The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

Dog lovers, it's time to rethink that routine spay or neuter appointment for your furry friend. New research from <a href="http://ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> is turning conventional wisdom on its head, suggesting that the age-old practice of early neutering might not be the best for every dog. It seems that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-communication-what-is-your-pet-trying-to-tell-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">man's best friend</a> is not a one-size-fits-all when it comes to this surgical procedure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-old-debate-on-early-dog-neutering">Age-old debate on early dog neutering</h2>



Dog neutering is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of a dog's reproductive organs. For male dogs, this procedure is called castration and involves the removal of the testicles. For female dogs, it is called spaying and involves the removal of the ovaries and usually the uterus. 



Neutering aims to prevent unwanted pregnancies, reduce certain behaviors, and eliminate or reduce the risk of specific health issues.



For decades, the standard advice has been to neuter dogs early, typically around six months of age. But, as with many things in life, the answer isn't so simple. UC Davis researchers have spent over a decade delving into the veterinary records of thousands of dogs, unearthing some surprising findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breed-and-sex-matter-in-dog-neutering">Breed and sex matter in dog neutering</h2>



The research reveals that the risks and benefits of neutering vary significantly depending on the dog's breed and sex. 



For some breeds, early neutering (before one year of age) is associated with an increased risk of joint disorders like hip dysplasia and certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-smoke-exposure-elevates-cancer-risk-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancers</a>. This eye-opening discovery challenges the long-held belief that early neutering is universally beneficial.



To understand why neutering affects some dogs differently, we need to delve into the role of sex hormones. These hormones influence various bodily processes, including the development of bones and joints. 



Removing them through neutering can disrupt these processes, potentially leading to health issues down the line. For example, male mastiffs showed a higher incidence of ligament tears and lymphoma, while female Ridgebacks had elevated risks of mast cell tumors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-decisions">Personalized decisions</h2>



The latest study from UC Davis expands on their previous research, adding five new breeds to the mix: German short/wirehaired pointer, mastiff, Newfoundland, Rhodesian ridgeback, and Siberian husky. The findings highlight the need for personalized decisions when it comes to neutering. 



This research underscores the importance of considering each dog's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-companions-the-best-dogs-to-share-your-bed-with/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breed</a> and sex to make informed neutering decisions, moving away from the traditional one-size-fits-all approach.



"It's always complicated to consider an alternate paradigm," explained Professor Lynette Hart, one of the lead researchers. 



"This is a shift from a long-standing model of early spay/neuter practices in the U.S. and much of Europe to neuter by 6 months of age, but important to consider as we see the connections between gonadal hormone withdrawal from early spay/neuter and potential health concerns."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailored-advice-for-40-popular-dog-breeds">Tailored advice for 40 popular dog breeds</h2>



The UC Davis team has compiled their extensive research into <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/fvets-11-1322276-t001.jpg">comprehensive guidelines</a> covering 40 popular dog breeds. 



These guidelines provide valuable information on the ideal neutering age for each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-celebrating-all-the-ways-that-dogs-make-life-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breed</a> and sex, empowering dog owners to make informed decisions based on their dog's unique characteristics.



"We're invested in making contributions to people's relationship with their animals," said Benjamin Hart, distinguished professor emeritus. "This guidance provides information and options for veterinarians to give pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homeless-pet-owners-need-better-options-to-protect-their-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owners</a>, who should have the final decision-making role for the health and well-being of their animal."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-neutering">Future of neutering</h2>



The research does not advocate for abandoning neutering altogether. Instead, it emphasizes the importance of a personalized approach. Consulting with your veterinarian and considering your dog's breed, sex, and overall health is crucial in determining the best time for neutering, if at all.



The study marks a turning point in how we approach spaying and neutering our canine companions. By embracing a more nuanced and personalized approach, we can ensure that our beloved dogs receive the best possible care throughout their lives.



So, the next time you're contemplating neutering your dog, don't just follow the old adage. Take a moment to consider your dog's unique needs and make a decision that will benefit them in the long run. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1322276/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



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Early neutering linked to serious health risks in some dog breeds

Dog lovers, it's time to rethink that routine spay or...

Early Human Migrations Expansions Archaic Humans Across Continen

Recent archaeological discoveries in Maryland have the potential to significantly alter our understanding of when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-one-of-the-greatest-feats-of-human-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> in "The Great Migration" first reached America.



