The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/successful-launch-for-nasas-psyche-mission-to-study-an-asteroid-worth-10000-quadrillion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psyche spacecraft</a>, after successfully completing its six-month checkup, is now advancing deeper into space with its electric thrusters, which emit a characteristic blue glow. 



Launched on October 13, 2023, from <a href="https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kennedy Space Center</a> aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy, Psyche is more than 190 million miles away from Earth, traveling at a speed of approximately 84,000 mph.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sci-fi-worthy-xenon-thrusters">"Sci-fi-worthy" xenon thrusters</h2>



The spacecraft is in “full cruise” mode, using its solar electric propulsion system to propel itself toward the asteroid belt, specifically targeting the metal-rich asteroid Psyche, which it will reach in 2029.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/psyche-spacecraft_xenon-engine_sci-fi-worthy_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The spacecraft's thrusters</a>, which NASA refers to as "sci-fi-worthy," work by expelling charged xenon ions, creating a gentle yet effective thrust. 



The pressure exerted by these thrusters is comparable to the weight of three quarters in your hand, demonstrating the efficiency of this propulsion system. 



Over time, with no atmospheric drag to slow it down, Psyche will accelerate to speeds of up to 124,000 mph.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reaching-the-asteroid-psyche-nbsp">Reaching the asteroid Psyche&nbsp;</h2>



Upon reaching its destination, Psyche will spend about two years orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a>, gathering data to help scientists understand the formation of rocky planets with metallic cores, including Earth.&nbsp;



The asteroid Psyche, which is about 173 miles across at its widest point, is believed to be the partial core of a planetesimal, providing a unique opportunity to study planetary building blocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psyche-s-impressive-performance-nbsp">Psyche's impressive performance&nbsp;</h2>



During its first 100 days in space, Psyche underwent a thorough check of all its systems. The engineering systems are functioning flawlessly, exactly as anticipated. 



The trio of science instruments has been operating seamlessly, without any issues. The magnetometer has also demonstrated exceptional performance, successfully detecting an eruption of charged particles from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Sun</a>. 



Similarly, the gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer also picked up on this solar event. In a remarkable milestone, the twin cameras of the imaging instrument captured their <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia25960-first-images-from-nasas-psyche" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first images</a> this past December.



The magnetometer even detected an eruption of charged particles from the Sun. Henry Stone, Psyche project manager at NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, confirmed that the equipment is working beautifully and expressed excitement.



“Until this point, we have been powering on and checking out the various pieces of equipment needed to complete the mission, and we can report they are working beautifully,” said Stone. “Now we are on our way and looking forward to an upcoming close flyby of Mars.”



Psyche will utilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>' gravity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Psyche-Mars.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slingshot itself toward the asteroid</a>, allowing its thrusters to return to full cruise mode after the maneuver. 



The Deep Space Optical Communications (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/deep-space-optical-communications-dsoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DSOC</a>) technology aboard the spacecraft has already demonstrated impressive performance, transmitting data at a rate comparable to broadband internet from over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-receives-deep-space-laser-message-psyche-mission-140-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">140 million miles away</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-special-about-the-psyche-asteroid">What is special about the Psyche asteroid?</h2>



The Psyche asteroid is a unique object in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-earth-like-planet-may-be-hiding-just-beyond-neptune/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>, primarily because of its composition. It's believed to be predominantly made up of metallic iron and nickel, similar to the Earth's core, which sets it apart from other asteroids that are usually rocky or icy.&nbsp;



This has led scientists to speculate that Psyche might be the exposed core of an early planet that lost its rocky outer layers due to a series of violent collisions.



Located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, Psyche orbits the Sun and has been the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psyche-giant-metallic-asteroid-will-soon-reveal-secrets-of-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subject of interest</a> not only because of its composition but also because it offers a rare glimpse into the violent history of collisions and accretion that helped form the terrestrial planets.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extremely-valuable-asteroid-nbsp">Extremely valuable asteroid&nbsp;</h2>



The Psyche asteroid is considered extremely valuable primarily due to its composition. It is thought to be rich in metals like iron, nickel, and possibly even rarer metals like gold, platinum, and cobalt, which are highly valuable on Earth.&nbsp;



This composition suggests that Psyche could be the exposed nickel-iron core of a protoplanet, offering a unique opportunity to study an object that might reveal the building blocks of planet formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-psyche-nbsp">Studying Psyche&nbsp;</h3>



From a scientific perspective, studying Psyche could provide insights into the processes that occur in the interiors of terrestrial planets, which are normally hidden beneath miles of rock. By examining Psyche up close, scientists hope to learn more about the history and dynamics of planetary cores, including Earth's.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mining-psyche-for-metals">Mining Psyche for metals</h3>



Economically, while the idea of mining Psyche for its metals has captured the public's imagination, the feasibility of such an operation remains purely speculative and currently beyond our technological reach.&nbsp;



However, the estimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psyche-asteroid-is-worth-10000-quadrillion-and-nasa-is-sending-a-space-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">economic value</a> of the metals in Psyche could be in the quadrillions of dollars, highlighting the potential economic impact if space mining were to become feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psyche-is-a-milestone-in-deep-space-exploration">Psyche is a milestone in deep space exploration</h2>



As Psyche continues its journey through the solar system, it marks a significant milestone in deep space exploration. The mission's success could provide us with unprecedented insights into the formation and evolution of rocky planets, bringing us one step closer to understanding our own world's origins.



With its innovative propulsion system, advanced scientific instruments, and "sci-fi-worthy" technology demonstrations, NASA's Psyche mission is a testament to human ingenuity and our relentless pursuit of knowledge. 



As we eagerly await the spacecraft's arrival at its destination, we can only imagine the discoveries that await us in the heart of an asteroid.



The Psyche mission is managed by <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, with contributions from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, <a href="https://www.maxar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maxar Technologies</a>, and NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/kennedy/launch-services-program/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Launch Services Program</a>. As the 14th mission in NASA’s Discovery Program, it aims to enhance our understanding of planetary cores and the history of our solar system.



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Psyche engages "sci-fi-worthy" thrusters en route to $10,000 quadrillion asteroid

NASA's Psyche spacecraft, after successfully completing its six-month checkup, is...

Regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-sunlight-enhances-libido/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun exposure</a> might act as a natural fat burner, according to a recent study. It's commonly believed that people are less hungry on sunny days, and now researchers have found an explanation. UV radiation lowers hunger hormones but increases norepinephrine, a stress hormone that breaks down fat and converts white fat, which stores energy, into brown fat, which burns energy. 



This study, conducted on mice by dermatologists at <a href="http://www.snuh.org/global/en/main.do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seoul National University Hospital</a> in South Korea, showed that UV exposure led to increased norepinephrine, preventing weight gain even with higher calorie intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-the-benefits-of-uv-rays-nbsp">Harnessing the benefits of UV rays&nbsp;</h2>



According to the experts, these findings could lead to new ways to harness the benefits of UV rays for treating obesity without increasing cancer risk. However, they caution against using tanning beds or excessive sun exposure due to the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melanoma-has-been-replaced-as-the-deadliest-form-of-skin-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin cancer</a>, including melanoma. 



