The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



-----



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

In the quest to promote healthier aging and prevent cognitive decline, scientists have been diligently studying the brain for years. 



While much is known about the risk factors that can accelerate brain aging, less has been uncovered about effective ways to maintain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-for-the-aging-brain-mediterranean-diet-protects-cognitive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a> as we grow older. 



However, recent research has shed new light on the crucial role that specific nutrients play in the healthy aging of the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-neuroscience-and-nutritional-science">Combining neuroscience and nutritional science</h2>



The study, published in Nature Aging, was led by Aron Barbey, director of the Center for Brain, Biology and Behavior at the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska–Lincoln</a>. 



At his side was Jisheng Wu, a doctoral student at Nebraska, and Christopher Zwilling, research scientist at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> at Urbana-Champaign. 



This brilliant team of scientists combined state-of-the-art innovations in neuroscience and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-in-nutrition-science-dna-barcoding-reveals-dietary-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutritional science</a> to conduct a multimodal study that identified a specific nutrient profile in participants who performed better cognitively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-two-types-of-brain-aging">Identifying two types of brain aging</h2>



The cross-sectional study enrolled 100 cognitively healthy participants, aged 65-75, who completed a questionnaire with demographic information, body measurements, and physical activity. 



Blood plasma was collected following a fasting period to analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient biomarkers</a>, and participants also underwent cognitive assessments and MRI scans. 



The efforts revealed two types of brain aging among the participants: accelerated and slower-than-expected. Interestingly, those with slower brain aging had a distinct nutrient profile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-boosting-beneficial-nutrients">Brain-boosting beneficial nutrients</h2>



The beneficial nutrient blood biomarkers identified in the study were a combination of 



<ul>
<li>Fatty acids: Vaccenic, gondoic, alpha linolenic, elcosapentaenoic, eicosadienoic, and lignoceric acids</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Antioxidants and carotenoids: Including cis-lutein, trans-lutein, and zeaxanthin</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Two forms of vitamin E: Found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds to name a few</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Choline: Found in egg yolks and fish, to name two examples</li>
</ul>



This profile is correlated with nutrients found in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-keeps-the-brain-sharp-even-in-old-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean diet</a>, which previous research has associated with healthy brain aging.



"We investigated specific nutrient biomarkers, such as fatty acid profiles, known in nutritional science to potentially offer health benefits," Barbey explained. 



This aligns with the extensive body of research in the field demonstrating the positive health effects of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-can-live-longer-on-the-mediterranean-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean Diet</a>, which emphasizes foods rich in these beneficial nutrients.



The present study identifies particular nutrient biomarker patterns that are promising and have favorable associations with measures of cognitive performance and brain health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Linking diet, cognition, and brain function</h2>



One of the unique aspects of this study is its comprehensive approach, which integrates data on nutrition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cheese-may-contain-nutrients-that-prevent-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a>, and brain imaging. 



"This allows us to build a more robust understanding of the relationship between these factors. We move beyond simply measuring cognitive performance with traditional neuropsychological tests," Barbey noted. 



"Instead, we simultaneously examine brain structure, function, and metabolism, demonstrating a direct link between these brain properties and cognitive abilities," he continued.



According to their research, these brain properties are directly linked to diet and nutrition, as revealed by the patterns observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-improves-sperm-quality-and-fertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient biomarkers</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-brain-aging-research">Next steps in brain aging research</h2>



The researchers plan to continue exploring this nutrient profile as it relates to healthy brain aging. Barbey noted that it's possible, in the future, that the findings will aid in developing therapies and interventions to promote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/olive-oil-can-boost-brain-health-and-fight-off-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. 



"An important next step involves conducting randomized controlled trials. In these trials, we will isolate specific nutrients with favorable associations with cognitive function and brain health, and administer them in the form of nutraceuticals," he said. 



This approach will allow the scientists to definitively assess whether increasing the levels of these specific nutrient profiles reliably leads to improvements in cognitive test performance and measures of brain structure, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/regular-daytime-napping-increases-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">function</a>, and metabolism.



In addition to the ongoing research, Barbey is also co-editing an upcoming special collection for the Journal of Nutrition, titled "Nutrition and the Brain — Exploring Pathways to Optimal Brain Health Through Nutrition." 



"The National Institutes of Health recently launched a ten-year strategic plan to significantly accelerate nutrition research. Our work directly aligns with this critical initiative, aiming to contribute valuable insights into how dietary patterns influence brain health and cognitive function," Barbey concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-gracefully-with-a-healthy-brain">Aging gracefully with a healthy brain</h2>



In summary, this intriguing study led by Aron Barbey and his team at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has opened new doors in our understanding of the intricate relationship between nutrition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-weight-training-boosts-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. 



By combining cutting-edge techniques in neuroscience and nutritional science, they have identified a specific nutrient profile that is associated with slower brain aging and better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walking-quantifiably-improves-brain-health-and-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive performance</a>. 



This profile, rich in fatty acids, antioxidants, and other beneficial compounds, aligns with the well-known Mediterranean diet and offers hope for future interventions aimed at promoting healthier brain aging. 



As researchers continue to explore this fascinating field through randomized controlled trials and special collections like the upcoming "Nutrition and the Brain" in the Journal of Nutrition, we move closer to unlocking the secrets of optimal brain health and developing targeted strategies to nourish our minds throughout our lives.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-024-00150-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



-----



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Eating foods with these key nutrients will dramatically slow brain aging

In the quest to promote healthier aging and prevent cognitive...

In the vast expanse of the universe, stars are born, live, and die in a cosmic dance that has captivated astronomers for centuries. While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-a-new-way-that-stars-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life cycle of stars</a> is well understood, there are still many mysteries surrounding their collapse and spectacular deaths. 



A recent study by astrophysicists at the University of Copenhagen's <a href="https://nbi.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niels Bohr Institute</a> has shed new light on a perplexing phenomenon: the sudden disappearance of stars from the night sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-collapse-into-black-holes-instead-of-supernova">Stars collapse into black holes instead of supernova</h2>



In our solar system, the Sun will eventually expand and become unstable, transforming into a white dwarf. 



However, if it were eight times heavier, it would explode as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a>, ejecting energy and mass before becoming a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-jets-cannibals-neutron-stars-explosions-contain-life-elements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> or black hole.



While this process is well-known for massive stars, there is still much to learn about their spectacular deaths.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-supernova">What is a supernova?</h3>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> is a powerful and luminous explosion that marks the end of a massive star's life. When a star at least eight times more massive than our Sun exhausts its nuclear fuel, its core collapses under its own gravity. 



This collapse triggers a violent explosion that releases an enormous amount of energy, often outshining an entire galaxy for a brief period. 



The explosion ejects the star's outer layers into space at incredible speeds, creating a spectacular light show visible across vast cosmic distances. 



The remnant of the star's core becomes either a neutron star or, if the original star was extremely massive, a black hole. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-known-cosmic-explosion-has-been-visible-for-three-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Supernovae</a> play a crucial role in the universe by recycling heavy elements and shaping the evolution of galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basics-of-black-holes">Basics of black holes</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-black-hole-found-in-our-galaxy-is-33-times-the-suns-mass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Black holes</a> cannot be observed directly, as not even light can escape them. They can be identified by the energy emitted from the gasses around them or by their influence on nearby stars. 



