The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

Microplastic ingestion is now an inescapable part of our daily lives, entering our bodies through the food we eat and the air we breathe. A recent study has mapped the human uptake of microplastics across 109 countries, revealing some startling trends.



Southeast Asian countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines top the list for dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumption-of-microplastics-cant-be-avoided-and-they-damage-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic consumption</a> per capita, while China, Mongolia, and the United Kingdom lead in microplastic inhalation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastic-ingestion-from-the-human-diet">Microplastic ingestion from the human diet</h2>



Published in the journal Environmental Science &amp; Technology, this study builds on existing data models to estimate how much microplastic humans consume unknowingly.



These microplastics result from untreated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-floor-harbors-up-to-11-million-tons-of-plastic-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic debris</a> degrading and dispersing into the environment. 



Furthermore, the study considers factors such as eating habits, food processing technologies, age demographics, and breathing rates to provide a comprehensive estimate of human microplastic ingestion.



Microplastics, tiny plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in size, have become a pervasive part of our diet. These particles enter our food through various pathways, posing potential health risks. 



Seafood is a significant source, as fish and shellfish ingest microplastics from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polluted oceans</a>, which then transfer to humans upon consumption. 



Sea salt, particularly in regions with high marine pollution, also contains substantial amounts of microplastics.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/microplastics_human-ingestion_illustration_credit-Environmental-Science-Technology_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/microplastics_human-ingestion_illustration_credit-Environmental-Science-Technology_1s.jpg" alt="How humans ingest microplastics. Credit: Environmental Science and Technology" class="wp-image-1935199"/></a></figure>



Bottled water is another contributor, with plastic bottles shedding microplastics into the water we drink. Food packaging, especially when heated, can release microplastics into food we ingest.



Additionally, plastics used in agriculture, like mulch films, can break down and contaminate crops, further microplastic ingestion in our diets.



The ingestion of microplastics through diet is concerning due to their ability to absorb harmful chemicals, which can then enter the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathing-and-indirect-microplastic-ingestion">Breathing and indirect microplastic ingestion</h2>



The study's data on dietary microplastic ingestion includes concentrations found in various food groups: fruits, vegetables, proteins, grains, dairy, drinks, sugars, salt, and spices. 



For example, while table salt consumption is similar between Indonesia and the U.S., the microplastic concentration in Indonesian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/table-salt-contains-a-shocking-number-of-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">table salt</a> is about 100 times higher. 



Consequently, Indonesians consume about 15 grams of microplastics per month, primarily from seafood, making it the highest in the world. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/microplastics_human-ingestion_world-map_credit-Environmental-Science-Technology_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/microplastics_human-ingestion_world-map_credit-Environmental-Science-Technology_1s.jpg" alt="World map showing levels of human microplastics ingestion. Credit: Environmental Science and Technology" class="wp-image-1935201"/></a></figure>



In comparison, U.S. residents consume approximately 2.4 grams per month, while Paraguayans consume the least at 0.85 grams.



Airborne microplastic concentration, age demographics, and respiration rates were analyzed to determine inhalation rates. 



Residents of China and Mongolia inhale over 2.8 million particles per month, topping the global list. In contrast, U.S. residents inhale about 300,000 particles per month. 



The lowest inhalation rates are found in Mediterranean regions, with Spain, Portugal, and Hungary residents inhaling between 60,000 to 240,000 particles monthly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-industrialization">Implications of industrialization</h2>



"Industrialization in developing economies, particularly in East and South Asia, has led to increased consumption of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-plastic-materials-do-not-biodegrade-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic materials</a>, waste generation, and human microplastic uptake," said Fengqi You, the Roxanne E. and Michael J. Zak Professor in Energy Systems Engineering and senior faculty fellow at the <a href="https://atkinson.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Atkinson Center for Sustainability</a>. 



Developed countries, however, are seeing a reverse trend due to better economic resources for reducing and removing plastic debris.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-reduction">Strategies for reduction</h2>



The study suggests that a 90% reduction in aquatic plastic debris could significantly decrease microplastic ingestion -- by up to 51% in developed countries and 49% in highly industrializing regions. 



These findings come just after an international committee meeting (April 23–29) negotiating the U.N. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-treaty-talks-slow-progress-yet-restored-hope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plastics Treaty</a>, which aims to establish global rules for plastic production and disposal. 



The treaty, expected to be finalized later this year, will emphasize international collaboration to reduce marine microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-microplastic-uptake-a-multifaceted-approach">Addressing microplastic uptake: a multifaceted approach</h2>



"Cleaning the global surface water system is a marathon influenced by local industrial and socioeconomic settings," said Xiang Zhao, a doctoral student and co-author of the study. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/microplastics_human-ingestion_world-map_credit-Environmental-Science-Technology_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The global map</a> pinpointing aquatic microplastic hotspots can initiate this journey. 



The study highlights that addressing microplastic ingestion requires sustainable packaging solutions, stringent waste management regulations, and advanced water treatment technologies.



This comprehensive mapping of global microplastic ingestion provides crucial insights for local pollution mitigation efforts and supports the development of targeted strategies to combat this global crisis.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.4c00010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Human microplastic ingestion levels mapped across 109 countries

Microplastic ingestion is now an inescapable part of our daily...

As summer approaches, harbor porpoises in coastal waters face increased challenges as the waters they inhabit become crowded with recreational boats and ships. 



While people enjoy water skiing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-porpoises-are-severely-threatened-by-fishing-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, and cruising around scenic coasts, bays and fjords, these activities significantly disrupt the lives of these magnificent mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harbor-porpoises-and-motorboats">Harbor porpoises and motorboats</h2>



Harbor porpoises, medium-sized cetaceans that primarily feed on small fish, spend about 60% of their time hunting. 



Research from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, led by a team including postdoc Laia Rojano Doñate, reveals that disturbances from motorboats can severely impact these animals' ability to hunt effectively.



"Harbor porpoises spend a lot of energy in a day. Not because they spend it hunting for fish, but because they need it to stay warm," explains Rojano Doñate. 



"Living in cold waters requires a lot of energy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-hammerhead-sharks-hold-their-breath-to-stay-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermoregulation</a>. That’s why it’s a big problem if they are disturbed by motor boats and stop eating."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-harbor-porpoises-hunt">How harbor porpoises hunt</h2>



Harbor porpoises primarily hunt small fish using echolocation. They emit high-frequency clicks and listen for the echoes bouncing back from their surroundings to locate prey.



Just before capturing their prey, they produce a rapid series of clicks known as a "buzz," which helps them pinpoint the exact location of the fish. 



Their diet mainly consists of small fish such as herring, cod, and whiting, but they also occasionally consume <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squid-mating-tactics-are-determined-by-birth-date/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squid</a> and small crustaceans.