“This study elucidates the mechanism by which UV exposure can increase appetite while inhibiting weight gain,” said lead author Jin Ho Chung, a dermatologist at Seoul National University Hospital.&nbsp;



“Notably, the fact that UV radiation lowers leptin levels and increases norepinephrine, thereby promoting the browning of subcutaneous fat and increasing energy expenditure, provides a groundbreaking clue for the development of obesity treatment strategies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uv-radiation-enhances-fat-breakdown">UV radiation enhances fat breakdown</h2>



The study showed that mice exposed to UV radiation for 12 weeks, whether on a normal or high-fat diet, did not gain weight. UV radiation increased norepinephrine levels, enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-morning-exercise-may-burn-more-fat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fat breakdown</a> and converting white fat to brown fat, which burns energy to produce heat. 



Despite an increased appetite, the mice’s bodies converted the extra energy to heat rather than storing it as fat. Thus, UV exposure impacts energy metabolism and homeostasis processes beyond just skin effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-methods-to-replicate-the-positive-effects-nbsp">Safe methods to replicate the positive effects&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers plan to develop new strategies to mimic UV radiation's effects without the associated risks. “Because UV exposure can accelerate skin aging and promote skin cancer, it is advisable to minimize UV exposure and protect the skin with sunscreen,” said co-author Dong Hun Lee, a dermatologist at the same institution.&nbsp;



These findings, published in the <a href="https://www.jidonline.org/article/S0022-202X(24)00206-9/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Investigative Dermatology</a>, offer insights that could lead to new treatments for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-the-epidemic-crisis-of-our-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> and better metabolic regulation, emphasizing the broader role of UV exposure in the body's energy management systems. Further studies aim to develop safe methods to replicate the positive effects of UV exposure without the harmful consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-benefits-of-uv-radiation-nbsp">Additional benefits of UV radiation&nbsp;</h2>



UV radiation plays a crucial role in the synthesis of vitamin D in the skin, which is vital for bone health, immune function, and reducing inflammation.&nbsp;



Sunlight exposure, which includes UV light, can enhance mood and energy levels by boosting the release of serotonin in the brain. UV radiation is also used therapeutically to treat various skin conditions such as psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, and acne through controlled exposure.



Additionally, UV light has powerful disinfection capabilities, effectively killing bacteria and viruses, making it widely utilized in water purification and medical sanitation. It helps in regulating the body's circadian rhythms, promoting healthy sleep patterns.&nbsp;



In the agricultural sector, UV radiation influences the growth, development, and flowering times of plants, showcasing its broader ecological impacts. These benefits underscore the importance of balancing safe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV exposure</a> with protective measures to harness its positive effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-obesity-nbsp">More about obesity&nbsp;</h2>



Obesity is a complex condition characterized by an excessive amount of body fat, which can significantly impact health. It is typically defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher. The causes of obesity are multifaceted, including genetic, behavioral, metabolic, and hormonal influences.&nbsp;



Obesity is a major risk factor for several chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and certain cancers. It also increases the likelihood of developing sleep apnea, osteoarthritis, and liver disease.



Obesity rates have been rising globally, making it a major public health challenge. This trend is fueled by a shift towards higher intake of energy-dense foods that are high in fat and sugars, and a decrease in physical activity due to the increasingly sedentary nature of many forms of work, changing modes of transportation, and increasing urbanization.



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Can sunbathing help you lose weight? UV radiation triggers fat burning 

Regular sun exposure might act as a natural fat burner,...

The ocean, our planet's vast blue heart, has been sending out CO2 alert signals for years. Rising sea levels, acidification, and coral bleaching are just a few of the symptoms of an ocean under immense distress. 



Now, in a landmark decision, an international court has confirmed what many scientists and activists have long suspected: carbon dioxide (CO2), the notorious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a>, is officially a pollutant of the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-pollution-in-ocean">CO2 pollution in ocean</h2>



Imagine a courtroom where the plaintiff isn't an individual, but the entire ocean itself. Nine small island nations, facing the devastating effects of rising sea levels, took their case to the <a href="https://www.itlos.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea</a>. 



Their argument? The CO2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-reveals-that-co2-is-rising-at-the-fastest-rate-in-50000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> from industrialized countries, absorbed by the oceans, constitute marine pollution. This landmark case saw these nations fighting for their survival, arguing that the greenhouse gases responsible for climate change are also polluting the marine environment.



The court, in its first-ever climate-related judgment, agreed. This ruling sends a powerful message: the ocean is not a limitless dumping ground for our carbon waste. 



"Anthropogenic GHG emissions into the atmosphere constitute pollution of the marine environment," the court declared, citing the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (<a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNCLOS</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-health">Ocean health </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-shifts-in-ocean-health-less-oxygen-more-heat-and-acidity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean's health</a> affects us all. It provides half the oxygen we breathe, playing a crucial role in maintaining the balance of our atmosphere. Additionally, the ocean regulates our climate by absorbing significant amounts of CO2 and heat. 



It supports a vast web of life, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic plankton</a> to the largest whales, forming the basis of the food chain that feeds billions of people. 



The degradation of our oceans threatens biodiversity, food security, and the stability of our climate, impacting everyone.



This ruling could have a ripple effect, influencing future climate litigation and potentially holding polluting countries accountable for the damage their emissions cause to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine environment</a>. 



"Some [island nations] will become uninhabitable in the near future because of the failure to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. We demand that the major polluters respect international law and stop the catastrophic harm against us before it is too late," notes Gaston Browne, the Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-ruling">Science behind the ruling</h2>



While this ruling might seem like a sudden wake-up call, the science behind it has been building for decades. Scientists have long known that the ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-from-the-last-ice-age-help-predict-oceans-response-to-continued-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorbs</a> about a quarter of the CO2 we release into the atmosphere. 



At first glance, this might seem beneficial, as it reduces the amount of greenhouse gases in the air. However, it comes at a steep price.



When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid in a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean acidification</a>. This increases the acidity of the water, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. It's like a slow-burning chemical reaction that threatens the very foundation of ocean life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-impact-on-ocean-ecosystems">CO2 impact on ocean ecosystems</h2>



The effects of this acidification are already being felt around the world. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral reefs</a>, vibrant underwater cities that support a quarter of all marine species, are particularly vulnerable. 



Acidic water makes it difficult for corals to build their skeletons, leading to widespread bleaching and death.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rising sea levels</a>, another consequence of climate change, are threatening coastal communities and ecosystems. Low-lying islands, like those that brought this case to court, are facing an existential crisis. 



Their land is slowly being swallowed by the sea, a direct result of the greenhouse gases we've pumped into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimmer-of-hope">Glimmer of hope</h2>



While the situation is dire, this court ruling offers a glimmer of hope. It's a recognition that we can't ignore the ocean's plight any longer. 



"For the first time, an international court has recognized that the fates of two global commons -- the oceans and the atmosphere -- are intertwined and imperiled by the climate crisis," said Joie Chowdhury, a senior attorney at the <a href="https://www.ciel.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for International Environmental Law</a>.



This ruling could be a catalyst for change, pushing governments and industries to take more aggressive action to reduce emissions. 



It's a reminder that we're all connected to the ocean, whether we live by the coast or not. The ocean's health is our health, and it's time we started treating it with the respect it deserves.



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CO2 is declared an ocean pollutant by international court

The ocean, our planet's vast blue heart, has been sending...

Golden,Beer,Cans.the,Sale,Of,Products,And,Drinks,With,Addition

Move over, alcohol! Marijuana is now America's drug of choice. A recent <a href="https://www.samhsa.gov/data/data-we-collect/nsduh-national-survey-drug-use-and-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Survey on Drug Use and Health</a> revealed that more Americans are toking up daily than cracking open a cold one. 



