The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

We all know that feeling of being mentally drained, cooped up indoors, staring at screens with the walls closing in. Maybe it's a long workday, a rainy weekend, or just the modern malaise of too much time inside. But what if the solution to better mental health was as simple as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-biodiversity-areas-have-greater-mental-health-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stepping</a> outdoors?



A new survey suggests that spending just 67 minutes outdoors each day can work wonders for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental</a> health. That's roughly the length of a good movie, a solid workout, or even just puttering around in the garden. And the benefits? Think of it as a refresh button for your brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indoors-vs-outdoors-impact-on-mental-health">Indoors vs. outdoors impact on mental health</h2>



Nearly 60% of Americans admit to feeling restless and agitated after spending too much time inside. The average breaking point is about 10.5 hours.



What happens when we’re stuck inside too long? Research reveals the following:



<ul>
<li>Depression: Prolonged indoor time leads 38% of people to report feelings of depression. The lack of sunlight and fresh air can significantly impact our mental state.</li>



<li>Anxiety: About 33% experience increased anxiety. The confinement and lack of physical activity can heighten stress and worry.</li>



<li>Loneliness: Another 32% feel lonely. Being isolated from others can create a sense of disconnection and isolation.</li>
</ul>



The good news is that stepping outside can quickly reverse these negative feelings. The positive effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-improves-life-quality-of-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">being outdoors</a> include:



<ul>
<li>Relaxation: 68% of people say that spending time in nature helps them relax. The sights and sounds of the outdoors can significantly reduce stress levels.</li>



<li>Mood boost: 66% of people report feeling happier and more positive after being outside. Exposure to natural light and fresh air can lift our spirits and improve our mood.</li>



<li>Mental clarity: 64% experience improved mental clarity. Nature provides a calming environment that helps clear our minds and improve cognitive function.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-as-self-care">Nature as self-care</h2>



“From enhanced mood to feelings of relaxation and well-being, there are so many physical and mental benefits that come from breaking through the four walls and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/camping-and-rv-travel-the-great-american-adventure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exploring open-air adventures</a> and activities,” says <a href="https://rvshare.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RVshare</a>’s CEO Jon Gray.



“During Mental Health Awareness Month in May, we are encouraged to be mindful of how we’re spending our time and factor outdoor experiences into our everyday lives, including our travel plans.”



Fortunately, it seems Americans are catching on to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-residents-better-mental-health-access-green-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a> of spending time outdoors. The survey found that:



<ul>
<li>Increased priority: 57% of Americans are now prioritizing outdoor time more than ever before. This shift indicates a growing awareness of the importance of connecting with nature for overall well-being.</li>



<li>Mental health benefits: 59% of respondents say that engaging in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-play-is-a-vital-part-of-a-childs-upbringing-and-parents-play-a-critical-role/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outdoor activities</a> benefits their mental health. The positive impact on mood and mental clarity is becoming widely recognized.</li>



<li>Physical health benefits: 58% of people also report that outdoor activities benefit their physical health. Regular exposure to nature encourages physical activity, which is essential for maintaining good health.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Popular outdoor activities</h2>



The appreciation for the outdoors is not limited to simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birdwatching-can-significantly-improve-students-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a>. People are embracing a variety of outdoor pursuits. Some of the most popular include:



<ul>
<li>Grilling or cooking outside: 23% of respondents enjoy grilling or cooking outside. This activity combines the pleasures of food with the benefits of being outdoors.</li>



<li>Hiking: 14% of people prefer hiking. This activity allows individuals to explore natural landscapes while getting exercise.</li>



<li>Camping: 11% of respondents find camping to be their preferred outdoor activity. Camping provides an immersive experience in nature, offering both relaxation and adventure.</li>
</ul>



These activities highlight the diverse ways people are incorporating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walking-quantifiably-improves-brain-health-and-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outdoor time</a> into their lives, recognizing both the mental and physical health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-shifts">Pandemic shifts</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/financial-losses-during-the-pandemic-took-a-toll-on-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> has undoubtedly changed how we view travel. Now, it's less about crowded cities and more about wide-open spaces:



<ul>
<li>16%&nbsp;are traveling to more nature-focused destinations.</li>



<li>15%&nbsp;are specifically seeking trips that boost their mental well-being.</li>



<li>67%&nbsp;consider travel itself a form of self-care.</li>
</ul>



Interestingly, road trips are making a comeback, with 57% preferring to drive over flying. This might be because 83% believe the journey is just as important as the destination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-benefits-being-outdoors">Mental health benefits being outdoors</h2>



For those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venturing outdoors</a>, the benefits are clear and significant. A substantial 36% of people experience a notable reduction in stress when they spend time outside. 



Additionally, 33% report feeling mentally recharged and rejuvenated, highlighting the restorative power of nature on the mind. 



Furthermore, 23% of individuals develop a deeper sense of gratitude for their lives, finding that outdoor experiences help them appreciate their surroundings and personal well-being more profoundly. 



These statistics emphasize the profound positive impact that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spending time in nature</a> can have on mental health and overall outlook on life.



“A key takeaway here is that spending time in nature and on the open road while traveling has both physical and mental benefits,” says Gray. 



“Whether soaking up the Sun, hiking a new trail, or gazing up at the starry sky, we’ve all experienced the invaluable renewal, mental clarity, and freeness that comes from being outdoors," he concluded.



It seems the prescription for a healthier mind might be simpler than we thought. So, lace up your hiking boots, fire up the grill, or just find a quiet spot to sit under a tree. Your brain will thank you.



This study was done by <a href="https://talkerresearch.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Talker Research</a>, whose team members are members of the Market Research Society (<a href="https://www.mrs.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRS</a>) and the European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research (<a href="https://esomar.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESOMAR</a>).



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Spending 67 minutes daily outdoors boosts mental health

We all know that feeling of being mentally drained, cooped...

They're the unwanted houseguests that seem to survive everything: the six-legged, skittering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pest-control-product-nemaslug-could-harm-beneficial-snails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a> known as cockroaches. You've likely encountered them in your kitchen, bathroom, or scurrying across your floor in the middle of the night. 



Have you ever wondered how these resilient creatures became such a global nuisance? A fascinating new study reveals the surprising history of cockroaches, their epic journey across continents, and how they became the ultimate survivalists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cockroach-family-tree">Cockroach family tree</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that the German cockroach, the most common species found worldwide, actually originated in Southeast Asia. 



A recent study confirms this theory, tracing the German cockroach's lineage back to its ancestor, the Asian cockroach. By analyzing the genes of over 280 cockroaches from 17 countries and six continents, researchers pieced together a 2,000-year history of cockroach evolution and migration.



"It's not just an insect story," said Stephen Richards, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor College of Medicine</a> who studies insect genes and was not involved with the study. "It's an insect and humanity story."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hitchhiking-with-humans">Hitchhiking with humans</h2>



The study reveals that cockroaches embarked on a journey from their origins in Southeast Asia. They first traveled west to the Middle East around 1,200 years ago, likely hiding in soldiers' breadbaskets.



Then, about 270 years ago, they spread to Europe by traveling on Dutch and British East India Company trade routes. Once they arrived, inventions such as the steam engine and indoor plumbing helped them spread further and establish themselves in indoor environments, where they are commonly found today.



The cockroach's ability to adapt to new environments and thrive alongside humans demonstrates their remarkable resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-cockroach-s-spread-as-pests">Mapping the cockroach's spread as pests</h2>



Researchers identified two primary routes that cockroaches took to spread globally. The western route led them through the Middle East around 1,200 years ago, likely facilitated by their ability to stow away in soldiers' supplies. 