There are three types of black holes:



<ul>
<li>Stellar black holes: Form from stars more than eight times the mass of the Sun. There may be as many as 100 million in our galaxy.</li>



<li>Supermassive black holes: Found at the center of nearly all galaxies, including our Milky Way's Sagittarius A*.</li>



<li>Intermediate-mass black holes: Recently identified as the missing link between stellar and supermassive black holes.</li>
</ul>



In this study, scientists have provided strong evidence that very massive stars can collapse completely without a supernova. The findings suggest that a star's gravitational pull can be so strong that it collapses into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-magnetic-fields-may-be-key-features-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> without an explosion.



“We believe that the core of a star can collapse under its own weight. Instead of a bright supernova explosion, the collapse continues until the star becomes a black hole,” said lead author Alejandro Vigna-Gómez, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-stellar-evolution-and-star-collapse">Rethinking stellar evolution and star collapse</h2>



This discovery is linked to the phenomenon of disappearing stars, which has intrigued astronomers for many decades. 



“Were one to stand gazing up at a visible star going through a total collapse, it might just disappear from the heavens. The collapse is so complete that no explosion occurs, nothing escapes, and one wouldn't see any bright supernova in the night sky,” Vigna-Gómez explained.



“Astronomers have actually observed the sudden disappearance of brightly shining stars in recent times. We cannot be sure of a connection, but the results we have obtained from analyzing VFTS 243 has brought us much closer to a credible explanation," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-witnessing-a-star-collapse-in-vfts-243">Witnessing a star collapse in VFTS 243</h2>



As an unusual binary star system, VFTS 243 features a large star and a black hole roughly 10 times the Sun's mass. Despite the presence of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, there are no signs of a supernova explosion. 



“Normally, supernova events in star systems can be measured in various ways after they occur. But despite the fact that VFTS 243 contains a star that has collapsed into a black hole, the traces of an explosion are nowhere to be found," Vigna-Gómez said.



VFTS 243 is an extraordinary system. The orbit of the system has barely changed since the collapse of the star into a black hole. 



The system shows no significant “natal kick,” an acceleration typically caused by a supernova explosion, and the orbit remains symmetrical. Analysis points to the black hole in VFTS 243 forming immediately, with energy lost via neutrinos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-natal-kick-eludes-to-star-collapse">Missing “natal kick” eludes to star collapse</h2>



Supernova explosions typically give newborn neutron stars or black holes a “natal kick” due to asymmetric matter emission. This kick accelerates the compact object. In the VFTS 243 system, the black hole's lack of acceleration suggests it did not undergo a supernova. 



The system's symmetrical orbit further supports the absence of an explosion. The researchers estimate that mass and energy released during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-would-it-be-like-to-fall-into-a-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole's formation</a> were consistent with a scenario involving neutrinos rather than baryonic matter.



“Our results highlight VFTS 243 as the best observable case so far for the theory of stellar black holes formed through total collapse, where the supernova explosion fails and which our models have shown to be possible," added co-author Irene Tamborra, an astrophysicist at the same university. 



"This is an important reality check for these models. And we certainly expect that the system will serve as a crucial benchmark for future research into stellar evolution and collapse," Tamborra concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-astrophysics">Pushing the boundaries of astrophysics</h2>



In summary, the discovery of VFTS 243 and the groundbreaking research conducted by the astrophysicists at the Niels Bohr Institute have proposed a new theory for understanding the mysterious phenomenon of disappearing stars and the formation of black holes. 



This study challenges our current understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/cosmic-cannibalism-and-stellar-winds-unveiling-the-secrets-of-messier-76/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a> and collapse, offering compelling evidence for the existence of complete stellar collapse without the signature supernova explosion. 



As we continue to explore the cosmos and unravel its secrets, the lessons learned from VFTS 243 will undoubtedly shape the future of stellar research, guiding us toward a deeper comprehension of the life and death of stars and the awe-inspiring intricacies of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-a-star-vanish-from-the-pleiades">Did a star vanish from the Pleiades?</h2>



Stars inexplicably disappearing have been frequently observed in modern times. For example, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/590053" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A Survey about Nothing</a>” led by astrophysicist Chris Kochanek actively looks for such stars and explanations for their disappearance.



Curious readers can explore historical accounts of disappearing stars, often tied to supernova scenarios. One example is the Greek myth associated with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/look-for-jupiter-saturn-and-the-pleiades-in-the-november-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleiades star cluster</a>, known as the Seven Sisters. 



The myth tells of the seven daughters of the titan Atlas and the nymph Pleione. According to the story, one daughter married a mortal and went into hiding, providing a poetic, albeit unscientific, explanation for why only six stars are visible in the Pleiades.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.191403" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Stellar collapse: Why stars sometimes vanish from our skies

In the vast expanse of the universe, stars are born,...

Climate change is a pressing issue that affects every corner of our planet. As temperatures continue to rise, it's crucial to understand how this warming trend will impact our summer and winter seasons and the environment around us. 



Recent research has shed light on the effects of a warmer climate on seasonal temperatures, providing valuable insights into what we can expect in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-shells-tell-an-ancient-climate-story">Fossil shells tell an ancient climate story</h2>



Niels de Winter, an earth scientist affiliated with the Department of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://vu.nl/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam</a> and the AMGC research group at <a href="https://www.vub.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a>, led a team of researchers in an important study published in Science Advances. 



The team analyzed the chemical composition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/fossil-Arctica-islandica_summer-warming_climate-history_Doris-Smudde_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil shells</a> from Antwerp, Belgium, which originated from mollusks such as oysters, cockles, and scallops that lived during the Pliocene epoch, approximately three million years ago.



By studying the shells from the Pliocene, the researchers were able to take a "snapshot" of the climate and gain insight into the difference between the seasons in a warmer world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-pliocene-epoch">Understanding the Pliocene epoch</h2>



During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-cooling-trend-reversed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pliocene</a>, which lasted lasted from 5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago, Earth experienced a warmer and more stable climate compared to the present day, with average global temperatures around 2-3°C higher than now.



This warmer climate had significant impacts on the environment and life on Earth. Sea levels were higher, as much as 25 meters (82 feet) above present levels, due to the melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. The higher sea levels affected the coastlines and the distribution of land and ocean.



The Pliocene also saw the expansion of grasslands and savannas, as well as the evolution and diversification of many modern plant and animal species. 



Mammals such as horses, camels, and wolves roamed the landscapes, while early human ancestors, like Australopithecus, began to emerge in Africa.



The warmer climate of the Pliocene allowed for the growth of lush forests in regions that are now tundra, like the Canadian Arctic. The distribution of flora and fauna differed from today, with many species inhabiting areas they no longer occupy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clumped-isotope-analysis-method">Clumped isotope analysis method</h2>



To conduct their study, the researchers employed the "clumped isotope analysis" method. This innovative technique allows scientists to examine the composition of shells in greater detail by measuring the occurrence of rare heavy isotopes of both oxygen and carbon in the carbonate from which shells are built. 



These isotopes are more common in shells that formed in colder waters, making it possible to reconstruct the temperature in which the shells were formed.