It's a historic shift, fueled by widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-legalization-does-not-increase-youth-substance-abuse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legalization</a> and the persistent belief that weed is the "healthier" option. But is it really? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marijuana-legalization">Marijuana legalization</h2>



With 24 states waving the green flag for recreational marijuana, it's no surprise that weed is experiencing a popularity surge. 



The legalization movement has long championed marijuana's supposed safety, even leading the Biden administration to reclassify it as a less dangerous drug. But as the smoke clears, we're starting to see a different picture emerge.



Today's marijuana is significantly more potent, with some products boasting a staggering 90 percent THC – the psychoactive ingredient responsible for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-smokers-not-lazy-unmotivated-despite-stereotypes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high</a>. 



This surge in potency has sparked a wave of research, revealing a host of health concerns that can no longer be ignored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-dangers-of-cannabis">Hidden dangers of cannabis</h2>



Recent studies have painted a worrying picture of marijuana's potential risks. In Canada, hospital visits for cannabis poisoning among older adults tripled after legalization. 



In California, admissions for cannabis-related complications skyrocketed. And across the US, thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-teens-link-to-psychotic-disorders-stronger-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young people</a> are hospitalized annually for reasons linked to weed.



The culprits behind these hospital visits range from mental health crises, including psychotic breaks and suicide attempts, to heart and lung problems. 



There's even a bizarre vomiting condition called cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, thought to plague up to a third of regular users. 



And let's not forget the alarming rise in marijuana-related DUIs, a sobering reminder that weed can impair judgment and reaction times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-s-dark-side">Alcohol's dark side</h2>



Alcohol is no saint, of course. It's a well-known villain, linked to a list of health problems, including heart disease, liver damage, stroke, diabetes, and various cancers. Binge drinking is particularly dangerous, increasing the risk of heart disease and heart attacks.



The World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>) recently declared that no amount of alcohol is safe, a stark reminder of its potential to wreak havoc on our bodies. And the numbers don't lie: alcohol-related deaths far outnumber those linked to marijuana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marijuana-vs-alcohol">Marijuana vs. alcohol</h2>



While alcohol may reign supreme in physical harm, marijuana takes the crown for its devastating impact on mental health. Psychosis, a severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of touch with reality, can occur after just one joint or edible.



"Chemically speaking alcohol is water soluble. It is metabolized at a reliable steady rate in the urine," says Dr. Roneet Lev, an emergency medicine doctor. 



THC, the psychoactive component of marijuana is fat soluble. That means the drug likes to stick around the fatty parts of the body, namely the brain. 



Large population-based studies have shown that that the risk of cannabis induced psychosis can be up to 20 percent. That can happen after a single use. 



"Alcohol does not have the same risk for psychosis as marijuana. Alcoholics who develop psychosis do you after years of drinking, not after an episode of binge drinking," Dr. Lev concluded.



Tragic cases like that of a Californian audiologist Bryn Spejcher, who stabbed her date 108 times during a cannabis-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychosis</a>, highlight the extreme and violent nature of marijuana-related deaths. And let's not forget the countless children who have suffered brutal fates due to their parents' marijuana use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-marijuana-and-alcohol-on-brain">Impact of marijuana and alcohol on brain</h2>



Contrary to popular belief, marijuana addiction is a real and serious problem. Studies estimate that millions of Americans meet the criteria for marijuana use disorder. Research has even linked chronic marijuana use to an increased risk of depression and bipolar disorder.



So, which is worse: marijuana or alcohol? The answer is not as simple as you might think. Both substances carry significant risks, but the nature of those risks differs. 



Alcohol is more likely to cause physical harm, while marijuana poses a greater threat to mental health. And while alcohol-related deaths may be more numerous, those linked to marijuana tend to be more violent and extreme.



"We have decades of research on the health effects of drinking. But research on cannabis is still evolving and the public health consequences of its commercialized use -- in new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runners-high-cannabis-makes-exercise-more-enjoyable-and-boosts-motivation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">products</a> and doses -- will take years to understand," notes internal medicine physician Dr. Salomeh Keyhani.



Ultimately, the choice between marijuana and alcohol is a personal one. But armed with this knowledge, you can make a more informed decision about your health and well-being. Remember, moderation and responsible use are key to minimizing the risks associated with either substance.



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Is marijuana really safer than alcohol? Science weighs in

Move over, alcohol! Marijuana is now America's drug of choice....

Astronomers are diving deeper into the mysteries of Pluto, revealing compelling evidence of a vast liquid water ocean hidden beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-got-its-heart-in-a-violent-collision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf planet's icy surface</a>. 



The findings, published in the journal Icarus, provide new insights into the internal structure and composition of this distant world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-in-the-ocean-beneath-the-ice">What lies in the ocean beneath the ice?</h2>



Alex Nguyen, a graduate student in Earth, environmental and planetary sciences at <a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, led this new research. 



Along with his team, they used mathematical models and images from NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/new-horizons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Horizons spacecraft</a> to investigate Pluto's subsurface ocean. 



Co-authored by Patrick McGovern of the <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar and Planetary Institute</a> in Houston, the study sheds light on a long-standing debate about the possibility of liquid water on Pluto.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pluto-is-much-more-than-a-frozen-rock">Pluto is much more than a frozen rock</h2>



Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto in 1930. Initially classified as the ninth planet in our solar system, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) reclassified Pluto as a dwarf planet in 2006.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Orbit and size</h3>



Pluto orbits the Sun at an average distance of 5.9 billion kilometers, taking about 248 Earth years to complete one orbit. It is smaller than Earth's moon, with a diameter of about 2,372 kilometers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Composition and moons</h3>



Pluto consists mainly of rock and ice. Its surface features a variety of landscapes, including mountains, valleys, plains, and an ocean that we'll learn more about soon. The dwarf planet has a thin atmosphere composed primarily of nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide.



Pluto has five known moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, and Styx. Charon, the largest of these moons, is nearly half the size of Pluto itself.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pluto-s-ocean-fuels-cryovolcanoes">Pluto's ocean fuels cryovolcanoes</h3>



Traditionally, planetary scientists believed that Pluto's extremely cold surface temperature of -220°C, which causes even gases like nitrogen and methane to freeze solid, would make the existence of liquid water impossible.



As Nguyen explains, "Pluto is a small body. It should have lost almost all of its heat shortly after it was formed, so basic calculations would suggest that it's frozen solid to its core."



However, recent evidence, including the presence of cryovolcanoes that eject ice and water vapor, has led prominent scientists like William B. McKinnon, a professor at WUSTL, to suggest that Pluto likely harbors an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-ocean-layer-gas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean of liquid water</a> beneath its icy shell. 



Nguyen notes, "Although there is still some debate, it's now generally accepted that Pluto has an ocean."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-pluto-s-subsurface-secrets">Modeling Pluto's subsurface secrets</h2>



Nguyen and McGovern's study delves deeper into the properties of Pluto's hidden ocean. They created mathematical models to explain the cracks and bulges in the ice covering the Sputnik Platina Basin. 



This basin formed billions of years ago when a meteor collided with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/ice-capped-mountains-discovered-on-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a>. Their models suggest that the ocean lies beneath a water ice shell 40 to 80 kilometers (25 to 50 miles) thick. 