The eastern route, taken about 270 years ago, involved traveling on Dutch and British East India Company trade ships across vast oceans to Europe.



Once in Europe, technological advancements such as the steam engine and indoor plumbing helped cockroaches disperse further and thrive indoors. 



These routes allowed cockroaches to establish populations in diverse regions, adapting to various environments and becoming one of the most widespread and resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>.



Their ability to travel with humans and quickly adapt to new surroundings has played a crucial role in their global dominance. Understanding these migration patterns not only highlights the cockroach's resilience but also provides insights for better pest control strategies in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-the-cockroach-as-indoor-pests">Rise of the cockroach as indoor pests</h2>



Initially, cockroaches thrived outdoors, inhabiting forests and fields. As humans developed cities and indoor environments, cockroaches seized the opportunity to move indoors. Warm homes with abundant food sources proved ideal for these resourceful <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>.



The transition from outdoor to indoor life required cockroaches to adapt to new conditions. Over time, they evolved traits that helped them survive in human habitats. 



They became experts at hiding in small spaces, navigating dark areas, and reproducing quickly. This adaptability allowed them to thrive indoors, turning them into the persistent pests we know today.



Their ability to exploit human environments has made them successful in urban areas worldwide. This transition illustrates the cockroach's incredible resilience and adaptability, enabling them to persist despite human efforts to control them. 



Understanding this evolutionary journey helps us appreciate their tenacity and informs more effective pest management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cockroach-resilience">Cockroach resilience</h2>



What makes cockroaches so difficult to eradicate? According to Qian Tang, a postdoctoral researcher studying insects at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, their rapid evolution is a key factor. 



Cockroaches can quickly develop resistance to pesticides, which makes them highly challenging to control. This rapid adaptation means that conventional pest control methods often become ineffective over time.



Understanding their evolutionary history and adaptive capabilities is crucial for developing more effective strategies to manage these persistent pests. By studying how cockroaches have evolved and adapted to different environments, researchers can identify potential weaknesses and target them more effectively. 



This knowledge can lead to the development of new pesticides or alternative control methods that are less likely to be resisted by cockroaches.



Overall, the ability of cockroaches to evolve quickly and adapt to various environments makes them a formidable challenge in pest control efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-cockroach-research">Future of cockroach research</h2>



The study of cockroach genetics and migration patterns not only sheds light on their past but also offers insights into their future. 



By unraveling the secrets of their resilience and adaptability, scientists hope to develop innovative pest control methods that can better manage these hardy insects. Perhaps one day, we'll finally be able to say goodbye to these unwanted houseguests for good.



The story of the cockroach is one of remarkable adaptability and resilience. From their origins in Southeast Asia to their global conquest, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> have demonstrated an uncanny ability to thrive in diverse environments. 



While they may be unwelcome guests in our homes, their fascinating history and evolutionary journey are a testament to the power of nature's ingenuity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401185121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Cockroaches became global pests by cleverly hitching rides with humans

They're the unwanted houseguests that seem to survive everything: the...

Moose,Resting,In,The,Grass,In,Alaska

Think about mammals and the animal kingdom's most iconic headgears: the majestic antlers of a moose, the curved horns of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bulls-are-helping-solve-the-mysteries-of-male-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bull</a>, or even the knobby ossicones of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-four-unique-giraffe-species-across-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giraffe</a>. 



They seem as different as the mammals that sport them. However, a new research is turning that notion on its head.



A fascinating study suggests that these diverse headgear styles all sprouted from a common ancestral root. In other words, they're more like evolutionary cousins than completely separate inventions. This discovery is a major step in understanding how bone develops across all mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-headgear-of-mammals">Headgear of mammals</h2>



Researchers focused on the following headgears in animals:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Antlers</h3>



Animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-deer-awareness-day-a-story-of-vulnerability-and-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deer</a>, elk, and moose have antlers. These structures consist entirely of bone and are unique because they shed and regrow annually. 



During the growth phase, a soft, vascular skin known as "velvet" covers the antlers, supplying nutrients and oxygen to the developing bone. 



Once fully grown, the velvet is shed, revealing the hard, bony structure beneath. This cyclical process of shedding and regrowth allows the animals to produce larger and more complex antlers each year, which play a critical role in mating displays and combat during the breeding season.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Horns</h3>



Horns are found on animals such as cattle, sheep, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goats-can-recognize-human-emotions-in-the-sound-of-a-voice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goats</a>, and their kin. Unlike antlers, horns are permanent structures that grow continuously throughout the animal's life. 



They consist of a bony core covered by a sheath of keratin, the same protein that makes up human fingernails and hair. 



Horns serve various functions, including defense against predators, dominance displays, and intraspecies combat. The continuous growth of horns means that they can become quite large and elaborate over the course of an animal's life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Ossicones</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-world-giraffe-day-celebrate-the-worlds-tallest-animal-on-the-earths-longest-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ossicones</a> are bony protrusions found on giraffes and their relatives, such as the okapi. These structures are covered in skin and fur, giving them a distinctive appearance. 



Unlike antlers, ossicones are not shed and regrown; they are permanent structures that form early in the animal's life. 



Ossicones play a role in thermoregulation and may also be used in combat between males during mating season. The presence of skin and fur over these bony knobs helps protect them from injury.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Pronghorns</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pronghorn-lessons-conservation-crucial-preventing-species-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pronghorns</a> are unique structures found exclusively on pronghorn antelope. While they are similar to horns, they differ in several key ways. 



Pronghorns consist of a bony core covered by a keratin sheath, much like horns. However, the sheath of pronghorns is forked, giving it a distinctive appearance, and is shed and regrown annually. 



This combination of features -- being both forked and shed annually -- sets pronghorns apart from other types of headgear found in ruminant mammals. Pronghorns are used primarily for defense and display during the breeding season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-mammal-headgears">Evolution of mammal headgears</h2>



Scientists have long puzzled over how these different headgear styles evolved. Did they develop independently in each animal group, or is there a deeper connection? 



That's where Zachary Calamari, a researcher from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>, comes in.



Calamari and his team delved into the genetics of headgear development. They focused on transcriptomes, which are essentially snapshots of the genes that are active in a particular tissue at a particular time. 



By comparing the transcriptomes of developing horns in cattle to those of antlers in deer and skin in pigs (which lack headgear), they uncovered some intriguing patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-thread-in-mammals-headgears">Common thread in mammals' headgears</h2>



The research revealed that all ruminant headgear, including horns, antlers, ossicones, and pronghorns, likely evolved from paired bony outgrowths near the frontal bones of the skull. 



These structures originate from the cranial neural crest, an embryonic cell layer essential for forming the face. This cell layer not only contributes to facial bones but also forms these diverse headgear types. 



By studying gene expression patterns, scientists found that the same genetic mechanisms are at work in both horns and antlers, supporting a single evolutionary origin. 



This discovery helps explain the shared characteristics and variations in ruminant headgear, providing deeper insights into the evolution and development of these unique structures across different species. 



Understanding this common origin underscores the interconnectedness of evolutionary processes in shaping the diverse adaptations seen in ruminant mammals today.



"Our results provide more evidence that horns form from the cranial neural crest, an embryonic cell layer that forms the face, rather than from the cells that form the bones on the sides and back of the head. It is striking that these are the same cells that form antlers," explains John Flynn, a curator at the museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-loves-a-good-remix">Evolution loves a good remix</h2>



This study paints a picture of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> as a master remix artist. Instead of inventing headgear from scratch each time, it seems that nature took a basic bony blueprint and tweaked it to create the dazzling array of head adornments we see today.