A geologist from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a> has unearthed artifacts suggesting that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-survived-the-eruption-of-toba-supervolcano/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> inhabited North America 7,000 years earlier than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chesapeake-bay-clues-on-migration-in-america">Chesapeake Bay clues on migration in America</h2>



In the Chesapeake Bay area, <a href="https://si.academia.edu/DarrinLowery" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Darrin Lowery</a> and his team discovered 286 ancient artifacts on Parsons Island. 



Among these, the oldest artifacts were found embedded in charcoal, dating back more than 22,000 years. 



This new evidence challenges the widely accepted theory that humans first populated America around 15,000 years ago. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ancient-tools_parsons-island_first-american-migration_Darrin-Lowery_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ancient-tools_parsons-island_first-american-migration_Darrin-Lowery_1s.jpg" alt="The team uncovered tools jammed into the sediment, which they dated to uncover when the artifacts were made. Photo: Darren Lowery" class="wp-image-1935395"/></a></figure>



The discovery of these ancient artifacts suggests that humans may have inhabited North America much earlier than previously believed.



Lowery and his team have spent over a decade excavating Parsons Island. During this time, they have uncovered ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> in sediment layers, which were dated using preserved pollen and microfossils. 



These findings suggest that humans may have been present in the region during the last glacial maximum, the coldest period of the Ice Age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reassessing-the-great-migration-theory">Reassessing "The Great Migration" theory</h2>



The prevailing theory, known as "The Great Migration," posits that humans crossed from Asia to America via the Bering Strait Bridge around 15,000 years ago. 



These early migrants are believed to have traveled southward, leaving behind stone projectile points, known as Clovis points. Genetic studies of Native American ancestors have supported this timeline.



However, the discovery of these ancient tools in Maryland suggests that humans may have settled in the area much earlier. 



Lowery believes that Maryland could represent a Clovis Point, a significant marker in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/persian-plateau-fills-20000-year-gap-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history of human</a> migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lifelong-pursuit">A lifelong pursuit</h2>



Lowery’s interest in Parsons Island began at the age of nine when he found ancient flint tools along the shoreline. Since then, he has made numerous visits to the island, uncovering a trove of ancient tools. 



In 2013, his team discovered a leaf-shaped prehistoric stone tool protruding from a cliff, dating back more than 20,000 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversies-on-human-migration-in-america">Controversies on human migration in America</h2>



These findings have sparked new questions about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-masters-woodworking-crafting-wooden-hunting-weapons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> arrived in Maryland and their relation to Native American ancestors. 



Additionally, the exact number of migration waves and their impact on America's history remain topics of ongoing research.



Furthermore, Parsons Island now joins a growing list of pre-Clovis sites that challenge the 'Clovis First' theory, which asserts that the first humans reached the Americas about 13,000 years ago. 



Accurate dating of such sites is complex due to sediment shifts over time, which can make layers appear older than they are.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-evidence-from-new-mexico">Supporting evidence from New Mexico</h2>



Additional evidence from New Mexico supports the possibility of an earlier human presence in America.



British and American archaeologists discovered footprints in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/white-sands-national-park-in-new-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">White Sands National Park</a>, dating back to between 21,000 and 23,000 years ago. 



These prints, preserved in soft mud, were dated using radiocarbon dating of seed layers above and below the tracks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-debate-on-early-human-migration">Ongoing debate on early human migration</h2>



While Lowery's discoveries in Maryland suggest a significant revision of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-humans-almost-went-extinct-as-population-declined-to-1280-individuals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">timeline</a> for human arrival in America, further research is needed to confirm these findings. 



The debate over the origins and migration of early humans in America continues, with each new discovery adding to our understanding of this complex history.



The tools found in Maryland, along with the footprints in New Mexico, provide compelling evidence that humans may have been present in North America much earlier than previously thought. 



As researchers continue to unearth and analyze these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/476000-year-old-ancient-woodworking-discovery-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient</a> artifacts, our understanding of the early history of the Americas will undoubtedly evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-behind-human-migration-in-america">Purpose behind human migration in America</h2>



Ancient humans likely migrated to America in search of new resources, food, and better living conditions. 