This thick layer of ice likely acts as a protective blanket, preventing the inner ocean from freezing solid.



The researchers also calculated the probable density or salinity of the ocean based on the fractures observed on the surface. 



"We estimated a sort of Goldilocks zone where the density and shell thickness is just right," Nguyen explains. 



Their findings suggest that Pluto's ocean is, at most, about 8% denser than Earth's seawater, comparable to Utah's <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-great-salt-lake-has-reached-historically-low-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Salt Lake</a>. If humans could somehow reach Pluto's ocean, they would effortlessly float.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-pluto-s-ocean">Significance of Pluto's ocean</h2>



The discovery of a liquid water ocean on Pluto has far-reaching implications for our understanding of the outer reaches of the solar system. 



As Nguyen passionately states, "From my perspective, it's a planet." Regardless of its official classification, Pluto's unique characteristics and potential for harboring liquid water make it a fascinating subject for scientific study.



While space agencies have no immediate plans to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eris-and-makemake-icy-dwarf-planets-in-our-own-solar-system-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">revisit Pluto</a>, the findings of this study lay the groundwork for future exploration and research.



The discovery of a liquid water ocean beneath Pluto's icy surface challenges our understanding of this distant world and opens up new avenues for planetary exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pluto-s-ocean-is-a-game-changer-for-planetary-science">Pluto’s ocean is a game changer for planetary science</h2>



In summary, as we continue to study Pluto and unravel its mysteries, we must keep an open mind about the possibilities that lie hidden within the depths of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-horizons-ultima-thule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>. 



This stunning research by Alex Nguyen and Patrick McGovern highilghts Pluto's internal structure and composition and invites us to reconsider our assumptions about the potential for liquid water and perhaps even life beyond Earth. 



As we look to the future of space exploration, Pluto's hidden ocean serves as a compelling reminder that the universe still holds many secrets waiting to be discovered.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103524000265" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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Pluto may not be a real planet, but it has a real big ocean

Astronomers are diving deeper into the mysteries of Pluto, revealing...

Jack,Russell,Dog,Waiting,A,The,Door,At,Home,With

In recent years, cognitive tests for dogs have become a popular tool for measuring canine traits in their everyday behavior. These tests provide a fascinating glimpse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canine-personality-traits-are-not-strongly-influenced-by-breed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine intelligence</a>.



However, it has remained unclear whether these cognitive traits are reflected in a dog's day-to-day activities. 



Do dogs who excel in these tests find it easier to live with humans? Are they easier to train? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-and-cognitive-traits">Dog behavior and cognitive traits</h2>



An interesting new study at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> attempts to answer these questions.



The research found that dogs with good self-control and a tendency to seek human help in problem situations exhibit more desirable behaviors in daily life. Conversely, impulsiveness and a strong independent streak can pose challenges for pet owners.



"We found surprisingly many connections between everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-truth-the-reality-behind-canine-dna-testing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> behavior and cognitive traits, even after taking into account factors like age, sex, background, and training history," says Doctoral Researcher Saara Junttila from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartdog-test-window-into-the-canine-mind">smartDOG test: Window into the canine mind</h2>



The study analyzed data from 987 Finnish dogs that had undergone the <a href="https://www.smartdog.fi/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smartDOG</a> cognitive test battery, developed by Docent of Animal Behavioral Science Katriina Tiira. 



This series includes five tests that measure dogs' ability to read human gestures, impulse control, problem-solving ability, strategy, and logical reasoning. 



The results, published in the journal Animal Behaviour, showed direct links between these cognitive traits and everyday behavior in four of the tests.



To understand the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-variation-predicts-behavior-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs in their daily lives</a>, the researchers sent two validated surveys to the owners of the participating dogs. These surveys gathered detailed information on various aspects of the dogs' behavior.



"It's impossible to collect such data relying on research funding alone. Instead, you have to specifically combine commercial tests and research," notes Tiira.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-is-a-balancing-act-every-day">Dog behavior is a balancing act every day</h2>



One of the key tests in the study was the so-called impossible task, designed to measure primary problem-solving strategies. 



When faced with a difficult task, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-algorithm-will-improve-work-and-home-placement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> might try to solve it on their own, seek human help, or abandon the task altogether. 



The study found that dogs that frequently asked humans for help were more obedient and easier to train. These dogs also had fewer behavior issues, such as pulling on the leash, stealing food, running away, and chewing on objects.



The cylinder test, which measures self-control, also showed a strong connection to everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-behavioral-journey-of-recently-adopted-shelter-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> and obedience. In this test, dogs must retrieve a treat from a transparent cylinder by going to the open end. Dogs that made more mistakes in this test were found to be more impulsive and harder to train.



"It appears that good impulse control could make everyday co-existence with the owner easier, while impulsiveness can make it considerably more difficult," Junttila explains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-working-and-sporting-dogs">Behavior of working and sporting dogs</h2>



Interestingly, traits that may be challenging in a pet dog can be advantageous in working dogs or dogs involved in sports. 



For example, impulsiveness can be beneficial in tasks requiring quick reactions and high excitability. Similarly, a dog's independence can be a valuable trait in scent work, where reliance on human guidance might be less important.



These findings can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dog-owners-cope-well-when-their-pups-misbehave/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a> and trainers better understand and manage canine behavior. They can also guide the selection of puppies with traits that suit specific needs or lifestyles. 



"In an earlier study, we observed differences between breeds and sexes in different test sections, and these results can together help in choosing a suitable individual puppy," says Tiira.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-cognitive-tests-to-learning-speed">Linking cognitive tests to learning speed</h2>



The study also explored the connection between cognitive tests and learning speed.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-celebrating-all-the-ways-that-dogs-make-life-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> that performed well in the logical reasoning test were assessed by their owners to be faster learners. 



Additionally, dogs that were quick learners in everyday behavior tended to solve spatial problem-solving tasks more efficiently and made fewer mistakes in the cylinder test.



"This is the first test package available to all dog owners in which a connection to the dog's trainability and also to the rate of learning has been observed. Thanks to the smartDOG test already being available, Finnish dog owners can directly make use of the research findings," Tiira concludes.



This research dataset of more than 6,000 dogs is continuously growing, and next we will investigate how early these traits can be seen in puppies, as well as their heritability. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengthening-bonds-between-humans-and-dogs">Strengthening bonds between humans and dogs</h2>



In summary, this unique study conducted by researchers at the University of Helsinki highlights the complex interplay between canine cognitive traits and everyday behavior. 



By linking cognitive test results to real-life situations, this research paves the way for a deeper understanding of our furry companions and offers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valuable insights</a> for dog owners seeking to strengthen their bonds with their pets. 



As we continue to explore the fascinating world of canine cognition, studies like this one bring us closer to unlocking the secrets of the canine mind and creating happier, more harmonious relationships between dogs and their human counterparts. 



With the smartDOG test already available and the research dataset continuously growing, the future of canine cognitive research looks brighter than ever, promising exciting discoveries that will benefit both dogs and their owners for generations to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347224001258?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Cracking the canine cognitive code of everyday dog behavior

In recent years, cognitive tests for dogs have become a...

Siberian,Chipmunk,(eutamias,Sibiricus),In,The,Forest,In,Noord,Brabant

Deep within the Penobscot Experimental Forest in Maine, a team of researchers has uncovered a fascinating phenomenon involving small mammals. 