"In addition to gene expression patterns that support a single origin of horns and antlers, our results also show the regulation of gene expression patterns in these structures may differ from other bones. These results help us understand the evolutionary history of horns and antlers and could suggest that differences in other ruminant cranial appendages, like ossicones and pronghorns, are also elaborations on a shared ancestral cranial appendage," Calamari explains.



So, the next time you see a moose with its impressive antlers or a giraffe with its quirky ossicones, remember that these seemingly distinct features share a surprisingly deep connection. It's a reminder that even the most diverse forms in nature can often be traced back to a common origin.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-06134-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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All headgears of hoofed mammals come from a common ancestor

Think about mammals and the animal kingdom's most iconic headgears:...

Antarctica, the vast, icy continent at the bottom of our world, holds a chilling secret that could drastically reshape our coastlines within the next few decades. Scientists have just unveiled alarming new evidence: warm seawater is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-seems-to-have-lost-its-ability-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relentlessly melting</a> away at the underbelly of the Thwaites Glacier, a massive ice formation ominously nicknamed the "Doomsday Glacier."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-doomsday-nickname">Why the "Doomsday" nickname?</h2>



Thwaites <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-the-future-behavior-of-thwaites-the-doomsday-glacier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glacier</a>, often called the Doomsday Glacier, is a colossal ice sheet in Antarctica. It spans 74.56 miles (120 kilometers) in width and plunges 0.75 miles (1.2 kilometers) in depth. 



The sheer volume of ice it holds is staggering, with the potential to raise global sea levels by 23.62 inches (60 centimeters) if it were to melt completely. 



This is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-sheets-can-retreat-much-faster-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant threat</a>. We've already seen notable social and economic impacts from just a few centimeters of sea-level rise. 



For instance, coastal erosion, increased flooding, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources have already posed challenges to communities worldwide. 



The potential rise of seawater could lead to widespread devastation, particularly in low-lying areas. Coastal cities, small island nations, and vulnerable ecosystems would face severe impacts. 



This underscores the urgent need to understand and mitigate the effects of Thwaites Glacier's melting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doomsday-glacier-melt-from-warm-water">Doomsday glacier melt from warm water</h2>



For the first time, researchers have witnessed the insidious process of warm seawater intrusion beneath Thwaites Glacier. This discovery was made possible by the keen eyes of the <a href="https://www.iceye.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICEYE</a> satellite.



This isn't just a gentle lapping at the edges; it's a forceful pumping that lifts and drops the glacier in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/doomsday-thwaites-glacier_melting-illustration_UC_Irvine_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continuous cycle</a>. Each time the ice touches the intruding seawater, intense melting occurs.



The glacier sits in a basin, and right now, the seawater is only reaching the edges. But scientists predict that within the next 10 to 20 years, this destructive dance will reach the deeper parts of the basin. That's when things could get truly catastrophic, with melting rates accelerating at an alarming pace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimating-the-doomsday-glacier-urgency">Underestimating the Doomsday Glacier urgency</h2>



"Thwaites is the most unstable place in the Antarctic. The worry is that we are underestimating the speed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-causing-the-rapid-retreat-of-the-thwaites-glacier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> is changing, which would be devastating for coastal communities around the world,” warns Dr. Christine Dow, a professor at the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Waterloo</a> and a co-author of the study.



If sea levels rise by half a meter or more, cities like Vancouver, Miami, and countless others would face severe flooding. Infrastructure would be damaged or destroyed, displacing millions of residents. 



Entire low-lying countries like Bangladesh, where vast areas are already at or below sea level, would struggle to cope with the encroaching waters. 



Pacific islands such as Tuvalu and the Marshall Islands would be particularly hard-hit. Rising sea levels could submerge entire communities, leading to mass migrations and loss of habitable land.



The social upheaval will be immense as communities relocate, creating climate refugees and straining resources in less affected regions. 



Economically, the impact of Doomsday Glacier melt would be devastating. Critical infrastructure, including ports, airports, and transportation networks, would be compromised. 



Agricultural lands would be lost to saltwater intrusion, affecting food supply chains. The cost of rebuilding and adapting to these changes would be astronomical, burdening both local economies and international aid systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-the-models">Improving the models</h2>



To understand just how dire this situation is, scientists like Dr. Dow are working tirelessly to refine their models of glacier melt. 



They're accounting for the complex interactions of seawater flowing in, subglacial water flowing out, and the mixing of the two. 



Their goal is to create more accurate predictions of how fast Thwaites is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petermann-glacier-melting-has-tripled-due-to-warm-ocean-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting</a> and how much time we have left to act.



"At the moment, we don't have enough information to say one way or the other how much time there is before the ocean water intrusion is irreversible," admits Dr. Dow. 



But through rigorous research, they hope to narrow down sea level rise estimates to decades rather than centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-everest-in-tennis-shoes">"Climbing Everest in tennis shoes"</h2>



The urgency of this research is clear, but the resources to support it are lagging. 



"We operate at the same budget in 2024 in real dollars that we were in the 1990s. We need to grow the community of glaciologists and physical oceanographers to address these observation issues sooner rather than later, but right now we’re still climbing Mount Everest in tennis shoes,” notes Dr. Eric Rignot, the lead author from <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Irvine</a>.



In other words, the scientific community is ready and eager to tackle this challenge, but they need the funding to do so effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-future-our-responsibility">Our future, our responsibility</h2>



The melting of Doomsday Glacier is a stark reminder that climate change is not a distant threat. It's happening now, with the potential to cause immense suffering within our lifetimes.



The focus should remain on reducing carbon emissions to avert the worst-case scenarios. Understanding the processes unfolding beneath Thwaites is crucial for adapting to the inevitable changes in our oceans.



The Doomsday Glacier is a ticking time bomb, but with continued research and swift action, we might just be able to defuse it before it's too late. Our future, and the future of our coastlines, depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2404766121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Doomsday Glacier is relentlessly melting away due to warm water

Antarctica, the vast, icy continent at the bottom of our...

Summer is just around the corner, and for many Illinois residents, that means the familiar drone of cicadas will soon fill the air. But this summer is unique. As we gear up for this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cicadas-set-to-emerge-in-historic-u-s-invasion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraordinary even</a>t, there's one question buzzing in the minds of many: what does this mean for people with tinnitus?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-hearing-damage-and-tinnitus">Cicadas, hearing damage, and tinnitus</h2>



Cicadas are insects known for their distinct, rhythmic calls, which can be both a soothing soundtrack for some and an irritating noise for others. 



But why are these insects so loud? And why is this year expected to be even louder than usual?



We are experiencing a rare convergence of cicada Broods XIII and XIX, who haven't synchronized their schedules since 1803. 



"We are all aware of the sounds of summer, with the sounds of cicadas being a distinctive part of that. But what we are talking about this summer is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicada-urination-defies-what-scientists-thought-was-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">13-year and 17-year</a> periodical cicadas, which far outnumber the annual cicadas in number and in sheer sound levels," explains Fatima Husain, a professor of speech and hearing science at the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>.



These periodical cicadas are expected to create a veritable wall of sound, reaching decibel levels comparable to a jet engine (90-110 decibels). That's loud enough to cause concern for anyone's hearing health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tinnitus">Understanding tinnitus</h2>



Tinnitus is the perception of noise or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-health-risks-of-headphones-and-earbuds-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ringing in the ears</a>. A common problem, tinnitus affects about 15% to 20% of people. 



Tinnitus isn't a condition itself -- it's a symptom of an underlying condition, such as age-related hearing loss, ear injury, or a circulatory system disorder.



The phantom noise of tinnitus may vary in pitch from a low roar to a high squeal, and you may hear it in one or both ears. 