Climate changes, such as the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Ice Age</a>, made certain regions more habitable and accessible. The pursuit of game and fertile land would have driven groups to explore new territories. 



Additionally, social and environmental pressures in their original habitats could have pushed them to seek new areas. 



The availability of a land bridge, like the Bering Strait, provided a feasible route for migration. These factors combined would have encouraged ancient humans to venture into and settle in the Americas.



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Timeline of first human migration into America challenged again

Recent archaeological discoveries in Maryland have the potential to significantly...

It's a question that has haunted scientists and philosophers alike: How did life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> begin? Now, a team of researchers from the Earth-Life Science Institute (<a href="https://www.elsi.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELSI</a>) at the <a href="https://www.titech.ac.jp/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a> and the California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>) have made a significant breakthrough that takes us a step closer to answering fundamental questions behind the chemical reactions related to the origin of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-chemical-reactions-in-the-origin-of-life">Missing chemical reactions in the origin of life</h2>



The researchers discovered that a mere eight "forgotten" biochemical reactions could bridge the gap between simple geochemical compounds and the complex molecules that form the basis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-life-on-earth-may-have-been-found-in-ancient-hot-springs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>. 



These forgotten reactions played a crucial role in transforming the early Earth's inhospitable environment. The planet was rich in hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. These reactions turned these harsh conditions into a cradle for life. By utilizing these simple compounds, early biochemical processes paved the way for life to flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atp-the-energy-currency-of-life">ATP: The energy currency of life</h2>



Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is central to this discovery. ATP acts as the energy currency of cells, driving essential reactions that wouldn't otherwise occur in water, such as protein synthesis. 



However, the researchers discovered a unique challenge: the reactions that form ATP require ATP itself. This cyclical dependency creates a bottleneck, making it difficult to model the evolution of metabolism. 



In previous attempts, this ATP bottleneck prevented accurate simulations of metabolic pathways. By identifying and addressing this issue, the researchers found that modifying just eight reactions could bypass this bottleneck. 



They allowed ATP-generating reactions to use polyphosphate instead of ATP, enabling nearly all contemporary core metabolism to be achieved. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-compounds-behind-life-s-origins">Chemical compounds behind life's origins</h2>



This breakthrough provides new insights into how simple geochemical compounds on early Earth could transform into the complex molecules necessary for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>, shedding light on the origins of biochemistry and the evolution of life itself.



"We might never know exactly [how much biochemistry is lost to time], but our research yielded an important piece of evidence: only eight new reactions, all reminiscent of common biochemical reactions, are needed to bridge geochemistry and biochemistry," said Harrison B. Smith, a specially appointed associate professor at ELSI.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosaic-of-ancient-and-modern-reactions">Mosaic of ancient and modern reactions</h2>



This discovery illuminates the earliest metabolic pathways and provides insights into the evolution of biological pathways over time. The researchers found that metabolism includes both linear pathways, where reactions add sequentially, and mosaic pathways, where reactions of different ages combine.



This indicates that evolution isn't always a step-by-step process. Instead, it often involves repurposing ancient reactions to form new pathways. 



By understanding these mechanisms, we gain a clearer picture of how simple geochemical compounds on early Earth evolved into the complex biochemical processes we see today. 



This research shows that forgotten biochemical reactions, once considered extinct, can still play a vital role in the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulfur-may-have-played-key-role-origin-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>. 



The study highlights the adaptability and complexity of life's chemistry. The experts believe we can rediscover and repurpose ancient biochemical reactions.



The research also offers new perspectives on the origins and evolution of metabolic pathways. By understanding these reactions, scientists can gain deeper insights into how life evolved on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-forgotten-chemistry">Importance of forgotten chemistry</h2>



The findings of this study have profound implications for our understanding of the origins of life. By uncovering these forgotten chemical reactions, the researchers have revealed a hidden chapter in the history of biochemistry.



"This does not prove that the space of missing biochemistry is small, but it does show that even reactions which have gone extinct can be rediscovered from clues left behind in modern biochemistry," noted Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



This research opens up exciting new avenues for exploration. By delving deeper into the history of biochemistry, scientists can gain a better understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-compound-suggests-that-life-beyond-earth-could-be-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> emerged from reactions between non-living matter. 



This knowledge could have far-reaching implications, from the development of new biotechnologies to the search for life on other planets.