The clumped isotope analysis method offers a more accurate approach to temperature reconstructions compared to conventional methods, as it does not rely on assumptions about the composition of the seawater in which the mollusks grew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-summer-temperatures-vs-winter-temperatures">Summer temperatures vs. winter temperatures</h2>



The key finding of the study is that in a warmer climate like the Pliocene, summers warm much more than winters. 



While winters became about 2.5 degrees warmer, temperatures during summer were approximately 4.3 degrees higher. 



This pattern is consistent with the projections of future climate models, which predict a similar amount of warming for the year 2100.



Niels de Winter, the lead researcher, explains the implications of this finding: "We will likely experience stronger temperature differences between summer and winter, and the chance of heatwaves during the summer will increase."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-summer-temperature-rise">Preparing for future summer temperature rise</h2>



This study of fossil shells from the Pliocene epoch provides a compelling glimpse into the potential impact of climate change on seasonal temperatures. 



By employing cutting-edge research methods like clumped isotope analysis, scientists have uncovered valuable insights into how summers warm faster than winters in a warmer climate. 



These findings enhance our understanding of the Earth's past but also serve as a stark warning about the consequences of continued global warming. 



As we grapple with the challenges of climate change, studies like this one underscore the importance of taking action to mitigate its effects and adapt to the changes that lie ahead. 



By heeding the lessons of the past, we can work towards a more sustainable and resilient future for our planet and all its inhabitants.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl6717" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Summers warm faster than winters throughout Earth's climate history

Climate change is a pressing issue that affects every corner...

In a surprising twist, rare earth elements, traditionally sourced from overseas, have been discovered within coal mines in the United States.



Recent research has uncovered significant concentrations of rare earth elements (REEs) in active coal mines in the Uinta coal belt of Colorado and Utah. These elements are crucial for the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-utilities-may-be-100-percent-renewable-energy-by-2060/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a> and the advancement of high-tech applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-earth-elements-in-coal-mines">Finding rare earth elements in coal mines</h2>



A study led by the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> has documented elevated levels of REEs in these coal mines and opened the possibility of extracting these critical minerals. 



This dual resource stream could provide valuable metals used in renewable energy technologies, according to Lauren Birgenheier, an associate professor of geology and geophysics at the university.



"The model is if you're already moving rock, could you move a little more rock for resources towards energy transition?" Birgenheier explains. "In those areas, we're finding that the rare earth elements are concentrated in fine-grain shale units, the muddy shales that are above and below the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-breakthrough-g7-commits-to-close-coal-plants-by-2035/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal</a> seams."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-earth-element-potential-in-utah-and-colorado">Rare earth element potential in Utah and Colorado</h2>



The link between coal and REE deposits has been established elsewhere, but little data had previously been gathered or analyzed in Utah and Colorado’s coal fields. The initial phase of this project aimed to collect additional data to determine if these deposits were worth pursuing in the West.



"The goal of this phase-one project was to collect additional data to try and understand whether this was something worth pursuing in the West," Michael Vanden Berg, Energy and Minerals Program Manager at the Utah Geological Survey, elaborates. "Is there rare earth element enrichment in these rocks that could provide some kind of byproduct or value added to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coal-mining-aquatic-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal mining</a> industry?"



Researchers analyzed 3,500 samples from 10 mines, four mine waste piles, seven stratigraphically complete cores, and some coal ash piles near power plants. The results were promising. 



"The coal itself is not enriched in rare earth elements. There's not going to be a byproduct from mining the coal, but for a company mining the coal seam, could they take a couple feet of the floor at the same time? Could they take a couple feet of the ceiling? Could there be potential there? That's the direction that the data led us," Vanden Berg concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-viability-of-rare-earth-elements">Economic viability of rare earth elements</h2>



To measure the levels of rare earths in the samples, the team used two methods: a hand-held device for quick field readings and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in an on-campus lab. 



"We’re mostly using this portable x-ray fluorescence device, which is an analysis gun that we hold to the rock for two minutes, and it only gives us five or six of the 17 rare earth elements," Birgenheier says. 



If samples showed concentrations higher than 200 ppm, a more comprehensive analysis was conducted using mass spectrometry.



The Department of Energy has set 300 ppm as the minimum concentration for rare earth mining to be economically viable. 



For this study, concentrations greater than 200 ppm were considered “REE enriched.” The study found the highest prevalence of such concentrations in coal-adjacent formations of siltstone and shale, while sandstone and the coal itself were mostly devoid of rare earths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-cm-project">CORE-CM project</h2>



This research was conducted in collaboration with the <a href="https://geology.utah.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utah Geological Survey</a> and <a href="https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado Geological Survey</a> as part of the Department of Energy-funded Carbon Ore, Rare Earth and Critical Minerals (<a href="https://netl.doe.gov/resource-sustainability/critical-minerals-and-materials/core-cm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CORE-CM</a>) project. 



The findings will support a grant request for an additional $9.4 million in federal funding to continue this promising research.



While these metals are essential for U.S. manufacturing, especially in high-end technologies, they are predominantly sourced from overseas. 



Michael Free, a professor of metallurgical engineering and the principal investigator on the DOE grant, highlights the importance of this project. 



"When we talk about them as 'critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-minerals-have-now-been-classified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minerals</a>,' a lot of the criticality is related to the supply chain and the processing. This project is designed around looking at some alternative unconventional domestic sources for these materials," Free explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-critical-mineral-research">New era of critical mineral research</h2>



To date, the team has analyzed 11,000 samples, far exceeding the number used in the published study.



The next steps involve determining how much rare earth ore is present, likely in collaboration with colleagues at the <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> and New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology (<a href="https://nmt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NMT</a>).



This innovative research could revolutionize the way we view <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-breakthrough-g7-commits-to-close-coal-plants-by-2035/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal mines</a>, transforming them from relics of the fossil fuel era into valuable sources of critical minerals for the future of renewable energy.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2024.1381152/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers of Earth Science</a>.



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Crucial 'rare earth elements' discovered in coal mines in the US

In a surprising twist, rare earth elements, traditionally sourced from...

Many people might think the search for life on Mars ended when NASA's first rovers revealed its barren, inhospitable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>. 



However, scientists at the University of Minnesota continue to explore the possibility of life on Mars by expanding their understanding of the extreme conditions that can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-study-will-help-identify-which-planets-can-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">support life</a> on Earth. 



They are rethinking what extraterrestrial life might look like, keeping the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-may-have-finally-discovered-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian life</a> very much alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perchlorate-salts-brines-and-life-on-mars">Perchlorate salts, brines, and life on Mars</h2>



Perchlorate salts are compounds that contain the perchlorate anion (ClO4-), which is a stable oxyanion of chlorine in its highest oxidation state (+7). 



Due to their oxidizing properties and high oxygen content, they are often used as oxidizers in rocket propellants, fireworks, and explosives.



In recent years, NASA missions have discovered abundant perchlorate salts on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' surface</a>. These salts can absorb atmospheric water, forming concentrated solutions known as brines. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perchlorate brines</a> are highly concentrated aqueous solutions that contain dissolved perchlorate salts. These brines often form naturally in arid and semi-arid regions, such as the Atacama Desert in Chile and parts of the southwestern United States. 