To meet their daily energy needs, harbor porpoises need to catch around 2,000 small fish. This high intake is essential because they burn a significant amount of energy maintaining their body temperature in cold waters. 



As agile swimmers, they can make quick, precise movements to catch their prey. Harbor porpoises spend about 60% of their time hunting, highlighting the importance of uninterrupted foraging to their survival and overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constant-disruption">Constant disruption</h2>



Rojano Doñate and her colleagues have tracked several harbor porpoises over the years to study their behavior and the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-fail-to-respond-to-vessel-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human disturbances</a>. 



In 2018, they discovered that the animals were near boat noise 80% of the time, a startling figure given their need to hunt 60% of the time.



The tracking devices used not only recorded surrounding noise but also measured dive depth and GPS location. The data showed that some porpoises ceased hunting when boats approached. 



"When hunting for fish, they make a buzzing sound just before catching prey. This sound helps them navigate in the dark waters below. But when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-boat-noise-boosts-reproduction-among-reef-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motorboats</a> were around, they sometimes stopped buzzing," Rojano Doñate says. 



"This constant disturbance can prevent them from catching enough fish, ultimately threatening their survival."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-expenditure">Energy expenditure</h2>



Harbor porpoises require a significant amount of energy daily. They need to catch around 2,000 small fish each day to meet their energy needs, much like cows grazing throughout the day. 



Studies in both captivity and the wild have quantified the energy expenditure of harbor porpoises, showing that each breath they take burns around 5 kilojoules of energy. 



With approximately 4,000 breaths a day, they need 20 megajoules of energy just to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-population">Declining population</h2>



For years, the harbor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/porpoises-are-steadily-declining-in-the-german-north-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">porpoise population</a> in Kattegat appeared stable at around 40,000 individuals. However, recent counts show a dramatic decline to just 14,000. 



This decline is attributed to several factors, including reduced fish stocks, increased pollution, and entanglement in fishing nets.



"Getting disturbed by boats is not the only cause. More pollution and getting caught in fishing nets are also part of the explanation of why harbor porpoises are disappearing fast," Rojano Doñate explains. 



"Additionally, the growing grey seal population, which preys on harbor porpoises, contributes to their decline."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-between-human-activity-and-harbor-porpoises">Conflict between human activity and harbor porpoises</h2>



Harbor porpoises, despite being part of the whale family, spend a significant amount of time in coastal waters. In Kattegat, these shallow waters are also popular with recreational boaters, creating a conflict between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-45000-marine-species-are-endangered-by-human-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human activity</a> and porpoise survival.



"We might not even notice it, but when we venture out on the sea on a sunny summer day, we might be disturbing a lot of animals," Rojano Doñate says. 



"To address this problem, we need to change our habits. Establishing zones where motorboats are prohibited and encouraging responsible boating behavior could make a significant difference."



In conclusion, while summer activities bring joy to many, they also bring challenges to the harbor porpoises. 



By understanding the impact of our actions and taking steps to mitigate them, we can help ensure the survival of these vulnerable marine creatures.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adj7132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Harbor porpoises are being harmed by traffic from boats and ships

As summer approaches, harbor porpoises in coastal waters face increased...

The,Jet,Of,An,Active,Black,Hole

Astronomers have caught supermassive black holes in the act of changing the direction of their jets – a cosmic twist that could shake up our understanding of star formation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-black-hole-found-in-our-galaxy-is-33-times-the-suns-mass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>. 



Imagine these behemoths, millions or even billions of times more massive than our Sun, firing off powerful jets of energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">like cosmic cannons</a>. What happens when these cannons start swiveling?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jets-from-black-holes-in-two-galaxy-groups">Jets from black holes in two galaxy groups</h2>



In a captivating display, supermassive black holes are known to emit powerful jets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a>, often aligned with their rotation axis. 



Picture a spinning top, spewing energy from its poles. However, recent observations have revealed a surprising twist in this celestial pattern.



A team of astronomers, using NASA's <a href="https://chandra.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a> and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory's <a href="https://public.nrao.edu/telescopes/vla/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Array</a>, observed sixteen supermassive black holes spewing jets into space. 



Two Chandra images below reveal hot gas in the middle of the galaxy cluster Abell 478 (left) and the galaxy group NGC 5044 (right). 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Abell-478_NGC-5044_black-holes_deathstars-x-ray-optical_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Abell-478_NGC-5044_black-holes_deathstars-x-ray-optical_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Supermassive black hole jets changing directions in Abell 478 [Left] and NGC 5044 [Right]. Credit: NASA/CXC" class="wp-image-1935188"/></a></figure>



One of the sixteen black holes firing beams outwards resides in the center of each image. Each black hole lies in the center of a galaxy embedded in the hot gas. 



The beams carved out these cavities millions of years ago, indicating the past directions of the beams. An "X" marks the location on the below image of each supermassive black hole.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Abell-478_NGC-5044_black-holes_deathstars-x-ray-optical-annotated_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Abell-478_NGC-5044_black-holes_deathstars-x-ray-optical-annotated_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Annotated image of supermassive black hole jets changing directions in Abell 478 [Left] and NGC 5044 [Right]. Credit: NASA/CXC" class="wp-image-1935191"/></a></figure>



They noticed that some of these jets had significantly changed direction over time. This is akin to a spinning top suddenly veering off course.



The researchers found that about a third of the 16 galaxies have beams pointing in completely different directions than before. 



In some cases, the beams have changed directions by nearly 90 degrees. These changes occurred over timescales ranging from one million years to a few tens of millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-redirecting-their-jets">Black holes redirecting their jets</h2>



What could cause these cosmic cannons to change course? The direction of a black hole's jet is linked to its rotation axis. 



If material <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-would-it-be-like-to-fall-into-a-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">falling</a> into the black hole approaches at an angle not parallel to the surrounding disk of matter, it can alter the black hole's rotation. This change in rotation can shift the direction of the jet.



Black holes generate beams when material falls onto them via a spinning disk of matter. Some of this material gets redirected outward. 



The direction of these beams aligns with the rotation axis of the black hole, meaning the beams point along a line connecting the poles. 



If the inflow of material is misaligned with the disk, it can tilt the rotation axis, causing the jet direction to change. These findings reveal the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-magnetic-fields-may-be-key-features-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamic nature</a> of black holes and their significant influence on the galaxies they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-change-in-black-hole-direction">Consequences of change in black hole direction</h2>



This unexpected shift in directions from the jets of black holes has far-reaching implications, especially for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> within galaxies. 



Black hole jets inject energy into the surrounding gas, preventing it from cooling and forming stars. If these jets change direction, they could suppress star formation across wider areas of the galaxy.