The mystery of life's origins is far from solved, but with each new discovery, we come closer to understanding the remarkable journey that led to the diverse and complex world we see today. The forgotten chemistry of life may hold the key to unlocking some of the universe's most profound secrets.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02361-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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'Forgotten' chemical reactions offer clues to life's origins

It's a question that has haunted scientists and philosophers alike:...

For the first time, scientists have observed wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-infected-with-a-virus-that-causes-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">koalas</a> regulating their body temperatures ahead of hot summer days by lowering their temperatures during cooler mornings. 



The research, led by Valentina Mella from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/university.html?adobe_mc_sdid=SDID%3D07E009F07D222548-6E99CDF095A1CC83%7CMCORGID%3D35B46472540D9EE20A4C98A6%40AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1716971947&amp;adobe_mc_ref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>, revealed that koalas can predict <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-countries-most-at-risk-from-extreme-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat</a> and adjust their body temperatures accordingly. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-prepare-for-a-warming-climate">Koalas prepare for a warming climate </h2>



Over a two-week study in 2019, koalas displayed the highest and lowest body temperatures ever recorded for the species. This self-regulation helps koalas save water by reducing the need for evaporative cooling.



“This self-regulation requires individual koalas to predict days of extreme temperature from overnight and early morning conditions, adjusting their body heat regulation accordingly,” Mella said.&nbsp;



The research showed that koalas’ core temperatures fluctuate with environmental conditions, which is an adaptive tactic to reduce water usage by 18 percent. This behavior might be more crucial for surviving hot days than previously known tactics like tree-hugging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-self-regulate-their-body-temperature-nbsp">Koalas self-regulate their body temperature&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-now-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Koalas</a> generally maintain a core body temperature of 36.3 degrees Celsius, but on hot days, they start with a lower body temperature, allowing it to rise with the air temperature. This approach is less reliant on water for cooling down. 



However, as climate change causes temperatures to increase, this strategy could become risky since temperatures above 40 degrees Celsius can be fatal for leaf-eating mammals like koalas.



Koalas use various methods to manage their body temperature, including their insulative fur, concentrated urine production to conserve water, and a low metabolism to reduce heat production. They also pant, lick their fur for evaporative cooling, seek cooler microhabitats, and adopt tree-hugging postures.&nbsp;



Previous work by the research team also recorded koalas drinking freely available water on hot days, a behavior that was previously unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-regulation-as-a-survival-technique-nbsp">Temperature regulation as a survival technique&nbsp;</h2>



The study was conducted near Gunnedah in New South Wales, an area with an older population of koalas suffering from chlamydial disease. Remarkably, all of the koalas were still alive six months later, indicating that this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature modulation</a> is a survival technique. 



“Global climate models forecast that dry, hot weather will escalate and drought events will increase in frequency, duration and severity. This is likely to push koalas and other tree-dwelling leaf-eating mammals towards their thermal limit," said Mella.



"Our results reinforce the importance of climate mitigations for ensuring future survival of koalas."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-survival-techniques-of-koalas">More about the survival techniques of koalas</h2>



Koalas have developed several survival techniques to navigate the challenges of their environment.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-diet-nbsp">Specialized diet&nbsp;</h3>



One of the most notable is their specialized diet, which consists almost exclusively of eucalyptus leaves.&nbsp;



These leaves are tough, fibrous, and low in nutrition, but koalas have a highly specialized digestive system with a long gut to extract the maximum amount of nutrients. Their slow metabolic rate helps conserve energy, allowing them to survive on this limited diet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-strategies-nbsp">Behavioral strategies&nbsp;</h3>



In terms of behavior, koalas spend most of their time in trees, which provides safety from ground-based predators.&nbsp;



They are mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, being active during the cooler parts of the day and night, which helps them avoid the midday heat and conserve water.&nbsp;



During extreme heat, koalas can often be found hugging the cooler, lower parts of trees or spreading out their limbs to release body heat.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocalizations">Vocalizations</h3>



Additionally, koalas communicate with each other using a range of vocalizations. This helps them establish and maintain territories, find mates, and warn off rivals without needing to expend energy on physical confrontations.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-climate-change-on-koalas">Impact of climate change on koalas</h2>



Koalas are significantly impacted by climate change, which exacerbates the challenges they face from habitat destruction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-retroviruses-have-been-found-in-koalas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a>. 