The perchlorate salts in these brines primarily originate from the atmospheric deposition of perchlorate, which is thought to be produced by photochemical reactions involving chlorine species in the upper atmosphere.



Since liquid water is essential for life, NASA's strategy to search for life on Mars is to "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">follow the water</a>." As a result, perchlorate brines have become a significant focus of research.



Understanding the formation and behavior of perchlorate brines on Earth can provide valuable insights into the potential habitability of Mars and other planetary environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-geochemical-environment">Mars' geochemical environment</h2>



New research published in Nature Communications by investigators at the University of Minnesota <a href="https://biology.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Biological Sciences</a> examines how Mars' unique geochemical environment could have shaped life, past or present. 



Led by Assistant Professor Aaron Engelhart, the team studied two types of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and protein enzymes from Earth to determine their functionality in perchlorate brines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rna-and-protein-enzymes">RNA and protein enzymes</h2>



The research revealed several key findings:



<ul>
<li>All the RNAs worked surprisingly well in perchlorate brines.</li>



<li>Protein enzymes did not function as effectively as RNAs in these brines. Only proteins evolved in Earth's extreme environments, such as those living at high temperatures or in high salt, could function.</li>



<li>In perchlorate brines, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> enzymes performed unique actions, like generating new molecules that incorporate chlorine atoms, a reaction previously unobserved by scientists.</li>
</ul>



"Taken together, these results show that RNA is uniquely well-suited to the very salty environments found on Mars, and could be found on other bodies in space," said Engelhart. "This extreme salt tolerance could influence how life may have formed on Mars in the past or how it is forming in the conditions on Mars today."



The team is continuing to explore the chlorination chemistry they discovered and other reactions that RNA can perform in high-salt conditions. 



Their ongoing research aims to further understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potential-signs-of-life-found-on-nearby-exoplanet-wasp-107b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential for life</a> in extreme environments, both on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Life on Mars and the future of astrobiology</h2>



The study's implications extend beyond finding possibilities of life on Mars. The findings contribute to the broader field of astrobiology by demonstrating how life might adapt to extreme conditions on other planetary bodies. 



This knowledge is crucial as scientists prepare for missions to other moons and planets in our solar system, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-jupiter-moon-europa-deep-ocean-shifting-icy-shell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-alien-life-exists-on-enceladus-scientists-have-unambiguous-proof-they-will-find-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Titan</a>.



By exploring the limits of life on Earth and beyond, researchers are laying the groundwork for future discoveries that could answer one of humanity's most profound questions: Are we alone in the universe?



In summary, the ongoing research into Martian brines and their potential to support life represents a significant step forward in our quest to understand the possibilities of life beyond Earth. 



As scientists continue to uncover the secrets of Mars' geochemical environment, the dream of discovering extraterrestrial life comes closer to reality.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48037-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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The search for life on Mars is now stronger than it's ever been

Many people might think the search for life on Mars...

Alzheimer’s disease typically manifests with noticeable cognitive decline, but some individuals defy this expectation, showing no symptoms despite having the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a>. 



This intriguing phenomenon raises a vital question: how do certain individuals maintain their health well into old age, free from Alzheimer's symptoms? 



Factors like genetics, lifestyle, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> certainly play a role, but recent research sheds new light on this resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-typical-symptoms-of-alzheimer-s-disease">Typical symptoms of Alzheimer's disease</h2>



Alzheimer's disease presents a range of symptoms that gradually worsen over time. In the early stages, memory loss becomes noticeable, particularly with recently learned information. 



The person struggles to remember important dates or events and increasingly relies on memory aids. They may repeatedly ask the same questions and need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-brain-cells-age-faster-and-are-more-common-in-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frequent reminders</a>.



As the disease progresses, individuals experience confusion and disorientation, often getting lost in familiar places. 



They have trouble understanding visual images and spatial relationships, which may affect their ability to read, drive, or judge distances. They may lose their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-smell-may-be-the-earliest-warning-of-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a> and/or taste.



Alzheimer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-link-between-sex-hormones-and-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patients</a> find it difficult to make decisions and solve problems, and they may withdraw from work or social activities.



They experience changes in mood and behavior, becoming suspicious, depressed, fearful, or anxious. Communication becomes challenging as they struggle to find the right words, follow conversations, or engage in discussions.



In advanced stages, Alzheimer's patients require full-time care as they lose awareness of their surroundings and the ability to perform basic tasks like dressing, eating, and using the bathroom independently. They may experience changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-may-lower-levels-of-alzheimers-abnormal-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep patterns</a>, wandering, and episodes of aggression or agitation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-alzheimer-s-cases-with-no-symptoms">Identifying Alzheimer's cases with no symptoms</h2>



Researchers Luuk de Vries, Joost Verhaagen, Dick Swaab, and Inge Huitinga explored this mystery using brain tissue from the <a href="https://www.brainbank.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Netherlands Brain Bank</a>, a unique repository housing brain tissue from over 5,000 deceased donors, complete with precise neuropathological diagnoses and detailed medical histories.



Among the samples, the researchers identified a rare subgroup of individuals who had Alzheimer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-particles-in-air-pollution-may-lead-to-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> processes in their brains but showed no clinical symptoms during their lifetimes. 



This group, termed the 'resilient' group, challenges our understanding of Alzheimer’s.



"What is happening in these people at a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/olive-oil-can-boost-brain-health-and-fight-off-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular</a> and cellular level was not clear yet. We therefore searched for donors with brain tissue abnormalities who did not show <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bodybuilding-supplement-called-helps-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive decline</a> in the Brain Bank," Luuk de Vries explained. 



"Of all the donors, we found 12, so it is quite rare. We think that genetics and lifestyle play an important role in resilience, but the exact mechanism is still unknown," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-lifestyle-in-resilience">Role of lifestyle in resilience</h2>



Research suggests that lifestyle factors significantly impact the delay of Alzheimer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-plays-a-major-role-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease onset</a>. Regular exercise, cognitive activity, and social engagement all contribute positively. 



Moreover, individuals in cognitively demanding jobs may accumulate more Alzheimer’s pathology before exhibiting symptoms. 



Understanding the molecular basis of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-training-improves-mental-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> could pave the way for developing medications that replicate these protective processes in Alzheimer’s disease patients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-in-gene-expression">Key findings in gene expression</h2>



The team’s analysis revealed several altered processes in the resilient group. Notably, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-signals-released-during-exercise-boost-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astrocytes</a> produced more of the antioxidant metallothionein. 



Astrocytes, which act as the brain's garbage collectors, play a protective role, but they often enlist the help of microglia, which can exacerbate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-driving-the-shocking-link-between-diabetes-and-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammation</a>. 



In the resilient group, a microglia pathway commonly linked to Alzheimer's was less active.



Moreover, the resilient individuals exhibited a relatively normal “unfolded protein response,” which removes misfolded toxic proteins, unlike Alzheimer’s patients. 



Indicators also suggested an increase in mitochondria in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-brain-cells-age-faster-and-are-more-common-in-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain cells</a>, enhancing energy production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-alzheimer-s-disease-research">Future of Alzheimer's disease research</h2>



These findings are promising but raise further questions about causality. Determining whether these processes initiate the disease or are a response requires more research, particularly through cell or animal model experiments. 