Think of it as a cosmic gardener with a hose, watering different parts of the galactic garden. If the hose suddenly changes direction, some areas might get overwatered while others dry out, affecting the growth of plants (or in this case, stars).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-the-dynamic-universe">Glimpse into the dynamic universe</h2>



The discovery of these redirected jets from black holes adds another layer of complexity to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-waterfall-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of the universe</a>. 



It reveals that even the most massive and seemingly stable objects in the cosmos are not immune to change. This is a reminder that the universe is a dynamic and ever-evolving place, full of surprises waiting to be uncovered.



Scientists believe that jets from black holes and the cavities they carve out play a crucial role in star formation within galaxies. These beams pump energy into the hot gas in and around the galaxy. 



This prevents the gas from cooling enough to form large numbers of new stars. When the beams change direction significantly, they can suppress star formation across much larger areas of the galaxy.



As we continue to explore the cosmos with increasingly sophisticated tools, we are bound to discover more fascinating phenomena that challenge our current understanding of the universe. 



The pattern of the supermassive black holes is just one example of the many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-waterfall-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mysteries</a> that await us in the vast expanse of space.



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Black holes caught redirecting their jets like a 'Death Star' weapon

Astronomers have caught supermassive black holes in the act of...

Researchers have long believed that cooperative hunting, where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inaudible-screams-amphibians-use-ultrasound-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> work together to catch prey, required sophisticated cognitive processes. 



However, a recent study reveals that this complex behavior might emerge from mechanisms that are much simpler than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-research-from-japan">Breakthrough research from Japan</h2>



A team of scientists at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan has discovered that cooperation among predators can arise from basic rules and experience, rather than advanced cognitive abilities. 



The research not only enhances our understanding of animal behavior but also has implications for the development of collaborative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-the-human-brain-outperform-artificial-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-assumptions-on-cooperative-hunting">Challenging assumptions on cooperative hunting</h2>



Earlier studies linked cooperative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-use-clever-hunting-strategies-to-outsmart-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting</a> to mammals with complex social behaviors, such as lions and chimpanzees. 



Surprisingly, similar behaviors are observed in species with less advanced cognitive abilities, like crocodiles and fish. This suggests that simpler mechanisms might be at play.



To explore this theory, the researchers developed a computational model using deep reinforcement learning. In the model, AI agents learned to hunt together by receiving rewards for their actions. 



This approach allows algorithms to learn through interaction with the environment, processing inputs such as position and velocity, and making autonomous decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-cooperative-hunting">The reality of cooperative hunting </h2>



Programmed with reinforcement learning capabilities, AI predator agents were trained to collaborate by maximizing future rewards. These agents displayed distinct and complementary roles during the simulations. 



For instance, one agent would chase the prey while another would ambush it. As the number of predators increased, the success rate of hunts went up, and the time needed to capture prey decreased.



In a final test, AI agents acted as predators while human participants played the role of prey. Despite initial confusion due to unexpected human movements, the AI agents quickly adapted and successfully captured the humans. 



This experiment demonstrated that cooperative hunting does not require complex cognitive processes, suggesting that real-world predators may also learn to collaborate through simple decision rules.



"Our predator agents learned to collaborate using reinforcement learning, without requiring complex cognitive mechanisms akin to the theory of mind," said study co-author Kazushi Tsutsui. "This suggests that cooperative hunting can evolve in a wider range of species than previously thought."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The findings have significant implications beyond the animal kingdom. They highlight the potential to advance cooperative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machines-and-consciousness-are-ai-systems-really-awake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems</a>, which could be used in various domains requiring collaborative solutions, such as autonomous driving and traffic management. 



The research team also anticipates that their discoveries will inspire new field studies on decision-making in predator-prey dynamics.



Ultimately, the study challenges the notion that complex cognitive processes are necessary for cooperative hunting. Instead, it shows that simple rules and experience can lead to effective collaboration among predators, opening new avenues for both animal behavior research and the development of advanced AI systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Examples of cooperative hunting</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lions-are-dangling-precariously-on-the-brink-of-extinction-immediate-action-is-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lions</a> are perhaps the most famous cooperative hunters, working in groups to surround and take down large prey such as zebras and wildebeests. Similarly, wolves hunt in packs to effectively manage and capture faster or larger animals that one wolf alone could not overpower.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Orcas and dolphins</h3>



In the aquatic world, orcas, also known as killer whales, use sophisticated hunting techniques that rely on the group's coordination. They are known to create waves to wash seals off ice floes, or they herd fish into tight balls for easier feeding.&nbsp;



Dolphins display similar behaviors, encircling schools of fish and taking turns to feed in the center of the fish shoal.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Chimpanzees&nbsp;</h3>



Chimpanzees also demonstrate cooperative hunting when they target medium-sized mammals like monkeys. They orchestrate complex chases, with some chimps blocking potential escape routes while others actively chase the prey. This kind of strategy requires not only physical skill but also advanced communication and role assignment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Unique strategies&nbsp;</h3>



Cooperative hunting not only enhances the efficiency of predators in capturing food but also plays a crucial role in the social structures and communication development of these animals.&nbsp;



Each species has evolved unique strategies that fit their environment and physical capabilities, illustrating the diverse ways in which animal societies organize themselves to meet their needs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/85694" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Cooperative hunting does not require complex thinking skills

Researchers have long believed that cooperative hunting, where predators work...

Rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea levels</a> and urban development are accelerating coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-can-protect-against-coastal-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erosion</a> in Southern California at an alarming rate, leading to significant economic impacts. 



A recent study predicts that the cost of coastal living in Southern California will increase fivefold by 2050 due to beach erosion. The research highlights the urgent need for effective solutions to combat this growing problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erosion-s-financial-impact-on-coastal-living">Erosion's financial impact on coastal living</h2>



The study, conducted by researchers at the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a>, forecasts that coastal living costs will skyrocket due to the need for more frequent and expensive beach nourishment projects. 



These projects are essential to maintain the state's prized shorelines, but they come with hefty price tags. As the shorelines deteriorate, the costs associated with beach nourishment are expected to increase significantly.



"Our study presents compelling evidence of the rapid deterioration of Southern California's coastal landscapes," said Essam Heggy, a geoscientist in the USC Viterbi School of Engineering.



"The challenges facing Southern California mirror a growing threat shared by coastal communities worldwide. The environmental and economic implications of coastal erosion reach far beyond California's shores and demand interdisciplinary, global solutions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-changes">Predicting future changes</h2>



To understand the future of California's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/self-repairing-oyster-reefs-will-help-protect-coastlines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastlines</a>, the researchers focused on the Gulf of Santa Catalina, which spans over 150 miles from the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County to the northern tip of Baja California in Mexico. 



By analyzing historical and recent satellite images and using advanced algorithms, the experts were able to predict future erosion rates based on various trends and environmental factors.



Consequently, the researchers predict that erosion rates will triple by 2050, increasing from an average of 1.45 meters per year to 3.18 meters by 2100. 