These woods, located about 10 miles north of Bangor, are scattered with hidden treasures -- not gold or jewels, but eastern white pine seeds. 



These seed caches were strategically placed by researchers to study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-social-behavior-dates-back-to-the-age-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> of the forest's small mammal inhabitants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-small-mammals-in-forests">Behavior of small mammals in forests</h2>



This intriguing study is led by Brigit Humphreys, a graduate student at the <a href="https://umaine.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine</a>, as part of her National Science Foundation-funded research. 



For the past two years, Humphreys has been investigating how the personalities of small mammals influence their behavior, particularly in the context of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a>. 



Her work is part of a larger, eight-year project nearing its conclusion, aimed at understanding the role of individual animal personalities in ecological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance">Ecological importance</h2>



The point of the project was to figure out how small mammal personality and animal personality in general influence different ecological processes. 



"We’re focused on small mammals because they’re abundant, we get a really good sample size, and we can conduct experiments on them in the forest. Seed dispersal is crucial to Maine’s economy, recreation, and aesthetics," Humphreys explained.



This research sheds light on an often overlooked aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/history-can-affect-the-outcome-of-ecological-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecology</a> -- individual behavioral differences within species. 



By focusing on these differences, Humphreys aims to highlight their significance in ecosystems, tree growth, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest regeneration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catching-the-thieves-in-action">Catching the thieves in action</h2>



Under the guidance of Professor Alessio Mortelliti from the Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Conservation Biology, Humphreys and her team conducted their fieldwork from June to October 2022.



They set traps for various small mammals, including squirrels, chipmunks, mice, voles, and shrews, across a six-grid system in the forest. Each captured animal was tagged and its personality traits recorded.



After clearing the traps from each grid, the team planted artificial seed caches equipped with circular antennas to detect the tagged animals. Game cameras were also installed to capture footage of the animals pilfering the seeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-personality-traits">Discovering personality traits</h2>



Humphreys' findings reveal that the personality of small mammals significantly influences their seed-stealing success. 



"We found that more exploratory deer mice were more likely to find caches to pilfer," Humphreys notes. "They move around more and don't consider predation risk as much, so they find these caches and steal them."



The research also highlighted that skinnier animals were more desperate to pilfer due to hunger, and female voles were more likely to steal seeds, aligning with previous research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-behavior-of-voles-linked-to-oxytocin-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vole behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pilferers">Unexpected pilferers</h2>



Throughout the study, the team observed a variety of species pilfering the caches. 



"We had over 10 different species come and pilfer the caches," Humphreys says. "Some were unexpected, like raccoons. The other common pilferers were American red squirrels, eastern chipmunks, Sorex shrews, and jumping mice."



Even with a small sample of jumping mice, their effectiveness was notable. "The ones that were present in our areas were very effective. They got like 10 caches in a night," Humphreys adds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-mammals-healthy-forests-happy-planet">Small mammals, healthy forests, happy planet</h2>



Humphreys’ research, recently published in the Journal of Animal Ecology, emphasizes the importance of individual behavioral diversity within species. 



"The take-home message of all the research we are doing is that individuals are important," she concludes. "There’s a big push in the science community to conserve biodiversity, but beyond biodiversity, we have to be conserving behavioral diversity within a species if we truly want to have fully functional ecosystems."



In summary, as we delve deeper into the secret lives of forest critters, Brigit Humphreys and her team at the University of Maine continue to unravel the complex relationships between small mammal personalities and the ecosystems they inhabit. 



Their research not only highlights the importance of individual quirks in shaping forest dynamics but also underscores the need to conserve behavioral diversity within species.



By understanding and preserving the unique personalities of these furry thieves, we can ensure the health, resilience, and beauty of our forests for years to come. 



So the next time you take a walk in the woods, remember that beneath the tranquil canopy, a lively cast of characters is busy pilfering, exploring, and shaping the world around them, one stolen seed at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.14059" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Small mammals play a vital role in maintaining forest health

Deep within the Penobscot Experimental Forest in Maine, a team...

The next full Moon will occur on Thursday morning, May 23, 2024, at 9:53 AM EDT. This Moon will be visible from Wednesday night through early Friday evening, appearing full for about three days. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-known-as-the-flower-moon">Known as the "Flower Moon"</h2>



May's full moon goes by the name "Flower Moon" in many cultures. This name has its roots in the natural world and the changes that occur during this time of the year.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Blooming of flowers</h3>



The Flower Moon earned its name due to the abundance of flowers that typically bloom in May. As spring reaches its peak in the Northern Hemisphere, many flowers emerge and blossom, painting the landscape with vibrant colors. Wildflowers, in particular, tend to be at their most plentiful during this month.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Native American traditions</h3>



Many Native American tribes have long referred to May's full moon as the Flower Moon. The Algonquin tribes, who inhabited regions from New England to Lake Superior, are credited with coining this name. 



They recognized the connection between the full moon and the blooming of flowers, which signaled the arrival of warmer weather and the season of growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-may-s-full-moon-joins-antares">May's full moon joins Antares</h2>



On Thursday night, the bright star Antares will be so close to the Moon that, in the Washington, DC area, the Moon will pass in front of Antares and block it from view. 



However, the brightness of the full Moon will make it difficult to see the star disappear behind it.



Antares is a red supergiant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glitching-star-explains-cosmic-radio-bursts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> located in the constellation Scorpius and is one of the brightest stars in the night sky. 



Its name means "rival to Mars," referring to its distinct reddish hue, similar to the appearance of the planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>. 



This star is classified as an M-type supergiant, notable for its massive size and cool temperature compared to the Sun. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antares-the-brightest-star-in-scorpius">Antares: The brightest star in Scorpius</h2>



Also known as Alpha Scorpii, Antares is a red supergiant star located in the constellation Scorpius. It shines as the brightest star in Scorpius and is the 15th brightest star in the night sky. Antares has a distinctive reddish appearance, earning it the nickname "the heart of the scorpion."



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Size and characteristics</h3>



This massive star has a diameter approximately 700 times larger than our Sun, making it one of the largest known stars. 



If placed at the center of our solar system, Antares would engulf the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Despite its enormous size, Antares has a relatively low average density, as is typical for red supergiant stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Stellar life cycle</h3>



Antares is nearing the end of its stellar life cycle. It has exhausted the hydrogen fuel in its core and now fuses heavier elements. This process causes the star to expand and cool, giving it its characteristic red color. 



In the future, Antares will likely undergo a supernova explosion, a powerful and luminous event that will mark the end of its existence as a star.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Stellar winds and companion star</h3>



The star is also known for its strong stellar winds, which cause it to lose mass at a significant rate. A companion star, Antares B, orbits the main star, but it is difficult to observe due to Antares' brightness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cultural significance</h3>



Antares holds cultural significance in various civilizations. Many ancient cultures, such as the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, incorporated the star into their mythologies and astrological traditions. 