As Luuk de Vries noted, "It remains difficult to determine from human data which process initiates the disease process. You can only demonstrate this by changing something in cells or animal models and seeing what happens next. That is the first thing we have to do now."



Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind this resilience could pave the way for new treatments or even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaccines</a>, offering hope to millions affected by Alzheimer's disease.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-024-01760-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Neuropathologica Communications</a>.



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How and why some brains resist Alzheimer's disease symptoms

Alzheimer’s disease typically manifests with noticeable cognitive decline, but some...

Meerkats are fascinating group-living animals known for their complex social structures and constant communication. They are almost always on the move, making continuous series of noises that one might call "meerkat language."



Recently, researchers have decoded how wild meerkats use two specific types of vocal interactions to stay in touch with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matriarchal-meerkat-leaders-are-driven-by-testosterone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group mates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-meerkat">What is a meerkat?</h2>



Meerkats, small carnivorous mammals belonging to the mongoose family, inhabit the arid regions of southern Africa. These highly social creatures live in close-knit groups called mobs or gangs, which typically consist of up to 30 individuals. 



Meerkats work together to survive in their harsh desert environment, with each member of the mob playing a specific role in maintaining the group's safety and well-being.



Meerkats exhibit a unique behavior known as sentinel duty, where one meerkat stands on its hind legs atop a termite mound or other elevated location to keep watch for potential threats. 



The sentinel alerts the mob of any approaching predators, such as birds of prey or jackals, by letting out a distinct bark or whistle. 



Upon hearing the alarm, the other meerkats quickly scramble to safety, either by diving into their underground burrows or seeking shelter in nearby vegetation. Meerkat languages plays a very key role in their sentinel system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-meerkat-language">Understanding meerkat language</h2>



A recent study by researchers from the Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> and the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> sheds light on this vocal behavior.



Published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, the study reveals that meerkats use two distinct types of calls: "close calls" and "short notes."



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-close-calls-the-call-and-response-mechanism">Close calls: The call-and-response mechanism</h3>



"Close calls" function as a call-and-response exchange between meerkats. 



Postdoctoral researcher Vlad Demartsev explains, “The first sound, a ‘close call,’ is like a call-and-response exchange between the animals. When one meerkat calls, a neighbor is likely to reply.” 



This type of communication ensures that the meerkats remain in constant touch with one another, reinforcing their social bonds and coordination.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-notes-the-broadcast-system">Short notes: The broadcast system</h3>



On the other hand, "short notes" are used to announce an individual's presence without necessarily expecting a direct reply. 



“The second call, named a ‘short note,’ announces ‘I am here’ but doesn’t necessarily get a direct reply from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a> partners,” Demartsev adds. 



These calls are more like a broadcast aimed at the whole group, ensuring that everyone is aware of each other's presence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocal-exchanges-in-meerkat-language">Vocal exchanges in meerkat language</h2>



The researchers liken the "close calls" to having a conversation with a partner, while "short notes" are similar to making an announcement to a large crowd. 



“It is impossible to hold a conversation with 20 people, so we normally talk to one partner at a time," says Demartsev. 



Close calls facilitate a direct exchange between meerkats, whereas short notes are more generalized broadcasts.



To understand these vocal interactions better, Demartsev and Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, along with their team, deployed collars on meerkats at the Kalahari Research Centre in South Africa. 



These collars recorded continuous audio data and GPS positions every second. 



This innovative approach allowed the researchers to create synchronized recordings, pinpointing which animal produced which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-monitor-biodiversity-through-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sound</a> at what time and location.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-group-cohesion-in-meerkats">Importance of group cohesion in meerkats</h2>



The behavioral ecologists then prepared a vocal timeline for the entire group and analyzed the data. 



“We saw that when a close call is given, there is a very high probability that within less than half a second a nearby neighbor will respond. But when we have a short note, we do not have this pattern. All of them are calling nearly at the same time and there is no structure,” Demartsev explains. 



This analysis highlighted that meerkat calls are not isolated events but part of a continuous stream of communication. Staying in a group is crucial for meerkats. 



They use these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sperm-whales-learn-the-vocal-styles-of-their-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal</a> mechanisms to avoid getting separated, which can lead to increased risks of predation or harassment by other groups. 



“When meerkats are by themselves, there is a higher chance of predation or harassment by other groups. Generally, meerkats, therefore, try very, very hard to stay together,” says Demartsev.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-meerkat-language-and-vocal-strategies">Understanding meerkat language and vocal strategies</h2>



This interesting study provides new insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-vocal-communication-to-coordinate-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal communication</a> strategies of meerkats. 



By understanding the nuances of meerkat calls, researchers can better appreciate how these animals maintain their social structures and survive in the wild. 



The findings underscore the importance of continuous communication in meerkat groups and open up new avenues for studying animal behavior and social interactions.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2023.0188" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Decoding the secret language of meerkats

Meerkats are fascinating group-living animals known for their complex social...

Researchers have uncovered a surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and the onset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-reduces-the-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autoimmune diseases</a>, such as lupus. The findings suggest that these mental health and neurological symptoms could serve as early warning signs of disease flares.



This revelation comes from a comprehensive study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King's College London</a>, published in eClinicalMedicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-nightmares-and-disease">Connection between nightmares and disease</h2>



The research team surveyed 676 people living with lupus and 400 clinicians, as well as conducting in-depth interviews with 69 individuals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-greater-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systemic autoimmune</a> rheumatic diseases (including lupus) and 50 clinicians. 



The study aimed to explore the timing and prevalence of 29 neurological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spending-67-minutes-daily-outdoors-boosts-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> symptoms, such as depression, hallucinations, and loss of balance, in relation to disease flares.



Professor David D'Cruz from Kings College London, a senior author of the study, shared his experience.



"For many years, I have discussed nightmares with my lupus patients and thought that there was a link with their disease activity," D'Cruz recounted. 



"This research provides evidence of this, and we are strongly encouraging more doctors to ask about nightmares and other neuropsychiatric symptoms -- thought to be unusual, but actually very common in systemic autoimmunity -- to help us detect disease flares earlier," D'Cruz concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Prevalence of disrupted dreams and hallucinations</h2>



The study revealed that three in five patients experienced disrupted dream sleep, with a third reporting this symptom appearing over a year before the onset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-food-diets-linked-to-rise-in-autoimmune-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lupus disease</a>. 



Hallucinations were reported by just under one in four patients, with 85% experiencing this symptom around the onset of the disease or later.



Interestingly, when interviewed, three in five lupus patients and one in three with other rheumatology-related conditions reported increasingly disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-dreams-influence-our-perceptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreaming sleep</a> – usually vivid and distressing nightmares – just before their hallucinations. These nightmares often involved being attacked, trapped, crushed, or falling.



One patient from Ireland described their nightmares as: "Horrific, like murders, like skin coming off people, horrific…I think it's like when I'm overwhelmed which could be the lupus being bad…So I think the more stress my body is under then the more vivid and bad the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasomnia-awake-dream-exploring-sleepwalking-deep-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreaming</a> would be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Power of "daymares"</h2>



The study interviewers found that using the term "daymares" to discuss hallucinations often led to a "lightbulb" moment for patients, as it felt less frightening and stigmatized.