This means that the annual sand requirement for beach nourishment could also triple by 2050, with costs rising fivefold due to the global increase in sand prices. 



The rising costs will put significant economic and logistical pressures on coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-urban-development">The impact of urban development</h2>



Beach nourishment involves adding sand to an eroded beach to rebuild it and create a wider barrier against waves and storms. 



However, the study suggests that coastal problems often start inland due to the rapid growth of cities along the coast. This urban development compromises inland sediment replenishment of sandy beaches.



"As our beaches shrink, the cost of maintaining them will rise," said Heggy. "Finding innovative solutions is key to securing a sustainable future for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-shores-beaches-need-protection-from-coastal-squeeze/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shores</a> and local economies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-challenges-of-coastal-erosion">Global challenges of coastal erosion</h2>



Coastal erosion is not unique to Southern California. Coastal communities worldwide, particularly those in North Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea, face similar challenges. These regions share a semi-arid climate year-round, coupled with the threats of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-threaten-groundwater-global-cities-underground-infrastructure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising sea levels</a> and eroding shorelines. 



A significant portion of Earth's landmass, roughly 41 percent, falls under arid or semi-arid classifications, supporting over a third of the global population.



To understand this global challenge, the researchers compared two specific locations: Corona del Mar in Orange County, California, and Hammamet North Beach in Tunisia. Both locations are densely populated with similar climates. These sites are also prone to increasing droughts, flash floods, and unpredictable rainfall patterns.



The study revealed that shoreline retreat rates vary between the two locations. In Southern California, beaches are receding between 0.75 and 1.24 meters per year. In Hammamet North Beach, the retreat rate ranges from 0.21 to about 4.49 meters annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-beach-nourishment">Cost of beach nourishment</h2>



Study co-author Oula Amrouni is a sedimentologist at the National Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies at the <a href="https://ucar.rnu.tn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Carthage</a> in Tunisia.



"While beach nourishment can temporarily combat erosion, it presents significant challenges for developing countries," said Amrouni.



"The high cost of acquiring the right sand, with the specific grain size, quality, and composition, and the technical complexity of extracting and laying it are major hurdles. Additionally, worsening erosion in previously stable areas compels more frequent nourishment projects, straining already limited budgets and leading to unplanned expenditures for many communities."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-innovative-solutions">Urgent need for innovative solutions</h2>



The study underscores the urgent need for innovative solutions to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-based-solutions-improve-coastal-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal</a> erosion. As sea levels rise and urban development continues, the cost of maintaining our treasured shorelines will only increase. 



It is imperative to find sustainable methods to protect our coastlines and support the economies of coastal communities worldwide.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01388-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Coastal living will cost five times more by 2050

Rising sea levels and urban development are accelerating coastal erosion...

A recent study has raised concerns about the impact of climate change on the diet of humpback whales in the southern hemisphere. 



The research, led by a team from <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>, reveals that a warming climate could potentially reduce the availability of krill - a primary food source for whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-diet">Humpback whale diet</h2>



Humpback whales have a diet that mainly consists of small marine creatures, with Antarctic krill being a significant component. Krill are tiny, shrimp-like crustaceans that are rich in fats and proteins. 



Humpback whales consume krill in massive quantities, especially during the feeding season in the Southern Ocean. This high-fat diet is crucial for building the energy reserves they need for their extensive migratory journeys.



Humpback whales also eat small fish such as herring, mackerel, and sardines, particularly when krill is less abundant. 



The whales use a feeding technique called bubble net feeding, where they create bubbles to corral and concentrate their prey. This strategy makes it easier to gulp large amounts in one go. Bubble net feeding is highly efficient and allows the whales to consume substantial amounts of food in a short period.



The reliance on a krill-heavy diet means that humpback <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-toxin-levels-found-in-stranded-whales-and-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> depend on the health and stability of the Southern Ocean's ecosystem. Changes in sea-ice extent, ocean temperatures, and krill populations could significantly impact their feeding patterns. 



Therefore, maintaining the ideal diet for humpback whales involves preserving the delicate balance of their marine environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-whale-diet">Climate change and whale diet </h2>



The study was conducted by Dr. Jasmin Groß as part of her PhD work at Griffith’s Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security. 



Dr. Groß analyzed fatty acids and stable isotopes from blubber and skin samples of humpback whales from five different populations around the southern hemisphere. These biochemical markers were compared to those found in their primary prey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/krill-face-a-double-whammy-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a>.



Despite distinct differences in the biochemical profiles among the whale populations, the research confirmed that all tested humpback whale populations primarily feed on Antarctic krill. 



"The migratory lifestyle of humpback whales requires predictable ecosystem productivity," Dr. Groß explained. "Populations feeding in areas most affected by climate change are likely to show the first signs of a shift from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a> diet."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-departure-from-a-krill-diet">Departure from a krill diet</h2>



Currently, there is no evidence of a significant departure from the krill diet. However, the research suggests that future changes may disrupt the whales' feeding patterns.



"The characteristic isotopic signal implies that future reductions in sea-ice extent and duration, and rising ocean temperatures could impact their feeding ecology," Dr. Groß noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extent-of-climate-impacts-on-whale-diet">Extent of climate impacts on whale diet</h2>



Blubber and skin biopsies were collected from humpback <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-face-deadly-threats-in-shipping-lanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> near their breeding grounds off Brazil, Australia, New Caledonia, and Colombia. Krill samples were gathered from feeding grounds between January and March 2019 aboard three different vessels.



Dr. Groß emphasized the importance of this study in establishing a baseline for future assessments. "Confirming that each population followed a high-fidelity Antarctic krill diet provides essential baseline knowledge. This can be used to assess the extent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-whales-will-drift-southward-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> impacts in the feeding grounds in future studies," she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-whale-health">Monitoring whale health</h2>



This research is part of the Humpback Whale Sentinel Programme, a key surveillance initiative under the Antarctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AnMAP). 



As climate change continues to alter marine ecosystems, studies like this one are crucial for understanding and mitigating its impacts on marine life. 



The findings highlight the critical need for ongoing monitoring and research to ensure the protection of these delicate ecosystems and the species that rely on them. Continued efforts are vital to understand and mitigate the impacts of climate change.



AnMAP is a collaborative effort between the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR), the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), UNESCO, and Griffith University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Fascinating facts about humpback whales</h2>



Humpback whales are truly remarkable creatures known for their majestic behaviors and complex vocalizations. These giants of the ocean embark on one of the longest migration journeys of any mammal, traveling up to 5,000 miles each way to move between their feeding and breeding grounds.&nbsp;



Interestingly, only male humpbacks sing, and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songs</a> are a sophisticated sequence of moans, howls, and cries that can last for hours, varying and evolving over time. Each population of humpback whales has its own distinct song, which changes from year to year.



