and emotional processes, such as memory, perception, imagination, and evaluation. These processes can trigger emotional responses, even when the artwork is abstract or non-representational. For instance, certain colors, shapes, or patterns may evoke specific emotions or memories, leading to an emotional reaction to the artwork.



Furthermore, art can serve as a form of communication and self-expression, allowing artists to convey their emotions, thoughts, and ideas to the audience. This shared emotional experience can create a connection between the viewer and the artist, further enhancing the emotional impact of the artwork.



In summary, the emotional impact of art on humans can be attributed to a combination of factors, including emotional resonance, empathy, cognitive and emotional processing, and the communicative power of art. These factors work together to create a unique and personal emotional experience for each individual who encounters a work of art.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2023.2183180">Cognition &amp; Emotion</a>.



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Visual art evokes many feelings and emotions

The universal appeal of art and its ability to evoke...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox12030698">Antioxidants</a> suggests that eating peanuts and peanut butter could have a positive impact on vascular health in young and healthy individuals. The research was led by Rosa M. Lamuela, a professor at the Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences of the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/">University of Barcelona</a> and a member of both the Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety Research (INSA-UB) and the Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition Networking Biomedical Research Centre (CIBEROBN).



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peanuts-lower-blood-pressure-and-promote-weight-loss/">Peanuts</a>, derived from the leguminous plant Arachis hypogaea, are categorized as nuts in terms of their nutritional composition. As the most widely consumed nuts globally, they are a convenient, nutrient-rich snack that contributes to a healthy lifestyle. Peanuts contain high levels of fatty acids, protein, fiber, and polyphenols.



Most nutritional studies typically focus on significant differences in populations with a high risk of developing a disease, especially older individuals. In this demographic, it is easier to observe the beneficial effects of modifying dietary patterns or incorporating healthy foods into a regular diet.



By contrast, this study involved 63 healthy young participants aged between 18 and 33, who included a daily portion of peanut products in their regular diet for six months. This research is the first nutritional intervention to confirm an improvement in vascular markers related to antithrombotic and vasodilator effects in healthy young people after consuming peanuts.&nbsp;



"In this study group, it is more difficult to see any effect of dietary changes on health," explained Professor Rosa M. Lamuela. "The results reveal a significant increase in urinary levels of phenolic metabolites in those young people who had eaten a daily dose of peanuts and peanut butter compared to the control group, which had eaten a cream without fiber or polyphenols."



Furthermore, participants who consumed peanuts or peanut butter demonstrated improved levels of prostacyclin I2 and the ratio between thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin I2. These lipid molecules, known as eicosanoids, are considered markers of vascular health.&nbsp;



"Interestingly, some phenolic metabolites that increased significantly after the consumption of peanut products - especially hydroxycinnamic acids - also correlated with the improvement in both markers," said study first author Isabella Parilli-Moser.



The study supports the hypothesis presented in previous research conducted by this group, which argued for the protective effect of polyphenols - the primary antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds in the diet - on cardiovascular diseases in adults, as well as their antithrombotic and vasodilator effects.&nbsp;



Additionally, the consumption of nuts and peanuts has been linked to a reduced risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, primarily due to the protective effect of the polyphenols found in these foods.



The researchers emphasize that the study highlights one of the potential health benefits of including peanuts and peanut butter in our diet. However, they conclude that more studies are needed to fully understand the mechanisms that explain the positive effects of peanut consumption on vascular health.



The study was conducted as part of the ARISTOTLE project, an initiative to analyze the prebiotic and postbiotic effects of consuming peanut products, promoted by The Peanut Institute (United States). It also received support from companies in the food sector, which did not participate in the experimental design or research protocol deployed in the study.



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Peanuts have a beneficial impact on vascular health

A recent study published in the journal Antioxidants suggests that...

A team of researchers led by Professor HU Sen from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS) has discovered that impact glass beads in Chang'e-5 (CE5) lunar soils contain water. The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01159-6">Nature Geoscience</a>, suggests that these glass beads may represent a new water reservoir on the Moon that is responsible for the dynamic ingress and egress of solar wind-derived water, acting as a buffer for the lunar surface water cycle.



Although many lunar missions have confirmed the presence of structural water or water ice on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonights-worm-moon-marks-the-beginning-of-spring/">Moon</a>, the exact amount and location of water on the lunar surface has been the subject of intense research. The lunar surface water has attracted much attention due to its potential for in-situ resource utilization by future lunar exploration missions and other space missions.&nbsp;



The surface water on the Moon displays diurnal cycles and loss to space, indicating that there should be a hydrated layer or reservoir at depth in lunar soils to sustain the retention, release, and replenishment of water on the surface of the Moon.



Previous studies have been unable to explain the retention, release, and replenishment of water on the lunar surface, suggesting that there must be a yet-unidentified water reservoir in lunar soils that has the capacity to buffer the lunar surface water cycle.&nbsp;



Under the guidance of Professor HU Sen, doctoral student HE Huicun proposed that impact glass beads, a ubiquitous component in lunar soils with an amorphous nature, were a potential candidate for investigation of the unidentified hydrated layer or reservoir in lunar soils.



To identify and characterize the missing water reservoir on the Moon's surface, the researchers systematically characterized the petrography, major element composition, water abundance, and hydrogen isotope composition of the impact glass beads returned by the CE5 mission.&nbsp;



The CE5 impact glass beads have homogeneous chemical compositions and smooth exposed surfaces, characterized by water abundance up to about 2,000 μg.g-1, with extreme deuterium-depleted characteristics. The negative correlation between water abundance and hydrogen isotope composition reflects the fact that water in the CE5 impact glass beads comes from solar winds.



The researchers also analyzed water abundance along six transects in five glass beads, which showed the hydration profiles of solar wind-derived water. Some glass beads were overlapped by a later degassing event. The impact glass beads acted as a sponge for buffering the lunar surface water cycle. The researchers estimate that the amount of water contributed by impact glass beads to lunar soils varies from 3.0 × 1011 kg to 2.7 × 1014 kg.



"These findings indicate that the impact glasses on the surface of the Moon and other airless bodies in the solar system are capable of storing solar wind-derived water and releasing it into space," said Professor HU.



The discovery of a new water reservoir on the Moon provides important information for future lunar exploration missions and other space missions, as it may represent a valuable resource for sustained human presence on the Moon and beyond.



NASA's plan for a sustained presence on the Moon is part of the Artemis program, which aims to land the first woman and the next man on the Moon by 2024. However, this timeline has recently been pushed back due to funding and technical challenges, and the new target date for the Artemis III lunar landing mission is 2025.



The Artemis program is not just about landing humans on the Moon, but also establishing a sustainable presence there. NASA's long-term plan is to use the Moon as a testbed for technologies and systems that will be necessary for future crewed missions to Mars and other destinations.



To achieve this goal, NASA plans to build a Lunar Gateway, a small space station in orbit around the Moon, which will serve as a command center for human and robotic missions on the lunar surface. The agency is also developing a new lunar lander called the Human Landing System (HLS), which will transport astronauts from the Lunar Gateway to the surface of the Moon.



NASA aims to establish a sustainable presence on the Moon by 2028, which includes building a lunar base and conducting a range of scientific experiments and technology demonstrations. The agency also plans to work with international partners and commercial companies to achieve this goal.



This study was a collaboration with Nanjing University, The Open University, The Natural History Museum, The University of Manchester, and the University of Science and Technology of China.&nbsp;



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New water reservoir found on the Moon’s surface

A team of researchers led by Professor HU Sen from...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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