A patient from England shared their experience: "[When] you said that word daymare and as soon as you said that it just made sense, it's like not necessarily scary, it's just like you've had a dream and yet you're sitting awake in the garden…I see different things, it's like I come out of it and it's like when you wake up and you can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confronting-nightmares-good-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remember your dream</a> and you're there but you're not there… it's like feeling really disorientated, the nearest thing I can think of is that I feel like I'm Alice in Wonderland."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Recognizing nightmares as disease symptoms</h2>



Lead author Dr. Melanie Sloan from the Department of Public Health and Primary Care at the University of Cambridge emphasized the importance of clinicians discussing these symptoms with their patients and documenting each individual's progression of symptoms. 



Recognizing nightmares and hallucinations as early flare symptoms may provide an "early warning system," enabling improved care and potentially reducing clinic times by averting flares at an earlier stage.



Professor Guy Leschziner is a study author, neurologist at <a href="https://www.guysandstthomas.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guys' and St Thomas' hospital</a>, and author of The Secret World of Sleep. He added, "We have long been aware that alterations in dreaming may signify changes in physical, neurological and mental health, and can sometimes be early indicators of disease."



Leschziner went on to say that this is the first evidence that nightmares may also help monitor such a serious autoimmune condition like lupus. The science indicates this is an important prompt to patients and clinicians alike that sleep symptoms may tell us about impending relapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Misdiagnosis and increased awareness</h2>



The study also highlighted the importance of recognizing these symptoms to avoid misdiagnosis. Some patients reported initially being misdiagnosed or even hospitalized with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-sleep-deprivation-linked-to-adult-psychosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychotic episode</a> and/or suicidal ideation, which was only later found to be the first sign of their autoimmune disease.



A nurse from Scotland shared her experience: "I've seen them admitted for an episode of psychosis and the lupus isn't screened for until someone says 'oh I wonder if it might be lupus'...but it was several months and very difficult… especially with young women and it's learning more that that is how lupus affects some people and it's not anti-psychotic drugs they needed, it's like a lot of steroids."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-disease-by-monitoring-nightmares">Managing disease by monitoring nightmares</h2>



The fascinating research led by Dr. Melanie Sloan and Professor David D'Cruz uncovers the surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and autoimmune disease flares. 



By recognizing these mental health and neurological symptoms as potential early warning signs, clinicians and patients can work together to improve disease management and enhance the quality of life for those living with autoimmune conditions. 



This study emphasizes the importance of open communication between patients and healthcare providers, as well as the need for increased awareness within the medical community. 



As we continue to explore this fascinating link, we move closer to a future where autoimmune diseases are detected earlier, managed more effectively, and their impact on individuals' lives is minimized.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S258953702400213X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EClinicalMedicine</a>.



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Nightmares and hallucinations may be early warning signs of serious disease

Researchers have uncovered a surprising connection between nightmares, hallucinations, and...

Focused,African,Business,Man,In,Headphones,Writing,Notes,In,Notebook

It's a phrase we've all heard countless times: "practice makes perfect." But is there any truth behind this age-old adage? According to new research, the answer is a resounding yes. Practice, it turns out, is the key to mastering a skill, as it solidifies the neural memory pathways in your brain.



In a collaborative effort, researchers from <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rockefeller University</a> and <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> have shed new light on the mechanisms behind skill acquisition and memory formation. 



Their findings, published in the prestigious journal Nature, reveal that memory representations in working memory circuits transform from an unstable state to a solid one as an individual repeatedly practices a task over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-the-brain-in-action">Observing the brain in action</h2>



To unravel the mysteries of learning and memory, the research team employed a cutting-edge technology developed by Rockefeller's Alipasha Vaziri. 



This innovative tool allowed them to simultaneously observe an astonishing 73,000 cortical neurons in mice as the animals learned and repeated a specific task over a two-week period.



"In this work we show how working memory -- the brain's ability to hold and process information -- improves through practice," explains Vaziri, head of Rockefeller's Laboratory of Neurology and Biophysics. 



Vaziri expects that these insights will advance our understanding of learning and memory while helping to address memory-related disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-practice-in-memory-transformation">Role of practice in memory transformation</h2>



As the mice in the study practiced identifying, recalling, and repeating a sequence of odors, the researchers witnessed a remarkable transformation in their working memory circuits. 



Initially, these circuits were unstable, but with repetitive training, they began to stabilize and solidify -- a process the researchers refer to as "crystallization."



"The findings essentially illustrate that repetitive training not only enhances skill proficiency but also leads to profound changes in the brain's memory circuits, making performance more accurate and automatic," Vaziri elaborates.



UCLA Health neurologist and corresponding author Peyman Golshani offers a beautiful analogy.



"If one imagines that each neuron in the brain is sounding a different note, the melody that the brain is generating when it is doing the task was changing from day to day, but then became more and more refined and similar as animals kept practicing the task," Golshani said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illuminating-the-brain-with-light-beads-microscopy">Illuminating the brain with light-beads microscopy</h2>



One of the most significant aspects of this study was the use of light-beads microscopy (LBM), a high-speed volumetric imaging technology developed by Vaziri. 



LBM enables cellular resolution in vivo recording of neuronal populations up to 1 million neurons -- a 100-fold increase compared to previous methods.



Initially, the researchers used standard two-photon imaging of smaller neuronal populations in upper cortical layers but failed to find evidence for memory stabilization from practice. 



It was only when they employed LBM to record from over 70,000 neurons in deeper cortical regions that they observed the crystallization of working memory representations accompanying the mice's increasing mastery of the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practice-learning-and-the-future-of-memory-research">Practice, learning, and the future of memory research</h2>



With these fascinating findings, the researchers have opened up new avenues for exploring the intricacies of learning and memory. 



"In the future, we may tackle the role of different neuronal cell types involved in mediating this mechanism, and in particular the interaction of different types of interneurons with excitatory cells," Vaziri shares.



"We're also interested in understanding how learning is implemented and could be transferred into a new context -- that is, how the brain could generalize from a learned task to some new unknown problems," Vaziri concluded.



In summary, the study highlights the profound impact of repetition on skill mastery and memory formation. By employing cutting-edge imaging technology, the researchers have unveiled the neural mechanisms that transform working memory representations from an unstable state to a solid one as individuals practice a task repeatedly. 



This research deepens our understanding of learning and memory and paves the way for future investigations into the intricacies of the brain. 



As we continue to explore the neuronal underpinnings of skill acquisition and memory, we move closer to unlocking the full potential of the human mind and developing innovative approaches to address memory-related disorders.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07425-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Practice actually does 'make perfect' when it comes to memory and mastering skills

It's a phrase we've all heard countless times: "practice makes...

Yoga, mindfulness, meditation, breathwork, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wim-hof-method-helps-fight-stress-inflammation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> have surged in popularity due to their potential health benefits. While these practices often lead to positive and sometimes transformational effects, they can also induce altered states of consciousness.



Recent research by a team from <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts General Hospital</a>, part of the <a href="https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mass General Brigham</a> healthcare system, sheds light on how common these altered states are. 