Its prominence in the night sky and its distinct reddish color have made it an object of fascination for stargazers throughout history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-names-for-may-s-full-moon">Names for May's full moon</h2>



The <a href="https://www.farmersalmanac.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maine Farmers' Almanac</a> began publishing “Indian” names for full Moons in the 1930s, and these names are now widely recognized and used.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corn-moon-nbsp">Corn Moon&nbsp;</h3>



According to the almanac, the Algonquin tribes of the northeastern United States called the May full Moon the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skywatchers-delight-flower-moon-lunar-eclipse-and-a-meteor-shower-this-weekend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flower Moon</a> due to the abundance of flowers at this time of year. Other names include the Corn Planting Moon or simply the Corn Moon.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milk-moon-nbsp">Milk Moon&nbsp;</h3>



An old English name for this Moon is the Milk Moon. In 703 AD, the English monk St. Bede the Venerable wrote that May was called the “Three-Milkings Month,” apparently because cows could be milked three times a day during this period.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hare-s-moon-nbsp">Hare's Moon&nbsp;</h3>



Various sources list the full Moon in May as the Hare's Moon. In Western traditions, the patterns on the Moon are often seen as the “Man in the Moon,” but many other cultures see a hare or rabbit. Sculptures, images, and tales about Moon-gazing hares abound.&nbsp;



The Chinese zodiac associates the hare with early March to early April, and the English idiom “mad as a March hare” refers to the European hare's antics during its March breeding season.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Some scholars link the hare to the West Germanic spring goddess Ä’ostre, which ties to Easter and the Anglo-Saxon name for April, possibly explaining the origin of the Easter Bunny. 



These associations suggest that the Hare's Moon might have been closer to Easter and the start of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spring-has-arrived-in-the-northern-hemisphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spring</a>, rather than always being the May full Moon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-buddhist-holiday">Buddhist holiday</h2>



This full Moon corresponds to Vesak, also known as Buddha Jayanti or Buddha Purnima, a holiday traditionally observed by Buddhists in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia.&nbsp;



Sometimes called “Buddha's Birthday,” Vesak actually commemorates the birth, enlightenment (nirvana), and death (Parinirvana) of Gautama Buddha. The date varies depending on the local calendar but usually falls on or near this full Moon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-celebrations">Cultural celebrations</h2>



Many lunar and lunisolar calendars start months on or just after the new Moon, placing the full Moon near the middle of the month. This particular full Moon falls near the middle of the fourth month of the Chinese year of the Dragon.&nbsp;



In the Hebrew calendar, it is near the middle of Iyar. The 14th of Iyar (just before the full Moon) is Pesach Sheni (Second Passover), for those who were unable to offer the Korban Pesach a month earlier. 



In the Islamic calendar, this full Moon is near the middle of Dhu al-Qadah, the eleventh month. Dhu al-Qadah, known as the “Master of Truces,” is one of the four sacred months during which warfare is prohibited except in self-defense.



As usual, it is encouraged to wear suitably celebratory celestial attire in honor of the full Moon, and be sure to take the time to appreciate the flowers and other pleasures of springtime and avoid starting any conflicts.



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May's brilliant full moon joins a giant red star named Antares

The next full Moon will occur on Thursday morning, May...

Handsome,Hispanic,Man,With,Beard,Smiling,Happy,Outdoors,On,A

In a world where noise-canceling headphones have become increasingly proficient at creating an auditory blank slate, researchers continue to face challenges in allowing specific sounds from a wearer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spatial-hearing-how-humans-know-where-sounds-come-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hearing environment</a> to pass through the erasure. 



While recent advancements, such as Apple's AirPods Pro, automatically adjust sound levels for wearers based on their surroundings, users have little control over whom to listen to or when this happens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-target-speech-hearing-tsh">Target Speech Hearing (TSH)</h2>



A team from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, led by senior author <a href="https://homes.cs.washington.edu/~gshyam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shyam Gollakota</a>, a professor in the Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science &amp; Engineering, has developed an artificial intelligence system called "Target Speech Hearing" (TSH). 



This innovative system allows a user wearing noise-canceling headphones to "enroll" a speaker by looking at them for just three to five seconds.



Once enrolled, the system cancels all other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pink-floyd-song-reveals-that-music-is-recognizable-in-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds in the environment</a> and plays only the enrolled speaker's voice in real time, even as the listener moves around in noisy places and no longer faces the speaker.



Gollakota emphasizes the potential of AI beyond web-based chatbots, stating, "With our devices, you can now hear a single speaker clearly even if you are in a noisy environment with lots of other people talking."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tsh-works-with-noise-canceling-headphones">How TSH works with noise-canceling headphones</h2>



To use the TSH system, a person wearing off-the-shelf headphones fitted with microphones simply taps a button while directing their head at someone talking. 



The sound waves from that speaker's voice should reach the microphones on both sides of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-gamers-may-be-at-risk-of-irreversible-hearing-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">headset</a> simultaneously, with a 16-degree margin of error.



The headphones then send that signal to an on-board embedded computer, where the team's machine learning software learns the desired speaker's vocal patterns. 



The system latches onto that speaker's voice and continues to play it back to the listener, even as the pair moves around. As the speaker keeps talking, the system's ability to focus on the enrolled voice improves, thanks to the additional training data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-meets-noise-canceling-technology">AI meets noise-canceling technology</h2>



The team tested its system on 21 subjects, who rated the clarity of the enrolled speaker's voice nearly twice as high as the unfiltered audio on average. 



This work builds on the team's previous "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-hearing-loss-be-reversed-in-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semantic hearing</a>" research, which allowed users to select specific sound classes, such as birds or voices, that they wanted to hear while canceling other sounds in the environment.



Currently, the TSH system can only enroll one speaker at a time and requires the absence of another loud voice coming from the same direction as the target speaker's voice. 



If a user is unsatisfied with the sound quality, they can run another enrollment on the speaker to improve clarity.



The University of Washington team is working to expand the system to earbuds and hearing aids in the future, further revolutionizing the way we experience sound in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-the-way-we-experience-sound">Redefining the way we experience sound</h2>



The team presented its findings at the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems in Honolulu, and the code for the proof-of-concept device is available for others to build upon. 



While the system is not yet commercially available, it represents a significant step forward in the field of auditory perception and AI-driven noise-canceling technology.



In summary, the new Target Speech Hearing (TSH) system represents an impressive advancement in AI-driven auditory technology, offering users the ability to selectively hear and focus on specific speakers in noisy environments. 



By harnessing the power of machine learning and innovative enrollment techniques, TSH has the potential to revolutionize the way we experience sound through noise-canceling headphones, earbuds, and hearing aids. 



As the team continues to refine and expand the system's capabilities, we can look forward to a future where personalized audio experiences become the norm, empowering users to navigate even the most chaotic auditory landscapes with clarity and ease.



The full study was <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3613904.3642057" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published here</a>.



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AI noise-canceling headphones grab one voice from a crowd

In a world where noise-canceling headphones have become increasingly proficient...

Dating prehistoric discoveries is a crucial aspect of archaeology, as it allows researchers to understand the timeline of human history and the development of civilizations. However, before the use of cosmic rays, determining the age of such finds has always been a challenge.



Recently, a team of researchers from the University of Bern has made an amazing discovery that could revolutionize the way we date archaeological sites in Southeast Europe, especially in regions without consistent tree-ring chronologies.



The research team, led by Andrej Maczkowski and Professor Albert Hafner from the <a href="https://www.iaw.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Archaeological Sciences</a> at the University of Bern, has successfully dated timber from the archaeological site of Dispilio in northern Greece to different building activities between 5328 and 5140 BC. 