In some cases, the sound can be so loud it interferes with your ability to concentrate or hear actual sound. Tinnitus may be present all the time, or it may come and go.



Tinnitus has various causes, such as exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-gamers-may-be-at-risk-of-irreversible-hearing-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loud noises</a>, ear infections, and earwax buildup. Age-related hearing loss, certain medications, and conditions like Meniere's disease can also contribute. Head or neck injuries and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders are additional factors.



The impact of tinnitus can be profound. For some, it is a mild annoyance. For others, it causes severe distress, affecting concentration and sleep. 



Moreover, the psychological effects, including anxiety, depression, and stress, can worsen the perception of the sound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-can-often-ease-tinnitus-symptoms">Cicadas can often ease tinnitus symptoms</h2>



In some cases, the loud, broad frequency sounds of the cicadas can have a masking effect on tinnitus, reducing or even eliminating the perceived ringing in the ears. 



This effect was reported by many during previous cicada emergences in 2004 and 2021.



"In masking, what happens is that the external sound (the cicadas) is loud enough and of sufficient breadth of frequencies that it reduces all or some part of your tinnitus, such that the tinnitus becomes soft or inaudible," says Husain. 



However, this effect isn't universal and depends on the specific type of tinnitus and the cicada species involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cicadas-worsen-tinnitus-and-hearing">When cicadas worsen tinnitus and hearing</h2>



While some tinnitus sufferers might find relief in the cicada chorus, others may experience an exacerbation of their symptoms. 



Additionally, individuals with hyperacusis, a condition characterized by heightened sensitivity to everyday sounds, might find the cicadas' noise particularly bothersome.



"The loud sounds of the cicadas may also exacerbate tinnitus. So you need to check how the sounds make you feel," Husain cautions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-a-safe-and-enjoyable-cicada-summer">Tips for a safe and enjoyable cicada summer</h2>



Whether you're hoping for tinnitus relief or dreading the noise, it's crucial to take steps to protect your ears this summer. Here are some tips:



<ul>
<li>Limit exposure:&nbsp;The male cicadas produce their loudest sounds during the warmest parts of the day.&nbsp;If possible,&nbsp;stay indoors during peak hours.</li>



<li>Use ear protection:&nbsp;If you need to be outside,&nbsp;consider wearing foam earplugs or earphones.</li>



<li>Be mindful of your environment:&nbsp;The cicada calls are loudest near trees.&nbsp;If the noise is bothering you,&nbsp;move away from wooded areas.</li>



<li>Seek air-conditioned comfort:&nbsp;The hotter the day,&nbsp;the louder the cicadas.&nbsp;Enjoy the cool indoors to escape the noise.</li>
</ul>



Remember, this is a temporary phenomenon. The cicadas will subside in about six weeks, leaving us to enjoy the rest of our summer in peace and quiet (until they return in another 13 or 17 years, that is).



If you experience any discomfort or worsening of your tinnitus or hyperacusis symptoms, consult a healthcare professional immediately.



As we anticipate the arrival of Brood XIII and XIX, let's approach this unique event with curiosity, caution, and a healthy dose of respect for our noisy neighbors. 



After all, their summer symphony is a reminder of the fascinating complexity and diversity of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural</a> world around us.



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Cicadas' deafening noise can harm hearing and worsen tinnitus

Summer is just around the corner, and for many Illinois...

A new study has revealed the impact of the war in Ukraine on the migration of the endangered greater spotted eagle.&nbsp;



The experts compared the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bald-eagles-are-threatened-by-avian-influenza/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eagles</a>' movement through Ukraine before and after Russia's invasion in February 2022. They found that the eagles deviated from their migratory routes, spending less time at traditional refueling sites or avoiding them entirely, which resulted in longer journeys and later arrivals at their nesting grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicts-cause-widespread-disturbances-nbsp">Conflicts cause widespread disturbances&nbsp;</h2>



“The war in Ukraine has had a devastating impact on people and the environment. Our findings provide a rare window into how conflicts affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-wildlife-threats-can-be-identified-using-ai-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>, improving our understanding of the potential impacts of exposure to such events or other extreme human activities that are difficult to predict or monitor,” said lead author Charlie Russell, a postgraduate researcher at the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA).



“These types of disturbances can have significant impacts on the behavior, and potentially fitness of the eagles. For individuals breeding in these areas, or other species that are less able to respond to disturbance, the impacts are likely to be much greater.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-for-eagles-during-the-ukraine-invasion-nbsp">Dangers for eagles during the Ukraine invasion&nbsp;</h2>



During the invasion of Ukraine, the GPS-tracked eagles encountered multiple conflict events, including artillery fire, jets, tanks, weaponry, large numbers of soldiers, and displaced civilians. These disturbances caused the eagles to alter their migratory behavior significantly.&nbsp;



The eagles flew further and less directly to their breeding grounds, adding an average of 85 km to their journey and taking longer to reach their destinations. Females took 246 hours compared to 193 pre-conflict, while males took 181 hours compared to 125 pre-conflict.



“Our findings show how human disturbance can inadvertently impact wildlife. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Migratory birds </a>such as greater spotted eagles are drastically declining all over the world and it’s imperative that we better understand and mitigate our effects on these charismatic species,” said senior author Adham Ashton-Butt, a research ecologist at the <a href="https://www.bto.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Trust for Ornithology</a> (BTO).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-important-stopover-sites-for-greater-spotted-eagles">Important stopover sites for greater spotted eagles</h2>



The study found that fewer eagles stopped in Ukraine before reaching their breeding grounds, with only 30% making stopovers in 2022 compared to 90% between 2018-2021.&nbsp;



Important stopover sites, like those in Ukrainian Polesia, were completely avoided in 2022. The differences in flight speed and migration strategies between males and females could also impact breeding success, especially if one sex is disproportionately affected by the conflict.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remote-tracking-of-wildlife-nbsp">Remote tracking of wildlife&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Aldina Franco, an ecologist at UEA emphasized the importance of remote tracking technologies for understanding the impact of human activities on wildlife.&nbsp;



“Remote tracking of wildlife enables researchers to understand the impact of human activities, such as hunting or energy infrastructure, on the environment and wildlife populations. In this case, it is providing insights on how armed conflict events impact animal behavior and migration,” said Franco.



“Collecting this data is limited by the logistical implications of working in these areas and previous research has been limited to resident birds in military training zones. However, our tracking data gives us a unique window into how migrating eagles experience and respond to intense conflict.”



The researchers are using this data to better understand the risks to migratory birds from conflicts and to model other areas that may be at risk. This understanding is crucial as many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspots</a> are located in politically volatile regions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-greater-spotted-eagle">More about the greater spotted eagle</h2>



The greater spotted eagle, known scientifically as Clanga clanga, is a large bird of prey that belongs to the Accipitridae family. It's often confused with the lesser spotted eagle, but it can be distinguished by its larger size and slightly darker plumage. This eagle has a wingspan of about 150 to 180 centimeters and features dark brown feathers with lighter spots, particularly visible in younger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.



Native to Eastern Europe and parts of Asia, the greater spotted eagle migrates to warmer regions such as the Middle East and Africa during the winter. Its habitat typically includes large, open landscapes such as wetlands and marshy areas where it can find its prey, which mainly consists of small mammals and other birds.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.04.047" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, highlights the wide-ranging impacts of human conflicts on wildlife and underscores the need for more detailed research to mitigate these effects and protect endangered species like the greater spotted eagle.



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Migrating eagles have been rerouted by the war in Ukraine

A new study has revealed the impact of the war...