The findings, published in the journal Mindfulness, reveal that such experiences are more prevalent than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-common-yet-complex-experiences">Meditation: Common yet complex experiences</h2>



Dr. Matthew D. Sacchet, the director of the Meditation Research Program at Massachusetts General Hospital and an associate professor of Psychiatry at <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>, led the study. 



"With more people engaging in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-training-improves-mental-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mindfulness</a>, meditation, and other contemplative practices, we anticipated that altered states and their effects might be common. Our international surveys confirmed that these experiences are widespread," Sacchet explained.



The study surveyed 3,135 adults in the US and the UK. Surprisingly, 45% reported experiencing non-pharmacologically induced altered states of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-deeply-enhances-meditation-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consciousness</a> at least once in their lives. 



This far exceeds the estimated 5% (US) to 15% (UK) of people who have practiced mindfulness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-effects-of-altered-states-in-meditation">Varied effects of altered states in meditation</h2>



Participants reported a range of experiences, including:



<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-deeply-enhances-meditation-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Derealization</a> (feeling detached from the environment)</li>



<li>Unitive experiences (a sense of unity or "oneness")</li>



<li>Ecstatic thrills</li>



<li>Vivid perceptions</li>



<li>Changes in perceived size</li>



<li>Bodily heat or electricity</li>



<li>Out-of-body experiences</li>



<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perception</a> of non-physical lights</li>
</ul>



"Altered states were most often followed by positive and sometimes transformational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-rate-influences-our-perception-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> on well-being. However, negative effects were also reported, with a small subset experiencing substantial suffering," Sacchet noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-better-support">The need for better support</h2>



Among those who experienced suffering, 13% reported moderate or greater suffering, and 1.1% claimed life-threatening suffering. Alarmingly, 63% of these individuals did not seek help.



"Rather than being extremely unusual and rare, our study found that altered states of consciousness are a common variant of normal human experience," Sacchet said. 



"Yet, those who experience negative outcomes often do not seek help, and clinicians are poorly prepared to support these experiences. This represents a public health issue, as some people struggle to integrate these experiences into their existing conceptions of self and reality," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meditation-states-research-and-care">Meditation states research and care</h2>



The study highlights the need for further research to identify individual characteristics associated with experiencing altered states and the potential suffering that may follow. 



"We should not dismiss meditation and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heated-yoga-shows-promise-as-a-treatment-for-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> as inherently dangerous. Instead, we need to better understand and support meditators to fully realize the potential of these practices," Sacchet emphasized



Similar to psychotherapy, pharmacology, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-gives-rise-to-unique-physical-sensations-in-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapeutic tools</a>, it's important to implement and support people engaging with these powerful practices effectively.



Sacchet also pointed out that ancient meditation manuals from wisdom traditions might help classify and manage altered states, saying, "These manuals could provide guidance on how to better manage difficult altered states. More research is clearly needed to explore this possibility."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-education-and-meditation-teaching">Clinical education and meditation teaching</h2>



Dr. Sacchet called for the development of clinical curricula on altered states of consciousness to better equip clinicians. 



"Those who teach meditation should ensure that participants are aware of potential risks. Implementing safeguards will help ensure that these promising and powerful practices are taught and experienced safely," he concluded.



This research highlights the complex nature and importance of altered states of consciousness experienced during meditation and similar practices. These states can have profound effects on individuals, often leading to significant positive changes in well-being. 



However, they can also cause negative experiences for some, ranging from mild discomfort to substantial suffering. The findings emphasize the necessity for a balanced approach to these practices. It is essential to harness their potential benefits while being aware of and mitigating the associated risks. 



The study calls for better support systems and education for both practitioners and clinicians. By understanding these altered states better, healthcare providers can offer appropriate guidance and support to those who experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venting-your-anger-ineffective-does-more-harm-than-good/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difficulties</a>. 



The research advocates for the development of clinical curricula and safeguards in teaching meditation, ensuring that these powerful practices are approached with the necessary caution and understanding to maximize their benefits and minimize any harm.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12671-024-02356-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mindfulness</a>.



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Meditation reveals common altered states of consciousness

Yoga, mindfulness, meditation, breathwork, and other practices have surged in...

Woman,Using,Daily,Activity,Tracking,App,On,Mobile,Phone,Showing

In today's age of smartwatches and fitness trackers, monitoring exercise through step counts has become second nature for many. However, current physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-exercise-routine-can-cut-your-risk-of-early-death-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> guidelines do not specify step goals for health benefits. 



A recent study suggests that both step and time-based exercise targets offer similar health <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-reduces-aging-related-fat-buildup-in-tissues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a>. This means choosing a goal that suits personal preferences is more important than the type of goal itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goal-of-exercise-in-promoting-longevity">Goal of exercise in promoting longevity</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> have explored the effectiveness of step and time-based exercise goals. 



Their study, published in JAMA Internal Medicine, found that both approaches are equally beneficial in reducing the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-prove-how-many-daily-steps-you-should-take-to-avoid-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early death</a> and cardiovascular disease.



Regular physical activity is known to reduce the risk of chronic illnesses and infections, promoting longevity. 



The current U.S. guidelines recommend adults engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resistance-exercise-may-be-the-secret-to-relieving-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> (like brisk walking) or 75 minutes of vigorous activity (such as jogging) per week. 



These guidelines, last updated in 2018, were primarily based on studies using self-reported physical activity data. However, the rise of wearable fitness devices has popularized step counts as a metric for tracking physical activity and exercise goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-step-based-physical-activity-guidelines">Step-based physical activity guidelines</h2>



“We recognized that existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leisure-time-physical-activity-is-a-powerful-tool-to-prevent-stroke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> guidelines focus primarily on activity duration and intensity but lack step-based recommendations,” said lead author Rikuta Hamaya, MD, PhD, MS. 



“With more people using smartwatches to measure their steps and overall health, we saw the importance of ascertaining how step-based measurements compare to time-based targets in their association with health outcomes – is one better than the other?”



To explore this, researchers collected data from 14,399 women participating in the Women’s Health Study. 



These women, aged 62 and older and free from cardiovascular disease and cancer, wore research-grade wearables for seven consecutive days between 2011 and 2015 to record their physical activity. They only removed the devices for sleep or water-related activities. 



Annual questionnaires tracked health outcomes, particularly death from any cause and cardiovascular disease, with follow-ups continuing until the end of 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-health-effects-of-physical-activity">Long-term health effects of physical activity</h2>



During the device wear period, participants averaged 62 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise per week and accumulated a median of 5,183 steps per day. 



Over a median follow-up of nine years, approximately 9% of participants passed away, and 4% developed cardiovascular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evening-exercise-can-reduce-major-health-risks-of-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a>. 



Higher levels of physical activity, whether measured by steps or time, were linked to significant risk reductions in death or cardiovascular disease. 



The most active women had 30-40% lower risks compared to the least active. Additionally, those in the top three quartiles of physical activity outlived those in the bottom quartile by an average of 2.22 to 2.36 months over nine years, regardless of BMI differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-vs-time-pros-and-cons">Steps vs. time: Pros and cons</h2>



While both exercise goals effectively portray health status, each has its advantages and downsides. 



Step counts may not account for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cardiorespiratory-fitness-cuts-early-death-risks-by-53-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fitness</a> level differences. For example, a 20-year-old and an 80-year-old walking for 30 minutes at moderate intensity will have different step counts. 