Rising temperatures and altered weather patterns can lead to more frequent and intense heatwaves, exacerbating dehydration and heat stress in koalas. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diminishing-food-sources-nbsp">Diminishing food sources&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, climate change affects the quality of their primary food source, eucalyptus leaves. These trees are sensitive to changes in climate. 



Altered rainfall patterns and increased carbon dioxide levels can reduce the nutritional content of the leaves and make them more toxic, which can diminish koala food sources and affect their health.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat loss</h3>



Climate change contributes to more severe and frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-koala-habitats-face-an-escalating-threat-of-bushfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bushfires</a>, which can devastate koala habitats, causing loss of food sources and direct harm to the koala population. These fires not only destroy the trees koalas depend on but can also result in significant mortality for the species. 



The overall impact of climate change threatens the survival and conservation of koalas, making it crucial to address these environmental changes to help preserve this iconic Australian species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.mediaoutreach.meltwater.com/ls/click?upn=u001.i5MFNkUDbt13uNVa2NzRWZZwo1BvROnaSYADjIVKqm9GJAEoy4nBM6pfx9ynj1XWbx9nWXOW6zE5N7eP1qoE2xl9b03kgLSK0KgXMTzflRg-3DoMRO_wmc-2BViHeaSAOdjPZKiSJ-2FVqxQzmhDprMt9JOFfIOyikWRxiXkS7v6FurodPnd8UAaygk4XSabT28D43knAvrohsnFDUc13yjWIamY-2FNMf7fthRqhfyM2On0gXW-2F6Rsy2wZfyFTerHDaDyNnVwHkO5KRufu9YM-2Fx2vJf5158JiPjsIfVM7UqURX3W3kybmS8DOww6U-2BdK069exE2liW-2FU2sGE-2BfC-2FZBcAWMdmGmZdC7DEIFGLaoNZXl-2FXg1kBbz18FA5o79NVhQq4KlnSnJFpvlJZuxhrT1wO-2BmcnRqEZUC38Vlz1tgN1ImugkeAZM6UJRYAfrnDGwo5-2BwilNNKNQpgTH4yHLS7-2BIaLRNFBO55n8pGwzDHWReSy8yOBeUHib6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Physiology</a>.



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Koalas can predict hot days and adjust their body temperature

For the first time, scientists have observed wild koalas regulating...

Researchers using NASA’s <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST) have identified three galaxies that may have been actively forming between 400 to 600 million years after the Big Bang. These galaxies are surrounded by gas primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, the earliest elements in the universe. 



Webb’s sensitive instruments detected dense gas around these galaxies, likely fueling new star formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sparkling-islands-in-a-sea-of-gas">Sparkling islands in a sea of gas</h2>



“These galaxies are like sparkling islands in a sea of otherwise neutral, opaque gas,” said lead author Kasper Heintz, an assistant professor of astrophysics at the <a href="https://cosmicdawn.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cosmic Dawn Center </a>(DAWN) at the University of Copenhagen. 



“Without Webb, we would not be able to observe these very early galaxies, let alone learn so much about their formation.”



“We’re moving away from a picture of galaxies as isolated ecosystems. At this stage in the history of the universe, galaxies are all intimately connected to the intergalactic medium with its filaments and structures of pristine gas,” noted co-author Simone Nielsen, a PhD student at DAWN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-galaxies-formed-from-neutral-hydrogen-gas-nbsp">Ancient galaxies formed from neutral hydrogen gas&nbsp;</h2>



In Webb’s images, the galaxies appear as faint red smudges, making additional data, such as spectra, essential for the team’s conclusions. The spectra revealed that light from these galaxies is absorbed by significant amounts of neutral hydrogen gas.&nbsp;



“The gas must be very widespread and cover a very large fraction of the galaxy. This suggests that we are seeing the assembly of neutral hydrogen gas into galaxies. That gas will go on to cool, clump, and form new stars,” explained co-author Darach Watson, a professor of astrophysics at the same institution.