The response of Arctic phytoplankton to heatwaves differs significantly from their response to constantly elevated temperatures. The findings from new research broaden our understanding of the complex effects of temperature fluctuations on these crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine organisms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-world-of-arctic-phytoplankton">Fascinating world of Arctic phytoplankton</h2>



Arctic phytoplankton are microscopic algae that form the foundation of the Arctic marine food web. These tiny organisms <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrive in the cold</a>, nutrient-rich waters of the Arctic Ocean and play a crucial role in the ecosystem's health and productivity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Crucial role in the Arctic ecosystem</h3>



Arctic phytoplankton are the primary producers of the Arctic Ocean. They harness the energy of the sun through photosynthesis, converting carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds. 



This process forms the basis of the entire marine food chain, supporting a wide range of organisms, from tiny zooplankton to massive whales.



In addition to their role in the food web, Arctic phytoplankton also contribute to the global carbon cycle. As they photosynthesize, they absorb significant amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to regulate the Earth's climate. 



When phytoplankton die, some of this carbon sinks to the ocean floor, where it can remain sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Phytoplankton adaptations to the Arctic environment</h3>



Arctic phytoplankton have evolved unique adaptations to survive in the harsh conditions of the Arctic Ocean. They can thrive in water temperatures near the freezing point of seawater. 



They have evolved special enzymes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular mechanisms</a> that allow them to maintain their metabolic processes in these extreme conditions.



The Arctic experiences dramatic seasonal changes in light availability, from the 24-hour darkness of the polar night to the constant daylight of the midnight sun. 



Arctic phytoplankton have developed strategies to optimize their light-harvesting abilities, such as adjusting their pigment composition and cellular structures to capture as much light as possible.



Finally, nutrients in the Arctic Ocean are limited, particularly in terms of nitrogen and iron. Arctic phytoplankton have evolved efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-hold-a-long-record-of-ocean-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient uptake mechanisms</a>, such as specialized transport proteins and symbiotic relationships with bacteria, to maximize their access to these essential elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phytoplankton-paradox-heatwaves-vs-constant-warming">Phytoplankton paradox: Heatwaves vs. constant warming</h2>



The study was conducted by a team led by Dr Klara Wolf from the Universities of <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hamburg</a> and <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konstanz</a>, and Dr Björn Rost from the Alfred Wegener Institute (<a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AWI</a>). The experiments took place at the Alfred Wegener Institute's AWIPEV Station in Svalbard.



One of the key findings of the study is that the phytoplankton's behavior primarily depends on the cooling phases after or between heatwaves. 



"Under stable temperatures, even an extreme increase of +7° C led to accelerated growth and higher productivity, with surprisingly small changes in the composition of species, even over weeks," explains Klara Wolf. 



"In contrast, the effects of heatwaves are considerably more complex and don't follow the same pattern. This implies that our knowledge about constant temperature increases cannot readily be applied to these short-term warm phases, which normally only last a few days," Wolf continued.



The team emphasizes that not just the exposure to increased temperatures has a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact on productivity</a>, but also and especially the cooling phases after or between heatwaves. However, very little is known about these effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-puzzle-for-scientists">Complex puzzle for scientists</h2>



Björn Rost, an AWI biologist, highlights the importance of gaining a better understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/additional-heat-is-being-transferred-to-the-arctic-ocean-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwaves</a> impact the polar regions. 



"Our study represents an important first step and shows which aspects of heatwaves and which phytoplankton-related processes we need to take a closer look at," Rost explained. 



"In addition, our study shows that what we know about the processes and effects of constantly higher temperatures can't simply be applied one-to-one," he concluded.



The study reveals that scenarios involving fluctuating temperatures can produce a broad range of effects, making it more challenging to predict their implications compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-could-speed-up-global-2c-temperature-rise-by-eight-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continuous warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-the-food-web">Maintaining the food web</h2>



Phytoplankton form the basis of the marine food web in the Arctic, and changes in their behavior could have far-reaching consequences for the entire ecosystem. 



To develop better projections and models regarding how primary production and the Arctic ecosystem will change in response to climate change, researchers need to investigate not only the effects of mean temperatures but also the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frequent-heatwaves-have-become-the-norm-in-the-arctic-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature fluctuations</a>.



"While stable warming up to a certain temperature increases productivity, some heatwaves can decrease it, while others increase it," the researchers explain. 



A better grasp of the effects of variable temperatures, especially the cooling phases, is therefore essential to improving forecasts on potential biodiversity changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-lessons-from-arctic-phytoplankton">Climate change lessons from Arctic phytoplankton</h2>



The study emphasizes the crucial role of phytoplankton research in understanding the potential impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetation-impacts-energy-movement-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> on the Arctic ecosystem. Changes at the basis of the food web can impact all higher trophic levels, all the way up to fisheries.



As heatwaves become more common in the Arctic due to climate change, it is essential to continue investigating their effects on phytoplankton and the broader ecosystem. 



By gaining a better understanding of these complex processes, researchers can develop more accurate models and projections, helping to inform conservation efforts and sustainable management practices in the face of a changing climate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl5904" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Arctic heatwaves have complex effects on phytoplankton

The response of Arctic phytoplankton to heatwaves differs significantly from...

Dickinsonia,,Extinct,Creatures,Of,The,Ediacaran,Era,,One,Of,The

Scientists have used cutting-edge computer simulations to unravel the mysteries of Earth's earliest animal ecosystems, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animal forests</a>. These virtual recreations have shed light on the crucial role these ancient communities played in shaping the evolution of our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ediacaran-ecosystems-cradle-of-animal-evolution">Ediacaran ecosystems: Cradle of animal evolution</h2>



The study, published in the journal Current Biology, was led by the Natural History Museum and involved researchers from the University of Cambridge. 



By analyzing fossils from the Ediacaran time period, approximately 565 million years ago, the scientists discovered how these early animals influenced their surroundings by <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ediacaran-ecosystem_dickinsonia-creature_drove-evolution_illustration_UCambridge_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mixing the seawater around them</a>.



Dr. Emily Mitchell, a co-author of the report from the University of Cambridge's <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Zoology</a>, expressed her excitement about the findings.



"It's exciting to learn that the very first animals from 580 million years ago had a significant impact on their environment, despite not being able to move or swim. We've found they mixed up the water and enabled resources to spread more widely -- potentially encouraging more evolution," Mitchell explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-ediacaran-period">Understanding the Ediacaran Period</h2>



The Ediacaran Period, spanning from approximately 635 to 541 million years ago, represents a fascinating chapter in Earth's history. 



This era witnessed a series of profound changes that paved the way for the emergence of complex life forms and the eventual rise of animals as we know them today.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Setting the stage for life's emergence</h3>



The Ediacaran Period began in the wake of the Cryogenian Period, which was characterized by extensive global glaciations known as the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-a-giant-snowball-700-million-years-ago-and-now-scientists-know-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Snowball Earth</a>" events. As the world thawed and the climate stabilized, conditions became more favorable for the development of life.



During the Ediacaran Period, Earth's atmosphere and oceans experienced a significant increase in oxygen levels. This oxygenation event, known as the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event, played a crucial role in the evolution of complex life forms, as oxygen is essential for the metabolism of most multicellular organisms.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Dawn of animal life</h3>



The Ediacaran Period is best known for the emergence of the Ediacaran biota, a diverse assemblage of enigmatic life forms that have puzzled scientists for decades. 



These organisms, preserved as impressions in sedimentary rocks, exhibit a wide range of shapes and sizes, from simple discs and fronds to more complex forms resembling modern animals.



While the exact nature of many Ediacaran organisms remains a subject of ongoing research, recent studies suggest that some of these life forms represent early animals. 