Steps are straightforward to measure and less subject to interpretation compared to exercise intensity. They also capture sporadic movements in daily life, which are common among older individuals.



"For some, especially younger individuals, exercise may involve activities like tennis, soccer, walking, or jogging, all of which can be easily tracked with steps. However, for others, it may consist of bike rides or swimming, where monitoring the duration of exercise is simpler,” said Hamaya.



That's why it's important for physical activity guidelines to offer multiple ways to reach goals. Movement looks different for everyone, and nearly all forms of movement are beneficial to our health."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-goals-and-metrics-in-shaping-guidelines">Exercise goals and metrics in shaping guidelines</h2>



The study has several limitations. It relied on a single assessment of time and step-based physical activity metrics. 



Additionally, the majority of the participants were white women of higher socioeconomic status, and because the study was observational, it does not establish causality. 



Furthermore, Hamaya intends to gather more data through a randomized controlled trial to better understand the relationship between time and step-based exercise metrics and health outcomes.



"The next federal physical activity guidelines are scheduled for 2028. Our findings underscore the importance of including step-based targets to allow for flexible goals that can accommodate individuals with varying preferences, abilities, and lifestyles," stated senior author I-Min Lee, MBBS, ScD.



This study underscores the importance of finding a personal exercise tracking method—whether in steps or minutes—that is sustainable and effective for you, enabling you to reap the health benefits of regular physical activity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2818632" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.



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Step and time-based exercise goals are equally beneficial

In today's age of smartwatches and fitness trackers, monitoring exercise...

As humans, we often perceive our lives as separate from the vast, intricate ecosystems that surround us. Yet, a recent study from Oregon State University (<a href="https://oregonstate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU</a>) serves as a stark reminder of the interconnectedness of nature, revealing how a seemingly isolated event -- a boom in purple sea urchin populations -- can have cascading effects reaching as far as the mighty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-reveal-alarming-effects-of-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gray whale</a> in kelp <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-kelp-forests-existed-32-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelp-forest-in-peril-due-to-sea-urchin">Kelp forest in peril due to sea urchin</h2>



Kelp forests are the underwater equivalents of terrestrial rainforests, teeming with life and providing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-have-protected-california-kelp-forests-for-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crucial habitats</a> for countless marine species. However, a silent predator has been wreaking havoc on these vital ecosystems: the purple sea urchin.



In the aftermath of the Sea Star Wasting Syndrome pandemic, which decimated sea star populations, the purple sea urchin population exploded. 



These spiky invertebrates are voracious kelp consumers, and their unchecked numbers have led to the destruction of vast kelp forests off the Oregon coast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overpopulation-of-purple-sea-urchins-in-kelp-forests">Overpopulation of purple sea urchins in kelp forests</h2>



The consequences of the ecological shift caused by the overpopulation of purple sea urchins extend far beyond the kelp itself. Because of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-farms-could-help-clean-up-coastal-nitrogen-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">importance to ecosystems</a>, the loss of kelp forests triggers a cascade of negative effects throughout the food web.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Kelp forests and zooplankton</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooplankton</a>, which are microscopic organisms, play a crucial role in the marine food web. 



These tiny creatures form the base of the marine food chain, serving as a primary food source for many larger marine animals, including fish and whales. Kelp forests provide zooplankton with essential shelter and a steady supply of nutrients.



As purple sea urchins devour kelp forests, the habitat for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-decline-changes-the-behavior-of-zooplankton/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> diminishes. The destruction of these forests means that zooplankton lose their primary habitat and the protection it offers from predators. 



Moreover, the kelp forests contribute to a stable environment where zooplankton can thrive and reproduce. Without this environment, their populations decline sharply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Gray whales struggle in kelp forests</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-that-forage-on-the-pacific-coast-are-smaller-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gray whales</a> rely heavily on zooplankton as a significant part of their diet. The decline in zooplankton populations directly affects the gray whales' ability to find enough food. 



As kelp forests vanish and zooplankton numbers drop, gray whales face a severe food shortage. This lack of food leads to several adverse outcomes for the whales:



<ul>
<li>Reduced foraging efficiency: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-whaling-wiped-two-species-of-whales-in-the-eastern-atlantic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gray whales</a> have to spend more time and energy searching for food, which can deplete their energy reserves.</li>



<li>Poor health: With insufficient food, gray whales can suffer from malnutrition. This weakens their overall health, making them more susceptible to disease and less capable of reproducing successfully.</li>



<li>Migration patterns: Food scarcity can force gray whales to alter their migration routes, potentially leading them into less favorable or more dangerous waters.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Broader ecological implications</h2>



The decline of kelp forests and the subsequent impact on zooplankton and gray whales exemplify the interconnectedness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-lionfish-global-domination-mediterranean-sea-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>. When one component of the ecosystem is disrupted, the effects ripple through the entire system. 



Other species that rely on zooplankton, either directly or indirectly, are also affected. The loss of kelp forests can lead to reduced biodiversity, altered species compositions, and weakened ecosystem resilience.



"This study shows the cascading impacts of a change in the coastal ocean ecosystem in a way that has not been documented before," said Lisa Hildebrand, the lead author of the study. "These impacts extend indirectly to a top predator, the gray whale, and it affects them in a negative way."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-the-sea-otters">Loss of the sea otters</h2>



The absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-sea-stars-could-help-save-kelp-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunflower sea stars</a>, the primary predator of sea urchins, exacerbated the problem in kelp forest. Historically, sea otters also played a role in controlling urchin populations, but they were hunted to extinction in Oregon waters over a century ago.



"In ecology, we think about the important role of redundancy in an ecosystem," said Leigh Torres, an associate professor at OSU and co-author of the study. 



"This is a good example of an ecosystem that lacks redundancy due to the loss of sea otters. The system could not sustain itself without both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-use-tools-to-access-larger-prey-and-protect-their-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea otters</a> and the sea stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimmer-of-hope">Glimmer of hope</h2>



Despite the dire situation, there are signs of recovery. In 2023, researchers observed a decrease in urchin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-sea-urchin-parasite-has-emerged-on-opposite-sides-of-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numbers</a> and a resurgence of kelp, zooplankton, and gray whales. This suggests that the ecosystem may be slowly returning to a state of balance.



"We think and we hope this system is recovering and we'll continue to monitor it through our research," said Torres. "Oregonians love having gray whales feeding along our coast and they need a healthy habitat to ensure that continues."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelp-forest-and-sea-urchin-connection">Kelp forest and sea urchin connection</h2>



The plight of the gray whale and the kelp forest crisis serves as a cautionary tale about the delicate balance of nature. It highlights the importance of protecting biodiversity and the interconnectedness of species.



"These impacts extend indirectly to a top predator, the gray whale, and it affects them in a negative way," notes Lisa Hildebrand. It's a reminder that our actions, or inactions, can have ripple effects far beyond our immediate surroundings.



The future of the gray whale and the kelp forest hangs in the balance. It is a future that depends on our ability to learn from the past, to protect the environment, and to recognize that we are not separate from nature, but an integral part of it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-59964-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Gray whales struggle as purple sea urchins destroy kelp forests

As humans, we often perceive our lives as separate from...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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