Several hundred million years after the Big Bang, during the Era of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-what-powered-the-reionization-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reionization</a>, the universe was very different. The gas between stars and galaxies was mostly opaque and only became fully transparent around one billion years post-Big Bang. The stars in galaxies contributed to heating and ionizing the surrounding gas, eventually making it transparent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain-about-early-galaxies">Many questions remain about early galaxies</h2>



By aligning Webb’s data with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/messier-82-unlocking-the-mysteries-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> models, the researchers found that these galaxies mostly consist of young stars. “The fact that we are seeing large gas reservoirs also suggests that the galaxies have not had enough time to form most of their stars yet,” said Watson.



“Images and data of these distant galaxies were impossible to obtain before Webb. Plus, we had a good sense of what we were going to find when we first glimpsed the data - we were almost making discoveries by eye,” noted Gabriel Brammer, an astrophysicist at DAWN.



There are still many questions to address. Researchers aim to determine the specific locations of the gas, whether it is near the galaxy centers or in their outskirts, and if the gas is pristine or contains heavier elements.&nbsp;



“The next step is to build large statistical samples of galaxies and quantify the prevalence and prominence of their features in detail,” Heintz concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-earliest-galaxies-of-our-universe-nbsp">More about the earliest galaxies of our universe&nbsp;</h2>



Early galaxies were much smaller and less structured than the ones we see today, often resembling irregular clumps of stars rather than the majestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiral</a> or elliptical shapes common now. 



The early universe was filled with hydrogen and helium, the raw materials from which these first stars and galaxies formed.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-the-galaxies">Formation of the galaxies</h3>



As these primordial gases began to collapse under gravity, they formed the first stars and, eventually, galaxies.&nbsp;



The process was likely influenced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, an unseen substance that makes up most of the universe's mass and creates gravitational wells that can pull in normal matter.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starburst-galaxies-nbsp">Starburst galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



These ancient galaxies were hotbeds of star formation, known as "starburst" galaxies. They were much less metal-rich than later galaxies because they hadn't yet undergone generations of star birth and death, which produce heavy elements.&nbsp;



Over time, as stars formed, died, and ejected their material back into space, these galaxies grew and evolved, merging with others to form larger galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distant-ancient-light">Distant, ancient light</h3>



The study of early galaxies helps scientists understand more about the formation and evolution of structures in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> and the role of dark matter in shaping these processes. 



By observing distant, ancient light with powerful telescopes, astronomers can glimpse these early stages of galaxy formation and development.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adj0343" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Joseph Olmsted (STScI)



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The earliest galaxies in the universe have been observed for the first time

Researchers using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have identified...

We all know that the world is getting warmer, but a new report has laid bare the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-fear-climate-change-will-end-the-world-during-their-lifetime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alarming extent</a> to which our planet is heating up. According to a recent study, climate change has gifted us an average of 26 additional days of extreme heat over the past year. 



That's almost an entire extra month of sweltering temperatures that we wouldn't have experienced without human-caused global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-want-to-fight-climate-change-more-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-extreme-heat">Climate change and extreme heat</h2>



Before we delve deeper into this scorching revelation, let's clarify what we mean by "extreme heat." For this study, scientists defined it as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-struggling-to-maintain-oxygen-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> that fall within the top 10 percent of what a particular country typically experiences. 



The experts analyzed data from 1991 to 2020 to establish this baseline, then compared it to the temperatures recorded in the 12 months leading up to May 15, 2024.



The results were, to put it mildly, sizzling. Not only did the world experience a significant increase in extreme heat days, but this trend was observed across the globe, affecting a staggering 80 percent of the population. That's approximately 6.3 billion people who endured at least 31 days of extreme heat in the past year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwaves-across-continents">Heatwaves across continents</h2>



The report, published by the <a href="https://www.climatecentre.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre</a>, the <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Weather Attribution</a> scientific network, and <a href="https://www.climatecentral.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Central</a>, highlights that extreme heat waves have become a truly global phenomenon. In the last 12 months, 76 extreme heat waves were registered in 90 different countries, spanning every continent except Antarctica.