These whales are also famous for their acrobatics; they often breach the water and slap the surface with their fins or tails, behaviors thought to be forms of communication or just playful antics



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724030869?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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How a warming climate will change the humpback whale's diet

A recent study has raised concerns about the impact of...

Astronomers have developed a remarkable method to measure the spin of supermassive black holes. To achieve this feat, the scientists harnessed the chaotic aftermath of black holes devouring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-collapse-black-hole-instead-of-supernova-vanish-from-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>.



This novel approach sheds light on the elusive properties of black holes and paves the way for future discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tidal-disruption-events">Tidal disruption events</h2>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/18-black-holes-captured-devouring-nearby-stars-in-dramatic-tidal-disruption-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tidal disruption event</a> (TDE) occurs when a star ventures too close to a black hole, resulting in its violent destruction. The black hole's immense tidal forces rip the star apart, creating an intensely hot accretion disk from the remaining stellar material. 



This accretion disk, composed of the star's remnants, spins and wobbles under the influence of the black hole's gravity.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>, in collaboration with <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and other institutions, have demonstrated that this wobbling disk is crucial for determining the black hole's spin. 



The study revealed that tracking the X-ray flashes emitted by the disk immediately following a tidal disruption event can provide insights into the black hole's rotational speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-black-hole-s-spin">Unveiling the black hole's spin</h2>



The research team monitored the X-ray emissions from a nearby supermassive black hole over several months, observing the fluctuations caused by the wobbling accretion disk. 



By analyzing how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moons-wobbles-will-cause-a-surge-in-coastal-flooding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wobble</a> evolved, the experts inferred the black hole's spin. Their findings indicated that the black hole was spinning at less than 25 percent the speed of light - a relatively slow rate for black holes.



Study lead author Dheeraj "DJ" Pasham is a member of MIT’s Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research. 



"By studying several systems in the coming years with this method, astronomers can estimate the overall distribution of black hole spins and understand the longstanding question of how they evolve over time," noted Pasham.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wobbling-accretion-disk">Wobbling accretion disk </h2>



Black holes acquire their spin through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collisions-hubble-spots-a-string-of-pearls-star-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic encounters</a> over time. Accretion, where material falls onto the black hole's disk, can significantly increase the spin. Conversely, mergers with other black holes may slow it down as the spins of the merging entities counteract each other. 



As a black hole spins, it drags the surrounding space-time, a phenomenon known as Lense-Thirring precession.



During a tidal disruption event, the star's debris forms a tilted, misaligned accretion disk around the black hole. The disk wobbles as the black hole's spin pulls it into alignment. 



The scientists predicted that this wobbling could serve as a measurable signature of the black hole's spin. However, obtaining the right observations was crucial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-for-tidal-disruption-events">Hunting for tidal disruption events</h2>



Pasham and his team spent five years searching for bright, nearby TDEs suitable for detailed study.



In February 2020, they struck gold with the detection of AT2020ocn, a bright flash from a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-black-hole-found-in-our-galaxy-is-33-times-the-suns-mass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> about a billion light-years away. This event, initially spotted by the Zwicky Transient Facility in the optical band, showed promise for tracking disk wobbling and measuring the black hole's spin.



"We needed quick and high-cadence data," said Pasham. "The key was to catch this early on because this precession, or wobble, should only be present early on. Any later, and the disk would not wobble anymore."



NASA’s NICER telescope, positioned on the International Space Station, provided the continuous observations that were needed. 



NICER, designed to measure X-ray radiation around black holes and other extreme gravitational objects, tracked AT2020ocn for 200 days after the tidal disruption event. 



The data revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-single-atom-captured-by-scientists-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray</a> peaks every 15 days, corresponding to the wobbling accretion disk emitting X-rays directly towards the telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-spin-of-black-holes">Decoding the spin of black holes</h2>



The research team incorporated these observations into the Lense-Thirring precession theory, estimating the black hole's spin based on the mass of the black hole and the disrupted star. 



The analysis confirmed that the black hole was spinning at less than 25 percent the speed of light, marking the first time this method has been used to estimate a black hole's spin.



Looking ahead, Pasham anticipates more opportunities to measure black hole spins as new telescopes, like the Rubin Observatory, come online. 



"The spin of a supermassive black hole tells you about the history of that black hole," Pasham said. "Even if a small fraction of those that Rubin captures have this kind of signal, we now have a way to measure the spins of hundreds of TDEs. Then we could make a big statement about how black holes evolve over the age of the universe."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07433-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Star debris can be used to measure the spin of black holes

Astronomers have developed a remarkable method to measure the spin...

Scavengers often get a bad rap, but a recent study sheds new light on the cooperative parenting style of scavenging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-falcons-are-highly-intelligent-and-eager-to-show-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">falcons</a> called chimango caracaras (Milvago chimango). 



The fascinating research reveals that these raptors exhibit remarkable teamwork while raising their chicks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimango-caracaras-milvago-chimango">Chimango caracaras (Milvago chimango) </h2>



Chimango caracaras are fascinating raptors found exclusively in the Americas. These birds are particularly common in central Argentina but also inhabit regions farther south, including Chile and Uruguay. 



Known for their curiosity, creativity, and intelligence, chimango caracaras often go unnoticed due to their scavenging habits, which sometimes give them a bad reputation.



Chimango caracaras exhibit a unique and cooperative approach to family life. When starting a family, these birds select nesting sites in trees or sometimes on cliffs or man-made structures. Both parents are involved in building the nest using sticks and other available materials.



Once the eggs are laid, the parents take turns incubating them, ensuring they are kept at the right temperature. After the chicks hatch, both parents share brooding and feeding duties, demonstrating remarkable teamwork. 



They adjust their care based on the chicks' developmental stages, increasing brooding during cooler periods and ramping up food delivery as the chicks grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biparental-care">Biparental care</h2>



Conducted by Diego Gallego-García from the <a href="http://www.cecara.com.ar/">Center for the Study and Conservation of Birds of Prey in Argentina</a> (CECARA) and his team, the research provides the first in-depth look at the nesting behaviors of Chimango Caracaras in central Argentina. 



Over a two-year period, the team observed 70 nests during the breeding seasons of 2016 and 2017. The findings highlight a high level of biparental care in these birds, a behavior that is not well-documented among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-decline-of-african-raptors-linked-to-multiple-pressures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">raptors</a>.



Caracaras are generally understudied, despite being known for their curiosity, creativity, and charisma. Limited knowledge about their life history hinders our understanding of their population dynamics, ecological roles, and conservation needs. 



Studies like this one are crucial for expanding our awareness and appreciation of these scavenging birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-parenting-of-chimango-caracaras">Unique parenting of chimango caracaras</h2>



Unlike many raptor species where there is a significant size difference between males and females, chimango caracaras have little size disparity. This physical similarity, combined with their dual roles as predators and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/believe-it-or-not-scavengers-are-picky-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scavengers</a>, promotes a shared approach to parenting.