This precise dating was made possible by combining annual growth ring measurements on wooden building elements with a sudden spike in cosmogenic radiocarbon in 5259 BC, caused by a massive influx of prehistoric cosmic rays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-prehistoric-archaeology">Challenges of prehistoric archaeology</h2>



Dendrochronology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mesopotamian-bricks-reveal-anomaly-in-earths-magnetic-field-3000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon dating</a> are the two primary methods used for determining the age of prehistoric finds. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendrochronology</a> uses characteristic patterns of broad and narrow annual growth rings in wood, which are influenced by climatic conditions, to date wooden objects. 



However, this method requires a consistent regional tree-ring chronology, which is not available for the Mediterranean region.



Radiocarbon dating, on the other hand, relies on the decay rate of the radioactive carbon isotope 14C contained in tree rings to calculate the approximate age of the finds. While this method can provide a general timeframe, its accuracy is limited to the range of decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-cosmic-rays-as-a-game-changer">Prehistoric cosmic rays as a game-changer</h2>



In 2012, Japanese physicist Fusa Miyake discovered that a massive influx of cosmic rays, presumably due to solar flares, can cause an uptick in the atmosphere's 14C content, which is deposited in the respective years' tree rings. 



These spikes, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miyake events</a>, can be accurately dated on the basis of long tree-ring chronologies and serve as important anchor points for regions without consistent annual growth ring chronologies.



"Miyake recognized the first anchor points of this kind and thus brought about a paradigm shift in prehistoric archaeology," says Professor Albert Hafner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-establishing-the-dispilio-chronology">Establishing the Dispilio chronology</h2>



The research team from the EXPLO project, led by the University of Bern, analyzed 787 pieces of timber from the archaeological site of Dispilio on Lake Orestida in northern Greece. 



By establishing an annual growth ring chronology spanning 303 years, which ends in 5140 BC, they were able to identify various house building activities over 188 years between 5328 and 5140 BC.



This precise dating was made possible by the detection of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carrington-event-biggest-solar-storm-history-radiocarbon-earth-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miyake event</a> in 5259 BC by researchers at ETH Zurich. By reproducing this peak in the annual growth ring chronology from Dispilio and connecting it to the anchor point 5259 BC, the team was able to establish the "Dispilio Chronology."



"The Balkans is therefore the first region in the world to benefit from this paradigm shift and to be able to successfully determine absolute dating independently of a consistent calendar," says Professor Albert Hafner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-rings-and-cosmic-rays-at-the-regional-level">Tree rings and cosmic rays at the regional level</h2>



The establishment of the Dispilio Chronology is a significant step forward in the development of a regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dendrochronology</a> for the southern Balkans. 



As Andrej Maczkowski notes, "We expect that other chronologies for the region from this period can now be linked to the 'Dispilio Chronology' in rapid succession."



The Balkans hold a special place in the history of human civilization, as it is home to the oldest lakeside settlements in Europe, dating back to just after 6000 BC. 



The region played a key role in the expansion of agriculture in Europe, and the ability to precisely date archaeological sites in this area will undoubtedly shed new light on the development of early farming communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-of-miyake-events-on-modern-society">Potential impact of Miyake Events on modern society</h2>



While the discovery of Miyake events has revolutionized prehistoric archaeology, it also serves as a reminder of the potential impact of solar flares on modern society. 



As the researchers point out, if an event of similar magnitude to the one in 5259 BC were to occur today, it would likely have a disastrous effect on telecommunications and electronics.



This highlights the importance of understanding the complex interplay between cosmic events and our planet, not only for the sake of uncovering the mysteries of the past but also for preparing for the challenges of the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-rays-spawn-new-era-in-prehistoric-archaeology">Cosmic rays spawn new era in prehistoric archaeology</h2>



In summary, this fascinating research conducted by the team at the University of Bern marks the beginning of a new era in prehistoric archaeology. 



By combining the power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/violent-earthquake-threat-in-the-pacific-northwest-revealed-in-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dendrochronology</a>, radiocarbon dating, and the detection of Miyake events, researchers now have a powerful tool for precisely dating archaeological sites in regions previously thought to be inaccessible to such methods.



As more chronologies are linked to the Dispilio Chronology and a regional dendrochronology for the southern Balkans is developed, we can expect to gain unprecedented insights into the lives of early farming communities and the expansion of agriculture in Europe. 



This research not only sheds light on our past but also paves the way for a better understanding of the complex forces that shape our world today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48402-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Cosmic rays help archaeologists determine the age of prehistoric settlements

Dating prehistoric discoveries is a crucial aspect of archaeology, as...

Physicists have created a five-lane graphene superhighway for electrons that could pave the way for ultra-efficient electronics and more. The work revolves around a unique form of pencil lead known as rhombohedral pentalayer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanotech-material-graphene-passes-human-safety-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">graphene</a>.



Long Ju is an assistant professor in the <a href="https://physics.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT Department of Physics</a> and corresponding author of the paper. He explains, "This discovery has direct implications for low-power electronic devices because no energy is lost during the propagation of electrons, which is not the case in regular materials where the electrons are scattered."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smooth-commute-for-electrons">Smooth commute for electrons</h2>



The phenomenon discovered by the team is similar to cars traveling down an open turnpike as opposed to those moving through neighborhoods. 



In regular materials, electrons can be stopped or slowed by other factors, much like cars in a neighborhood can be disrupted by abrupt stops or U-turns. However, in rhombohedral pentalayer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrons-in-graphene-exhibit-very-strange-fractional-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">graphene</a>, electrons can travel unimpeded.



"We found a goldmine, and every scoop is revealing something new," says Ju, who is also affiliated with MIT's Materials Research Laboratory. The material was first discovered two years ago by physicists led by Ju.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-of-the-graphene-superhighway">Birth of the graphene superhighway</h2>



In a Nature Nanotechnology paper last October, Ju and colleagues reported the discovery of three important properties arising from rhombohedral graphene. 



They showed that it could be topological, allowing the unimpeded movement of electrons around the edge of the material but not through the middle. This resulted in a superhighway, but required the application of a large magnetic field.



In the current work, the team has managed to create the superhighway without any magnetic field. 



Tonghang Han is an MIT graduate student in physics and co-first author of the paper. He notes, "We are not the first to discover this general phenomenon, but we did so in a very different system. And compared to previous systems, ours is simpler and also supports more electron channels."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-superhighway-powered-with-rhombohedral-graphene">Superhighway powered with rhombohedral graphene</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/video/pencils-may-hold-the-key-to-future-electronics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pencil lead</a>, or graphite, is composed of graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-like structure. 



Rhombohedral graphene is composed of five layers of graphene stacked in a specific overlapping order. 



Ju and colleagues isolated this unique form of graphene thanks to a novel microscope Ju built at MIT in 2021 that can quickly and relatively inexpensively determine a variety of important characteristics of a material at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-put-nanoscale-tattoos-onto-individual-cells-inside-your-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoscale</a>.



In the current work, the team added a layer of tungsten disulfide (WS2) to the original system. 



"The interaction between the WS2 and the pentalayer rhombohedral graphene resulted in this five-lane superhighway that operates at zero magnetic field," says Ju.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-anomalous-hall-effect">Quantum anomalous hall effect</h2>



The phenomenon that allows electrons to travel with no resistance at zero magnetic field in rhombohedral graphene is known as the quantum anomalous Hall effect. 



This is different from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecules-scramble-quantum-information-equally-well-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superconductivity</a>, which does the same thing but happens in very different materials.