Their soft bodies, lacking hard shells or skeletons, have made their preservation and interpretation challenging, but advances in paleontology and modern imaging techniques have shed new light on their anatomy and ecology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Foundation for the Cambrian Explosion</h2>



The Ediacaran Period saw the emergence of several key evolutionary innovations that would later prove crucial for the diversification of animal life. These include the development of specialized cells, tissues, and organs, as well as the appearance of novel feeding strategies and modes of locomotion.



As the Ediacaran Period drew to a close, the stage was set for one of the most remarkable events in the history of life on Earth: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Explosion</a>. 



This relatively brief period, lasting from approximately 541 to 521 million years ago, witnessed an unprecedented diversification of animal life, with the appearance of most major animal phyla and the development of complex ecosystems.



The Ediacaran Period, with its unique organisms and pivotal evolutionary developments, represents a critical transition in Earth's history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mistaken-point-fossils-window-into-the-past">Mistaken Point fossils: Window into the past</h2>



To test the extent of this process in Earth's history, the researchers focused on some of the oldest examples of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-exist-today-ediacaran-period-earth-weak-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animal communities</a>, preserved in rocks at Mistaken Point, Newfoundland, Canada. 



This world-renowned fossil site, sometimes referred to as an "Ediacaran Pompeii," has perfectly preserved early life forms thanks to a protective layer of volcanic ash.



Although some of these life forms resemble plants, a thorough analysis of their anatomy and growth patterns strongly suggests that they were, in fact, animals. 



The exceptional preservation of these fossils allowed the scientists to create digital models of key species, which served as the foundation for further computational analyses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-modeling-and-computer-simulations">Ecological modeling and computer simulations</h2>



Dr. Susana Gutarra was the first author and a Scientific Associate at the Natural History Museum. She explained further, stating, "We used ecological modeling and computer simulations to investigate how 3D virtual assemblages of Ediacaran life forms affected water flow."



Their results showed that these communities were capable of ecological functions similar to those seen in present-day marine ecosystems.



The study revealed that one of the most significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran organisms</a> for disrupting water flow was the cabbage-shaped animal Bradgatia, named after Bradgate Park in England. Some of the largest fossils found at Mistaken Point were Bradgatia, with diameters exceeding 50 centimeters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolution-and-the-environment">Implications for evolution and the environment</h2>



Through their influence on the surrounding water, the scientists believe that these Ediacaran organisms might have been capable of enhancing local oxygen concentrations. 



This biological mixing could have also had implications for the broader environment, potentially making other areas of the sea floor more habitable and even driving evolutionary innovation.



Dr. Imran Rahman, the lead author and Principal Researcher at the Natural History Museum, emphasized the significance of this new approach. 



"The approach we've developed to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-segmented-animal-fossilized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran fossil</a> communities is entirely new in paleontology, providing us with a powerful tool for studying how past and present marine ecosystems might shape and influence their environment," Rahman explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-insights-into-ancient-ecosystems">Unprecedented insights into ancient ecosystems</h2>



This intriguing study has opened a new chapter in our understanding of Earth's earliest animal ecosystems. 



By combining state-of-the-art computer simulations, ecological modeling, and the exceptional fossil record from Mistaken Point, scientists have uncovered the hidden secrets of Ediacaran marine animal forests. 



This innovative approach has revealed how these ancient organisms, despite their inability to move or swim, played a crucial role in shaping their environment, influencing the distribution of resources, and potentially driving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-evolution-was-accelerated-by-fluctuating-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary innovation</a>. 



As we continue to explore the complex interplay between life forms and their surroundings, this study displays the power of paleontology in unraveling the mysteries of our planet's past and provides a solid foundation for future research into the evolution of life on Earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982224005335" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Behavior of sea creatures in Earth's first ecosystem drove animal evolution

Scientists have used cutting-edge computer simulations to unravel the mysteries...

Dogs can imitate human actions from two-dimensional video projections, according to a new study led by researchers from the Department of Ethology at <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE).



The experts discovered that the cognitive ability of dogs to process and replicate actions observed in 2D video projections aligns with their everyday observational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-and-experience-help-young-kids-recognize-dog-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> with humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-actions-as-verbal-dog-cues">Human actions as verbal dog cues </h2>



Using the “Do as I Do” training method, the researchers trained two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-communication-what-is-your-pet-trying-to-tell-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> - Tara, a male Golden Retriever, and Franc, a female Labrador Retriever - to imitate human actions, first from live demonstrations, and then displayed on a screen.&nbsp;



The setup involved life-size video projections streamed via online conference software, enabling real-time interaction between the dogs and their owners, who were located remotely. For example, the owner would spin in a circle in front of the camera and verbally cue the dog to imitate the action. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-ability-to-imitate-human-actions">Dogs’ ability to imitate human actions</h2>



The experiment tested the dogs’ ability to imitate actions observed from three different camera angles: frontal, side and above. The tested actions included walking backward, spinning horizontally, pushing a buzzer button and lying down, among others.&nbsp;



Additionally, the dogs were tested on their ability to imitate novel actions, not included in the training, such as picking up an object, touching a pole with their nose, and knocking down a water bottle.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observational-perspectives-in-dogs-daily-lives">Observational perspectives in dogs’ daily lives</h2>



The results showed that dogs could replicate actions observed from frontal and side angles, which are observational perspectives commonly encountered in dogs’ daily lives with humans.



However, they faced challenges when trying to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/imitation-guides-important-social-decisions-among-parrots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">imitate</a> actions from an overhead perspective, which is a less familiar viewpoint.



“Using the Do as I Do imitation paradigm is similar to asking the dogs, ‘What did I just do?’ while showing them on the screen various human actions under different camera angles,” explained study co-author Fumi Higaki, the founder and director of the Ichinomiya Animal Assisted Education Dog Club.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The dogs responded by performing matching actions based on how they perceived and processed the demonstration. For instance, one of the demonstrated actions included knocking down a plastic bottle, which was demonstrated from an overhead view.”&nbsp;



“My dog Tara observed my demonstration on the screen, looked for the bottle in his room, in front of the screen, and then knocked it down. But he struggled to replicate other actions with an overhead view.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research-nbsp">Broader implications of the research&nbsp;</h2>



“This study, even if only exploratory, not only advances our understanding of how dogs perceive and interpret human actions, but more importantly, this innovative method could broaden research into several other potential cognitive abilities, and could also be extended to other species,” said study lead author Claudia Fugazza, an ethologist at ELTE.



The Do as I Do training method has been employed to study imitative abilities not only of dogs but also of cats, orcas, and various other species. If you are intrigued by this training approach, you can explore it further in the recently published second edition of the authors’ book, now available from <a href="https://www.dogwise.com/do-as-i-do-2nd-edition-using-social-learning-to-train-dogs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogwise</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-imitate-human-actions">How dogs imitate human actions</h2>



Dogs have a remarkable ability to imitate human actions, a skill that's deeply rooted in their history of domestication and their relationship with people. This capability is partly due to their keen observation skills and their social nature, which drive them to engage and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-use-their-tails-more-for-communication-than-movement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact</a> with their human companions.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-learning-nbsp">Social learning&nbsp;</h3>



When a dog imitates human actions, it is often through a process known as social learning, where the dog watches a human perform a task and then tries to replicate that behavior. This might include simple actions like opening a door, fetching specific items, or more complex behaviors seen in training scenarios such as assistance dogs who perform tasks to aid their handlers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonding-hormone">Bonding hormone</h3>



The inclination to imitate also stems from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interactions-with-dogs-relieve-stress-and-heighten-concentration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonding</a> hormone, oxytocin, which enhances social learning abilities in dogs. This hormone increases their attentiveness to their human companions and makes them more likely to engage in mimicry.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reward-system">Reward system</h3>



Additionally, dogs are motivated by the rewards they receive from humans, whether those are treats, praise, or affection, reinforcing their imitative behaviors. 