Gallego-García's team discovered that chimango caracara pairs evenly divide the responsibilities of incubation, brooding, and feeding their young. 



The parents demonstrated a keen understanding of their chicks' needs at different developmental stages. For instance, they increased brooding time during cooler mornings in the early days when chicks couldn't regulate their body temperature. As the chicks grew and required more food, the parents adjusted by delivering more sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raptors-and-ecosystem-health">Raptors and ecosystem health</h2>



Understanding the reproductive biology of raptors like the chimango caracaras is vital for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



"The importance of studying raptor reproductive biology goes beyond the conservation of the species themselves," said Gallego-García. 



"Raptors occupy the highest position in the food chain and control populations of prey species below them. We need to know what happens during reproduction, one of their most important and fragile life stages."



Local landowners in central Argentina have shown a growing interest in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-blend-in-to-adapt-to-diverse-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, often contacting researchers when they find injured or dead chimangos, or new nests. "We invite them to attend banding days with nestlings," said Gallego-García.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future of chimango caracaras</h2>



Gallego-García and his co-authors call for further research on the reproductive success of chimango caracaras across broader regions. They aim to study the survival rates of fledglings after they leave the nest and become independent. 



Continued support for such research will enhance our foundational knowledge of these unique raptors and their ecological contributions.



The collaborative efforts of chimango caracara parents offer a heartwarming glimpse into the complex lives of scavengers, challenging their often-misunderstood reputation. 



As we learn more about these birds, we can better appreciate their role in maintaining the health and balance of our ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-raptor-research/volume-58/issue-2/JRR-23-16/Biparental-Care-in-a-Generalist-Raptor-the-Chimango-Caracara-in/10.3356/JRR-23-16.full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Raptor Research</a>.



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Some scavenging birds share equal parenting duties

Scavengers often get a bad rap, but a recent study...

Chemicals within microplastics in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a>, waterways, and drinking water sources remain a pressing concern for scientists and public health officials. 



Recent research has uncovered that the smallest particles of microplastics (MPs) in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-can-break-down-pet-pollution-in-ocean-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean waters</a>, spanning from the Caribbean to the Arctic, are not being detected by traditional net tow surveys. 



The study, conducted by scientists from the School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences (SoMAS) at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/somas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a>, was led by Dr. Luis Medina Faull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-microplastics-get-into-the-ocean">How do microplastics get into the ocean?</h2>



Microplastics enter the ocean through various pathways. One primary source is the breakdown of larger plastic debris due to sunlight, waves, and other environmental factors. Plastic items like bottles and bags fragment into smaller pieces over time. 



Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> come from industrial processes, where tiny plastic pellets or "nurdles" are used as raw materials and often spill into waterways. Microfibers from synthetic clothing also contribute significantly; they are shed during washing and then pass through wastewater treatment plants, which cannot capture all these tiny fibers.



Runoff from urban areas and storm drains carries microplastics from streets and landfills directly into rivers and oceans. Furthermore, microbeads, found in personal care products like exfoliating scrubs and toothpaste, wash down household drains and end up in the ocean. 



The combination of these sources leads to a widespread distribution of microplastics throughout marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-dangers-of-ocean-microplastics">Hidden dangers of ocean microplastics</h2>



Microplastics proliferate in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic</a> systems, posing significant biological threats to marine and terrestrial life. Additionally, these tiny particles can enter the food web, eventually reaching humans through seafood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumption-of-microplastics-cant-be-avoided-and-they-damage-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumption</a>.



The researchers utilized Raman microspectroscopy, a sophisticated laboratory technique combining vibrational spectroscopy with a microscope, to detect and chemically identify minute particles in environmental samples. 



These samples were collected from three distinct global ocean regions: the northeastern coast of Venezuela, the Gulf Stream Current encompassing Caribbean waters, and the Pacific Arctic Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-smallest-ocean-microplastics">Identifying the smallest ocean microplastics</h2>



Standard net tow surveys detect microplastics using tightly meshed plankton nets, which sieve out particles during the tow. However, Raman microspectroscopy allows researchers to identify much smaller particles. 



The study revealed that the most abundant MPs in seawater ranged between 1 and 14 micrometers, with 60 percent under 5 micrometers and none larger than 53 micrometers. 



“Our results highlight the numerical primacy of small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-able-to-travel-thousands-of-miles-because-of-their-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MP particles</a> in seawater. This size fraction has been totally overlooked in almost all marine MP surveys,” said Dr. Medina Faull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-mass-based-inventories">Importance of mass-based inventories</h2>



The detection method used in the study enabled the researchers to determine the identities and sizes of MP particles, from which masses were calculated. 



Mass-based inventories provide more accurate and meaningful estimations of global oceanic plastic inventories. Dr. Faull explained that this leads to vital information for calculating the mass flux of MPs through aquatic ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-health">Implications for human health</h2>



The researchers found that the smallest MPs contained chemicals potentially harmful to both marine life and human health if consumed through the food web. 



The most abundant polymers detected were polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene - consistent with the composition of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-floor-harbors-up-to-11-million-tons-of-plastic-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic waste</a> in oceans.



Dr. Jaymie Meliker, a professor at Stony Brook University who was not involved in the study, emphasized the need for more public health research on microplastic exposure. 



“Understanding health risks from exposure to microplastics is a vastly understudied area. Investigations are needed to understand the health impacts from microplastics of different shapes, sizes, and compositions,” he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-addressing-microplastics-in-oceans">Challenges in addressing microplastics in oceans</h2>



Dr. Faull highlighted the challenges in addressing and capturing the proliferation of MPs in the world’s oceans. 



“Firstly, most of the ocean is grossly under-sampled, and the majority of existing data is based on towed net studies. Smaller, less buoyant MP particles residing below the ocean’s upper few meters are almost never sampled," said Dr. Faull.



"Secondly, understanding sources of MPs transport and final landing locations, such as ocean floors, is crucial to explain the distribution patterns of MPs throughout the ocean."



The study highlights the urgent need for more comprehensive sampling and research methods to fully understand and mitigate the impact of microplastics in our oceans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X24003151">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Microplastics often go undetected in oceans due to their tiny size

Chemicals within microplastics in our oceans, waterways, and drinking water...

Recent research reveals a concerning connection between raw milk and the H5N1 avian influenza virus, commonly known as bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-may-become-a-permanent-host-for-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flu</a>.&nbsp;



This discovery raises significant questions about the safety of consuming raw milk, particularly during periods of heightened avian influenza outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flu-virus-in-raw-milk">Flu virus in raw milk</h2>



In a recent study,&nbsp;scientists investigated the impact of H5N1-contaminated raw milk on mice.&nbsp;The results were alarming,&nbsp;with mice exhibiting signs of illness shortly after consumption.&nbsp;



High levels of the virus were detected in their respiratory organs and other parts of their bodies -&nbsp;even in the mammary glands of female mice not actively lactating.