Ju notes that although superconductors were discovered in the 1910s, it took around 100 years of research to make them work at higher temperatures necessary for applications. 



Similarly, the rhombohedral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-leap-making-light-waves-stand-still-photonic-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">graphene</a> superhighway currently operates at about 2 Kelvin, or -456 Fahrenheit. 



"It will take a lot of effort to elevate the temperature, but as physicists, our job is to provide the insight; a different way for realizing this [phenomenon]," Ju says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perseverance-and-painstaking-research-pays-off">Perseverance and painstaking research pays off</h2>



The discoveries involving rhombohedral graphene came as a result of tireless research that wasn't guaranteed to work. 



Han shares, "We tried many recipes over many months, so it was very exciting when we cooled the system to a very low temperature and [a five-lane superhighway operating at zero magnetic field] just popped out."



Ju concludes, "It's very exciting to be the first to discover a phenomenon in a new system, especially in a material that we uncovered."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-electron-transport">New era in electron transport</h2>



In summary, the discovery of the five-lane electron superhighway in rhombohedral pentalayer graphene marks a significant milestone in the field of physics and electronics. 



The tireless efforts of Long Ju, Tonghang Han, and their colleagues at MIT have opened up new possibilities for ultra-efficient, low-power electronic devices. 



While there is still a long road ahead to make this technology practical for everyday applications, the physicists have laid the groundwork for a new era in electron transport. 



As they continue to explore the properties of this unique form of graphene, we can expect even more exciting breakthroughs in the future. 



The five-lane graphene electron superhighway is just the beginning of a journey that could revolutionize the way we think about and design electronic devices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk9749" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Graphene superhighway' allows electronic devices to use much less power

Physicists have created a five-lane graphene superhighway for electrons that...

For many, chocolate is a beloved treat made from cocoa mass and cocoa butter extracted from the cocoa fruit. However, the fruit contains other valuable ingredients that have been underutilized until now. 



Researchers and the chocolate industry are collaborating to maximize the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/cocoa-fruit_interior-diagram_illustration_credit-Kim-Mishra_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">use of the entire cocoa fruit</a>. This effort aims to boost the profitability of cocoa cultivation while making chocolate a healthier treat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximizing-the-potential-of-cocoa-fruit">Maximizing the potential of cocoa fruit</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, in collaboration with start-up Koa and Swiss chocolate manufacturer <a href="https://www.felchlin.com/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Felchlin</a>, have developed a recipe for cocoa-fruit chocolate. 



This project, part of an Innosuisse initiative, was led by emeritus ETH professor Erich Windhab. The team focused on harnessing the full potential of the cocoa fruit, including the flesh and parts of the fruit shell, known as the endocarp.



Kim Mishra, the main author of the study published in the journal Nature Food, explains that the cocoa fruit is similar to the honeydew melon. 



"These fruits have similar structures. Both have a hard outer shell that reveals the flesh of the fruit when cut open, as well as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-beans-reduce-the-risk-of-fatal-cardiovascular-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa beans</a> or melon seeds and pulp in the interior," notes Mishra. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-with-less-sugar-still-tastes-great-with-a-secret-ingredient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Traditional chocolate</a> uses only the beans, but the researchers utilized the entire fruit to create a cocoa gel. This gel is extremely sweet and can replace the added powdered sugar typically used in chocolate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tree-to-chocolate-journey-of-cocoa-fruit">From tree to chocolate: Journey of cocoa fruit</h2>



The cocoa fruit, also known as the cacao pod, grows on the trunk and branches of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-cocoa-pollinators-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Theobroma cacao</a> tree. The pod typically measures between 6 to 12 inches long and has an oval or oblong shape. The pod's thick, leathery skin ranges in color from yellow to orange when ripe, depending on the variety.



Inside the pod, a sweet, white pulp encases 20 to 60 cocoa beans, which are arranged in rows. The pulp, also called the mucilage, has a soft, slippery texture and a tart, citrusy flavor. The beans themselves are covered by a thin, pale membrane and have a bitter taste.



When the pod ripens, harvesters carefully cut it from the tree using a machete or a sharp knife, ensuring not to damage the delicate stem that will produce future flowers and fruits. 



They then crack open the pod and scoop out the pulp-covered beans, which undergo fermentation, drying, and roasting to develop the rich, chocolate flavor we associate with cocoa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perfecting-the-recipe">Perfecting the recipe</h2>



Finding the perfect recipe for cocoa-fruit chocolate was a challenge. The researchers systematically tested various compositions in the lab. 



Too much fruit juice from the pulp made the chocolate clumpy, while too little resulted in insufficient sweetness. The goal was to achieve the right balance between sweetness and texture. 



The experiments showed that chocolate could contain up to 20% of the cocoa gel, providing sweetness equivalent to chocolate with 5-10% powdered sugar. In contrast, conventional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-chocolate-triggers-mood-boosting-changes-in-the-gut/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark chocolate</a> can contain 30-40% powdered sugar.



To test the sensory experience, trained panelists from the <a href="https://www.bfh.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bern University of Applied Sciences</a> taste-tested 5-gram pieces of chocolate, some with powdered sugar and others sweetened with cocoa gel. 



"This allowed us to empirically determine the sweetness of our recipe as expressed in the equivalent amount of powdered sugar," says Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-sustainable-option">Healthier, sustainable option</h2>



Using cocoa gel as a sweetener results in cocoa-fruit chocolate with a higher fiber content (15 grams versus 12 grams per 100 grams) and lower saturated fat content (23 grams versus 33 grams) compared to typical European dark chocolate. 



"Fibre is valuable from a physiological perspective because it naturally regulates intestinal activity and prevents <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-become-hangry-when-their-blood-sugar-is-low/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood sugar</a> levels from rising too rapidly when consuming chocolate," explains Mishra.



Saturated fat can also pose a health risk when too much is consumed. There’s a relationship between increased consumption of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-plays-a-major-role-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saturated fats</a> and increased risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-beans-reduce-the-risk-of-fatal-cardiovascular-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular diseases.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-for-farmers">Benefits for farmers</h2>



Small-scale farmers can benefit from this innovation by diversifying their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cacao-trees-5000-year-odyssey-global-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">product</a> offerings and increasing their income. 



By using more components of the cocoa fruit, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-virus-threatens-global-chocolate-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farmers</a> can sell not only the beans but also the dried juice from the pulp and the endocarp, ground into powder. 



"This would allow them to generate income from three value-creation streams. And more value creation for the cocoa fruit makes it more sustainable," says Mishra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-cocoa-fruit">Future of cocoa fruit</h2>



While cocoa-fruit chocolate has shown promise, it won't be hitting grocery store shelves immediately. 



"Although we've shown that our chocolate is attractive and has a comparable sensory experience to normal chocolate, the entire value creation chain will need to be adapted, starting with the cocoa farmers, who will require drying facilities,” says Mishra. 



"Cocoa-fruit chocolate can only be produced and sold on a large scale by chocolate producers once enough powder is produced by food processing companies," she concluded.



The first step has been taken: ETH has filed a patent for its innovative cocoa-fruit chocolate recipe. This development is a promising example of how technology, nutrition, eco-compatibility, and income diversification for small farmers can work together to improve the value-creation chain of the cocoa plant.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00967-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Healthier chocolate created by using the entire cocoa fruit

For many, chocolate is a beloved treat made from cocoa...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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