This interplay of biological predisposition and environmental reinforcement helps explain how dogs can effectively mirror human actions in their own way.



The ELTE study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42977-024-00222-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biologia Futura</a>.



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Dogs can imitate human actions from videos

Dogs can imitate human actions from two-dimensional video projections, according...

Microplastics,On,The,Surface,Of,Polluted,Water.,Concept,Of,Global

Microplastics in the ocean are well-documented hazards, posing direct threats to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-floor-harbors-up-to-11-million-tons-of-plastic-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> life such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> and fish. However, a recent collaborative study has uncovered an additional, more insidious risk. 



These tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-kills-ocean-embryos-during-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles</a> not only endanger marine organisms but also compromise the ocean's capacity to mitigate climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-microplastics-on-the-ocean">Impact of microplastics on the ocean</h2>



The ocean has long been a crucial component in the Earth’s carbon cycle, acting as a significant carbon sink. 



This process involves the formation of what is often referred to as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-snow-cools-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine snow</a>," a phenomenon where dead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, the tiny plants of the sea, clump together and sink to the ocean's depths, effectively sequestering carbon away from the atmosphere.



However, the introduction of microplastics into this environment is altering this age-old process. 



The study, co-authored by researchers from <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a> and the <a href="https://www.unh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New Hampshire</a>, reveals that these microplastics increase the buoyancy of marine snow, slowing its descent to the ocean floor. 



“Plastics want to float. If phytoplanktons grow on microplastics in biofilms, instead of as free-living organisms, that changes the buoyancy of the phytoplankton when they die,” explains lead researcher, Aron Stubbins, a professor of marine and environmental sciences at Northeastern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-down-the-marine-snow">Slowing down the marine snow</h2>



The research team conducted experiments that involved growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> in controlled environments both with and without microplastics. 



They observed the rate at which these clumps sank in cylinders filled with seawater, noting that the descent of phytoplankton entwined with microplastics was approximately 20% slower. 



“Basically, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-sea-turtle-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> are slowing down the sinking rate of the marine snow, which is potentially reducing the efficiency with which the ocean can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,” Stubbins says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-sequestration-implications">Carbon sequestration implications</h2>



The implications of this slowed descent are profound, especially at a time when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-a-new-ocean-carbon-sequestration-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a> is crucial to offsetting human emissions of carbon dioxide. 



As marine snow travels deeper into the ocean, it transports carbon away from the atmosphere, playing a vital role in regulating the Earth’s temperature. The disruption of this process by microplastics could thus have significant effects on global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-ocean-nutrients">Microplastics and ocean nutrients</h2>



A secondary aspect of the study focuses on another troubling impact of microplastics. When exposed to sunlight, these plastics dissolve, releasing organic carbon that bacteria can utilize, subsequently robbing vital nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from phytoplankton. 



This not only slows the growth of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-phytoplankton-absorb-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> but also diminishes their ability to capture atmospheric carbon, further weakening the biological carbon pump.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Imperative for caution and action</h2>



Microplastics are now ubiquitous in our oceans, and their concentrations continue to rise, posing a potential threat to critical global processes like the carbon cycle. 



“We’re finding that it could be a threat to global scale processes, such as the carbon cycle that is so important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">for all life</a>,” Stubbins states, underscoring the gravity of the situation. 



While definitive conclusions are yet to be drawn about the full impact of microplastics on the ocean’s ability to sequester carbon, the study's findings are a cause for concern and a call for careful consideration and action.



As the research progresses, it becomes increasingly clear that the proliferation of microplastics could significantly alter fundamental environmental processes. 



The insights provided by this study deepen our understanding of the ecological roles of our oceans and remind us of the interconnectedness of our actions and the natural world.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030442032400046X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Chemistry</a>.



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Microplastics hinder the ocean's ability to absorb carbon, worsening climate change

Microplastics in the ocean are well-documented hazards, posing direct threats...

In a disconcerting update from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the agency revealed that bleaching has affected nearly two-thirds of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepest-known-coral-reef-bleaching-discovered-alarming-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world’s coral reefs</a> due to significant heat stress in just the past year. 



As of now, an alarming 60.5% of coral reefs globally have been impacted by this phenomenon, and unfortunately, this percentage is on the rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catalysts-behind-the-reef-bleaching-crisis">Catalysts behind the reef bleaching crisis</h2>



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-mass-bleachings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass bleaching</a> is not an isolated incident but part of a disturbing trend exacerbated by climate change and a recent El Niño event, which have collectively driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-were-a-driving-force-behind-2023s-record-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean temperatures</a> to unprecedented highs. 



"We are seeing ocean temperatures that are very extreme in nature," expressed Derek Manzello, coordinator of NOAA’s <a href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reef Watch</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-coral-bleaching">Understanding coral bleaching</h2>



Coral bleaching occurs when corals, under stress, expel the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caribbean-coral-reef-symbiotic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic</a> algae residing in their tissues -- algae that provide essential nutrients through photosynthesis. This expulsion turns the corals pale and greatly heightens their vulnerability to starvation and disease. 



Furthermore, the gravity of the current situation is underscored by historical comparisons. The last major global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching event</a>, spanning from 2014 to 2017, affected 56.1% of the world’s reefs, while earlier events in 1998 and 2010 impacted 20% and 35% of reefs, respectively. 



Although the current event has impacted a broader area, Derek Manzello notes that the 2014-2017 episode remains the most severe on record, owing to its duration and intensity. 



However, the ongoing 2023-2024 event may soon exceed it in severity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caribbean-reed-at-the-epicenter-of-bleaching">Caribbean reed at the epicenter of bleaching</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-disease-is-pushing-caribbean-reefs-toward-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean reefs</a> have been particularly hard-hit, with a staggering 99.7% of the Atlantic basin’s reefs experiencing bleaching-level heat stress in the past year. "The Atlantic Ocean has been off the charts," Manzello highlighted. 



A recent study indicated severe coral mortality, ranging between 50% and 93%, in areas like Huatulco, Oaxaca, along the Mexican Pacific.



The situation appears grim as we approach the summer, with heat stress already accumulating in the Southern Caribbean. 



Alarmingly, the thresholds for bleaching have been crossed much earlier in the year than ever before. "This is alarming because this has never happened so early in the year before," Manzello warns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-coral-reef-bleaching-and-its-global-impact">Addressing coral reef bleaching and its global impact</h2>



Looking ahead, scientists anticipate further bleaching events in the Southern Caribbean, around Florida, and at the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef, the world’s second-largest reef. 



"El Niño is dissipating, but the ocean is still anomalously hot. It won’t take much additional warming to push temperatures past the bleaching threshold," Manzello explained.



The distressing trend of coral bleaching poses a severe threat to marine biodiversity and the health of ocean ecosystems globally. 