"Our data indicate that HPAI A[H5N1] virus in untreated milk can infect susceptible animals that consume it," concluded a team led by virologist Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>.



These findings suggest that consuming raw milk contaminated with H5N1 could lead to infection in mammals,&nbsp;including humans.&nbsp;While the risk of transmission to humans remains low,&nbsp;the potential consequences are severe enough to warrant caution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-killing-the-flu-virus-in-raw-milk">Killing the flu virus in raw milk</h2>



Fortunately, pasteurization - a process involving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/destroying-microplastics-tap-water-surprisingly-simple-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heating</a> milk to high temperatures - effectively eliminates the H5N1 virus. This makes pasteurized milk safe for consumption, even during avian influenza outbreaks.



The study also revealed that refrigeration alone does not guarantee the elimination of the virus.&nbsp;In fact,&nbsp;the virus levels in refrigerated,&nbsp;contaminated milk declined slowly over five weeks,&nbsp;indicating a prolonged period of potential infectivity.



The researchers explored the effects of pasteurization by heating the infected milk and found that virus levels were significantly reduced, although not always entirely eliminated. 



While the study's conditions did not precisely replicate industrial pasteurization processes,&nbsp;the results underscore the critical role of pasteurization in ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-milk-day-how-do-milk-products-impact-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-risks-of-raw-milk">Broader risks of raw milk</h2>



The H5N1 virus is not the only concern associated with raw milk. According to data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a>), raw milk has a history of causing significant health issues. 



Between 1998 and 2018, raw milk consumption led to over 2,600 illnesses, 228 hospitalizations, and three deaths. These incidents were linked to various pathogens commonly found in unpasteurized dairy products, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria. 



This extensive record of health problems underscores the broader risks of consuming raw milk. Unlike pasteurized milk, which undergoes heat treatment to kill harmful bacteria, raw milk can harbor dangerous microorganisms that pose serious health threats. 



The evidence from the CDC highlights the importance of choosing pasteurized milk to prevent these risks and ensure safer consumption of dairy products. This awareness is crucial for protecting public health and preventing future outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Misconceptions about raw milk</h2>



Many raw milk enthusiasts tout its supposed superior nutritional benefits and claim it can alleviate lactose intolerance and allergies. However, these assertions lack strong scientific support.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nutritional comparison</h3>



The nutritional differences between raw and pasteurized milk are minimal. Both contain essential nutrients such as calcium, protein, and vitamins B and D. 



Pasteurization slightly reduces some heat-sensitive vitamins, like vitamin C, but milk is not a major source of these nutrients. The process primarily aims to eliminate harmful pathogens and viruses without significantly altering the nutritional content of raw milk.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Lactose intolerance and allergies</h3>



Advocates often claim that raw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-protein-in-milk-could-revolutionize-wound-healing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> can help with lactose intolerance and allergies. The idea is that raw milk contains natural enzymes that aid in digestion and reduce allergic reactions. However, scientific studies do not support these claims. 



Lactose intolerance results from the body's inability to produce lactase, the enzyme needed to digest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-sugar-sources-are-key-to-preventing-childhood-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lactose</a>, which pasteurization does not affect. Similarly, milk allergies are reactions to proteins in milk, which remain unchanged regardless of pasteurization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recommendations-and-precautions">Recommendations and precautions</h2>



"Don't drink raw milk - that's the message," said Kawaoka. Given the potential dangers,&nbsp;health experts strongly advise against consuming raw milk,&nbsp;especially during avian influenza outbreaks.&nbsp;Opting for pasteurized milk significantly reduces the risk of exposure to harmful pathogens,&nbsp;including the H5N1 virus.



The recent findings serve as a reminder of the importance of pasteurization in ensuring the safety of our food supply. While raw milk may have its proponents,&nbsp;the potential risks outweigh any perceived benefits.



In conclusion,&nbsp;the presence of the H5N1 virus in unpasteurized milk underscores the importance of adhering to safe food practices.&nbsp;Choosing pasteurized milk is a simple yet effective way to protect yourself and your loved ones from potential harm.&nbsp;



As always,&nbsp;it's crucial to stay informed about food safety guidelines and make informed decisions about the products you consume.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMc2405495" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New England Journal of Medicine.</a>



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Raw milk may transmit bird flu virus

Recent research reveals a concerning connection between raw milk and...

In a recent discovery, scientists have found that caterpillars can detect their predators by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-caterpillars-turn-milkweed-toxin-into-a-survival-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensing</a> the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-swarms-charge-the-lower-atmosphere-with-static-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">static</a> electricity they emit.



This revelation, published in the journal PNAS, highlights the remarkable sensitivity of caterpillar hairs to electric fields, particularly those matching the wingbeat frequencies of their insect predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-static-electricity">What is static electricity?</h2>



Static electricity refers to the buildup of electric charge on the surface of objects. This phenomenon occurs when two materials come into contact and then separate, causing electrons to transfer from one material to the other. 



One object ends up with an excess of electrons, becoming negatively charged, while the other loses electrons and becomes positively charged. These charges remain until they can discharge, often resulting in a small spark or shock.



A common example of static electricity is when you walk across a carpeted floor and then touch a metal doorknob. As you walk, your shoes rub against the carpet, transferring electrons and building up static charge on your body. When you touch the metal doorknob, the excess electrons quickly move from your body to the metal, causing a small shock.



Static electricity can also be observed in nature. Lightning is a dramatic example, where the static charge buildup between clouds or between clouds and the ground discharges as a powerful bolt of electricity.



While static electricity is often seen as a minor nuisance, it can have significant implications in various fields. In industry, static charges can cause damage to sensitive electronic components, ignite flammable substances, or affect the manufacturing processes of certain materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Caterpillars' hairs detect static electric fields</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> have demonstrated that caterpillar hairs move in response to electric fields. 



These hairs are especially attuned to the frequencies corresponding to the wingbeats of other insects, suggesting that caterpillars can detect electrical cues from their predators. 



This study marks the first instance of static electricity being recognized as a sensory cue in predator-prey interactions.



"We knew that many animals naturally accumulate static electricity as they move around their environment, and that static electricity can influence other charged objects," explained lead author Dr. Sam England. 



"We wondered if a prey animal, like a caterpillar, could detect its predators by sensing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fertilizers-disrupt-flower-electrical-fields-and-confuse-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electric field</a> they emit. Would the static charge of a predator, like a wasp, be enough to alert the caterpillar to its approach?" 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-static-charge">Measuring static charge</h2>



The team measured the static charge of wasps and caterpillars using a static charge sensor. They used computational models to predict the strength of the electric field when a wasp approaches a caterpillar on a plant. 