This ongoing crisis underscores the urgent need for comprehensive measures to mitigate climate change and protect our planet's vital coral reefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-to-save-coral-reefs-from-bleaching">Tips to save coral reefs from bleaching</h2>



Following measures may potentially reduce the current rate of coral reefs bleaching:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions">Reduce greenhouse gas emissions</h3>



Shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. Lowering CO2 emissions reduces global warming, which is a major cause of coral bleaching. Elevated water temperatures stress corals, leading them to expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) they rely on for energy, causing bleaching.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protect-marine-areas">Protect marine areas</h3>



Designate and enforce Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) where activities such as fishing and mining are restricted. MPAs provide safe havens for corals and marine life, reducing stress from human activities and increasing resilience against bleaching events.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promote-sustainable-fishing">Promote sustainable fishing</h3>



Implement quotas and regulations to prevent overfishing, use of destructive fishing methods, and bycatch. Healthy fish populations maintain balanced ecosystems, which support coral health. Sustainable practices also prevent physical damage to coral structures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-control-coastal-development">Control coastal development</h3>



Enforce zoning laws and environmental impact assessments for coastal projects. Implement sustainable development practices. Reducing runoff from construction, agriculture, and other activities decreases sediment and nutrient pollution, which can smother corals and promote harmful algal blooms.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduce-pollution">Reduce pollution</h3>



Minimize the use of fertilizers and pesticides, improve waste management, and control plastic pollution. Lowering the amount of pollutants entering the ocean prevents water quality degradation that stresses coral reefs. Nutrient pollution can lead to eutrophication, causing algal blooms that block sunlight and deplete oxygen.



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Over 60% of global coral reefs face bleaching amid rising temperatures

In a disconcerting update from the U.S. National Oceanic and...

Fresh,Green,Corn,Plants,With,Roots

In the vast kingdom of plants, roots serve as the vital "mouths" through which they absorb water and nutrients, anchor themselves, grow, and thrive in the face of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental challenges</a>. 



Yet, the intricate mechanisms behind plant root growth have long remained a mystery. Now, an important study has solved this puzzle, revealing a surprising connection between plant root growth and a biological process familiar to those who practice fasting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-is-the-hero-of-plant-root-growth">Autophagy is the hero of plant root growth</h2>



Researchers from the University of Copenhagen's <a href="https://www1.bio.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biology</a>, led by Assistant Professor Eleazar Rodriguez, have discovered that a beneficial clean-up mechanism called autophagy plays a crucial role in the growth and strength of plant roots. 



Autophagy, which is also present in humans and has gained popularity as part of a health trend, helps cells dispose of various waste products during periods without food.



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-triggers-remarkable-changes-throughout-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fasting</a> has become popular as it seems to have a range of health-promoting effects in humans, as periods without food cause the body to activate a clean-up processes to dispose of various waste products in cells," explains Assistant Professor Eleazar Rodriguez.



"In our study, we have proven that the same mechanism, which also exists in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-pass-down-memories-to-help-offspring-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant kingdom</a>, plays a vital role in the ability of plant roots to grow and absorb water and nutrients for the rest of the plant," Rodriguez continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-autophagy">Understanding autophagy</h2>



The process of autophagy acts as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-and-feeding-cycle-is-crucial-for-healthy-aging/">cellular recycling</a> system, breaking down and repurposing old, damaged, or unnecessary components within the cell. 



By doing so, autophagy maintains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-restriction-slows-brain-aging-and-increases-lifespan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular health</a>, promotes survival during stress, and plays a crucial role in various physiological processes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Three types of autophagy</h3>



Cells carry out autophagy through three main pathways:



<ol>
<li>Macroautophagy: This is the most well-known form of autophagy, often referred to simply as "autophagy." In this process, a double-membraned vesicle called an autophagosome engulfs cellular components and fuses with a lysosome, where the contents are degraded.</li>



<li>Microautophagy: In this process, the lysosome directly engulfs small portions of the cytoplasm, including proteins and organelles, through invaginations in its membrane.</li>



<li>Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA): This highly selective process targets specific proteins that contain a particular amino acid sequence. These proteins are recognized by chaperone proteins and directly transported into the lysosome for degradation.</li>
</ol>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Benefits of autophagy</h3>



Autophagy provides numerous benefits to cells and organisms:



<ul>
<li>Cellular clean-up: By removing damaged or dysfunctional components, autophagy helps maintain cellular health and prevents the accumulation of toxic substances that can lead to disease.</li>



<li>Nutrient recycling: During periods of starvation or stress, autophagy breaks down cellular components to generate energy and building blocks for essential processes.</li>



<li>Immune defense: Autophagy plays a role in defending cells against invading pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, by targeting them for degradation.</li>



<li>Longevity: Increased autophagy has been linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-may-be-the-secret-to-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased lifespan</a> in various organisms, from yeast to mammals, likely due to its role in maintaining cellular health and preventing age-related diseases.</li>
</ul>



As research continues to uncover the complex mechanisms and far-reaching implications of autophagy, it becomes increasingly clear that this cellular self-cleaning process plays a vital role in maintaining health and preventing disease across various living organisms, from plants to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-root-growth-has-a-heartbeat">Root growth has a heartbeat</h2>



It is well-known that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auxin</a>, a plant hormone, controls plant growth, including root growth. Auxin acts as a fuel for a kind of heartbeat that pulsates in each root tip of a plant. 



Every four to six hours, auxin levels and the heartbeat in a plant's roots reach a maximum, triggering the growth of new roots.



"The movement of a root is almost like watching a snake slithering forward in search of water and nourishment in the soil. And we can see that the heartbeat is strongest every time the root meanders forth," says Eleazar Rodriguez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-autophagy-in-plant-root-growth">Role of autophagy in plant root growth</h2>



To understand the significance of autophagy in root growth, the researchers disabled the clean-up mechanism in their experiments. The results were striking.



"In our experiments, we disabled the clean-up mechanism to understand its significance. Imagine if every garbage collector in Copenhagen went on strike –- it wouldn't be long before trash filled the streets," notes Rodriguez.



The scientists observed the exact same thing happening in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-and-temperature-collaborate-to-boost-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant cells</a>, as the heartbeats that drive root growth became much weaker and went out of sync.



This allowed the researchers to conclude that autophagy helps maintain the perfect balance of different biochemical components, enabling the most efficient root growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-change">Implications for climate change</h2>



The new knowledge about plant roots could have significant implications in the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-way-of-telling-us-what-climate-they-can-survive-in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. As extended periods of drought and floods become more common, food security is increasingly threatened. Crops with roots that can grow even in these harsh conditions are crucial.



"Numerous methods to change the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic characteristics</a> of plants are available today. These can be used to get plants to develop longer roots, faster, and in doing so, become more resistant to droughts or floods," explains Ph.D. student Jeppe Ansbøl, a co-author of the study.



"One of the methods enlists the help of bacteria that live in symbiosis with the plant and can cause the plant to change its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-sleap-creating-new-plants-that-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth pattern</a>. Several companies in Denmark are working on this right now," noted Ansbøl.



The researchers believe that this new knowledge applies to all flowering plants and potentially more. In principle, crops like tomatoes, potatoes, rice, wheat, and corn could be altered to grow more and denser roots, thanks to this newfound understanding of how plants get their roots to grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-plant-root-growth-autophagy-discovery">Impact of plant root growth autophagy discovery</h2>



The discovery of the role of autophagy in plant root growth represents a significant step forward in our understanding of plants. 



"The more roots the plants have the more water and nutrients they can take, so the plants grow better faster. We're heavily dependent on plants because they feed us, extract CO2 from the atmosphere and produce the oxygen we breathe. As such, it is extremely important to understand them fully, to which end we have just taken a big step forward," concluded Rodriguez.



In summary, by harnessing this new knowledge and applying innovative techniques, such as genetic modification and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beneficial-plant-bacteria-likely-to-decline-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial symbiosis</a>, we can develop plants with more extensive and efficient root systems, better equipped to absorb water and nutrients in challenging environmental conditions. 



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of plant biology, we move closer to ensuring food security and sustainability in an ever-changing world, reminding us of the vital importance of understanding the complex mechanisms that sustain life on our planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44319-024-00142-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Reports</a>.



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Science finally learns what makes plant roots grow faster and stronger

In the vast kingdom of plants, roots serve as the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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