By observing the caterpillars' defensive responses and employing lasers to detect tiny vibrations, they confirmed that the sensory hairs were detecting the electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Impact of human activities on caterpillar sensory detection</h2>



One significant concern arising from this study is that caterpillars are also sensitive to electric fields emitted by power lines and electronic equipment. This implies that human activities may be disrupting the ability of animals to detect their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inaudible-screams-amphibians-use-ultrasound-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> due to increased electrical "noise."



"It feels quite urgent now to assess whether we are hampering the ability of caterpillars and other animals to detect their predators by introducing a new type of sensory pollution – electrical noise," said Dr. England.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Static electricity in predator-prey interactions</h2>



Predator-prey interactions are crucial drivers of evolution. Since almost all terrestrial animals, including caterpillars, accumulate static charge, this static electric sense might be widespread. 



The discovery of its role in ecological interactions opens new dimensions to our understanding of animal senses and evolution.



"Our study shows that terrestrial animals can use static electricity as a predator detection cue. This ability is likely widespread, especially among insects and other small animals like spiders and scorpions," noted Dr. England.



"This study unveils a new dimension to predator-prey interactions and hints at a previously unnoticed way in which we might be negatively impacting wildlife by introducing sources of electrical sensory pollution."



This research not only enhances our understanding of predator-prey dynamics but also calls for a closer examination of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-has-a-strong-effect-on-wildlife-in-remote-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human activities</a> may be affecting wildlife through the introduction of electrical noise in the environment.



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Caterpillars use their hair to detect static electricity of predators

In a recent discovery, scientists have found that caterpillars can...

Scientists have discovered the elusive properties hidden within promethium, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth element</a> that has remained largely unexplored since its discovery 80 years ago. 



This landmark research, published in the journal Nature, marks a significant advance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crucial-rare-earth-elements-discovered-coal-mines-united-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth</a> studies and has the potential to rewrite chemistry textbooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promethium-s-80-year-scientific-journey">Promethium's 80-year scientific journey</h2>



The story of promethium began in 1945 at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (<a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ORNL</a>), formerly known as Clinton Laboratories. It was here that the element was first discovered and continues to be produced in minute quantities. 



Named after the mythological Titan who delivered fire to humans, promethium symbolizes the human quest for knowledge and understanding.



Alex Ivanov, an ORNL scientist who co-led the research, expressed the team's sense of obligation to uphold the laboratory's legacy.



"The whole idea was to explore this very rare element to gain new knowledge. Once we realized it was discovered at this national lab and the place where we work, we felt an obligation to conduct this research to uphold the ORNL legacy," Ivanov explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-mysteries-of-promethium">Unlocking the mysteries of promethium</h2>



The research team, led by ORNL scientists, prepared a chemical complex of promethium, enabling its characterization in solution for the first time. 



Through a series of meticulous experiments, they exposed the secrets of this extremely rare lanthanide, whose atomic number is 61.



Ilja Popovs, another co-lead of the research from ORNL, highlighted the challenges faced in studying promethium, saying, "Because it has no stable isotopes, promethium was the last lanthanide to be discovered and has been the most difficult to study."



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-earth-elements-japan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rare earth elements</a>, particularly lanthanides (elements 57-71 on the periodic table), are crucial components in many modern technologies, from lasers and permanent magnets to X-ray screens and cancer-fighting medicines. 



However, the lack of understanding surrounding promethium has been a significant gap in scientific knowledge.



Santa Jansone-Popova, also a co-lead of the study from ORNL, emphasized the importance of this research.



"There are thousands of publications on lanthanides' chemistry without promethium. That was a glaring gap for all of science. Scientists have to assume most of its properties. Now we can actually measure some of them," Jansone-Popova enthused.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-across-national-labs">Collaborative effort across national labs</h2>



The success of this research relied on the unique resources and expertise available at DOE national laboratories. 



The team utilized a research reactor, hot cells, and supercomputers, as well as the accumulated knowledge and skills of 18 scientists from various fields.



To study promethium's properties, the ORNL scientists bound radioactive promethium-147 with special organic molecules called diglycolamide ligands. 



Using X-ray spectroscopy, they determined the length of the promethium chemical bond with neighboring atoms, a first for science and a long-missing piece of the periodic table puzzle.



Promethium is incredibly rare; only about a pound occurs naturally in the Earth's crust at any given time. Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-earth-metals-water-repellent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth elements</a>, only minute quantities of synthetic promethium are available due to its lack of stable isotopes. ORNL is the sole producer of promethium-147 in the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-lanthanide-contraction">Understanding Lanthanide Contraction</h2>



One of the most significant findings of this study was the first demonstration of lanthanide contraction in solution for the entire lanthanide series, including promethium. 



Lanthanide contraction refers to the phenomenon where elements with atomic numbers between 57 and 71 are smaller than expected, with their ionic radii decreasing as atomic numbers increase.



"It's really astonishing from a scientific viewpoint. I was struck once we had all the data. The contraction of this chemical bond accelerates along this atomic series, but after promethium, it considerably slows down," Ivanov noted.



This is an important landmark in understanding the chemical bonding properties of these elements and their structural changes along the periodic table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-modern-technology">Implications for modern technology</h2>



The discovery of promethium's properties has far-reaching implications for modern technology. 



Many rare earth elements, including those in the lanthanide and actinide series, have applications ranging from cancer diagnostics and treatment to renewable energy technologies and long-lived nuclear batteries for deep space exploration.



Jansone-Popova highlighted the importance of this achievement in the separation of these valuable elements.



"You cannot utilize all these lanthanides as a mixture in modern advanced technologies, because first you need to separate them," Jansone-Popova explained. 



"This is where the contraction becomes very important; it basically allows us to separate them, which is still quite a difficult task."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promethium-ushers-in-a-new-rare-earth-era">Promethium ushers in a new rare earth era</h2>



The team's achievement sets the stage for a new era of research in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-earth-elements-are-waiting-to-be-discovered-in-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth elements</a>. 



"Anything that we would call a modern marvel of technology would include, in one shape or another, these rare earth elements. We are adding the missing link," Popovs concluded.



In summary, this important research on promethium opens a new frontier in the exploration of rare earth elements. 



By unlocking the secrets of this elusive element, the team has filled a significant gap in scientific knowledge and paved the way for future discoveries. 



The implications of this study extend far beyond the realm of basic science, as promethium and other rare earth elements play a crucial role in modern technologies, from medical applications to renewable energy and space exploration. 



As scientists continue to build upon this landmark achievement, we can expect to see a new era of innovation and advancement in the fields of chemistry, materials science, and beyond.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07267-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Promethium revolution: How a new rare earth element is set to transform technology

Scientists have discovered the elusive properties hidden within promethium, a...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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