While no region was spared from this scorching onslaught, some countries were hit particularly hard. Five of the most affected nations were in Latin America:



<ul>
<li>Suriname endured a staggering 182 extreme heat days,&nbsp;instead of the estimated 24 it would have experienced without climate change.</li>



<li>Ecuador faced 180 days of extreme heat,&nbsp;compared to just 10 in a world without global warming.</li>



<li>Guyana sweltered through 174 days,&nbsp;far surpassing the 33 days it would have seen without climate change.</li>



<li>El Salvador and Panama also experienced a significant increase in extreme heat days,&nbsp;with 163 and 149 days respectively,&nbsp;instead of the estimated 15 and 12 days they would have faced.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deadly-impacts-of-extreme-heat">Deadly impacts of extreme heat </h2>



"Flooding and hurricanes may capture the headlines, but the impacts of extreme heat are equally deadly," said Jagan Chapagain, Secretary General of the <a href="https://www.ifrc.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Federation of the Red Cross</a>.



Extreme heat is a silent killer claiming tens of thousands of lives each year. The actual death toll is likely much higher, potentially reaching hundreds of thousands or even millions. Unlike sudden-onset disasters, extreme heat's impact is insidious and often under-reported.



This deadly phenomenon can exacerbate existing health conditions, cause heatstroke, dehydration, and lead to severe health complications, especially among vulnerable populations such as the elderly and those with preexisting conditions. Despite its devastating effects, extreme heat doesn't receive the same attention as more immediate and visually dramatic weather events.



As global temperatures rise due to climate change, the frequency and intensity of these deadly heatwaves are increasing. It's crucial to recognize the severity of extreme heat and implement measures to mitigate its impacts, such as creating more green spaces, improving urban planning, and investing in cooling infrastructure to protect public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-address-climate-change">A call to address climate change</h2>



The report's findings underscore the urgent need to address climate change and mitigate its devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/38-trillion-dollars-per-year-economic-losses-expected-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Extreme heat is not merely an inconvenience; it's a deadly threat to human life and well-being. As global temperatures continue to rise, we can expect even more frequent and intense heatwaves in the future.



To combat this escalating crisis, we must take decisive action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition to a clean energy economy. We must invest in climate-resilient infrastructure and develop early warning systems to protect vulnerable populations. 



The science is clear: climate change is making our world a hotter place, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consequences</a> of extreme heat are dire.



As a global community, we need to ensure that everyone has access to the resources and support they need to cope with the increasingly extreme weather conditions that climate change is bringing our way.



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Billions of people endured an extra month of extreme heat in the past year

We all know that the world is getting warmer, but...

There's something mesmerizing about watching a poison dart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> tap its tiny toes. It's almost as if they're dancing to an unheard rhythm, a secret symphony only they can appreciate. But what if this isn't just a quirky display? What if those rhythmic taps serve a purpose far beyond mere entertainment?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-behavior-of-toe-tapping-frogs">Mysterious behavior of toe-tapping frogs</h2>



Scientists have long been intrigued by the toe-tapping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wood-frogs-achieved-significant-biological-evolution-25-years-salt-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> of amphibians. While this phenomenon is well-documented, its purpose has remained shrouded in mystery. Is it a playful gesture? A way to attract mates? Or perhaps a secret weapon in the hunt for prey?



A recent study sheds light on this fascinating behavior. Researchers at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign focused their attention on the Dyeing <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-makes-poison-dart-frogs-poisonous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poison</a> frog (Dendrobates tinctorius), a species known for its vibrant colors and, of course, its rhythmic toe taps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-the-frogs-tap-their-toes">Why do the frogs tap their toes?</h2>



"We already knew the answer to this, but it was great to see that the tapping increased in the presence of the prey," said Professor Eva Fischer, the study's lead author. But the real question was why?



The researchers hypothesized that the toe-tapping might play a role in feeding. To test this theory, they observed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-with-small-testes-are-invested-in-caring-for-their-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> under various conditions, carefully documenting their tap rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-tapping-captured-by-iphone">Frog tapping captured by iPhone</h2>



Armed with nothing more than an iPhone's slow-motion camera, former undergraduate student Thomas Parrish meticulously recorded the frogs' tapping behavior. 



"Afterwards, I went back to each video and counted the number of taps on each foot and how long they were visible since they were often hidden behind a leaf or the frog itself," Parrish explained.



The data revealed a fascinating pattern: the frogs tapped their toes significantly more often when prey was present. But was this merely an excited response, like a dog wagging its tail, or was there something more strategic at play?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-symphony-of-vibrations">A symphony of vibrations</h2>



The researchers devised a clever experiment to find out. They placed fruit flies, a favorite snack of the Dyeing poison frog, in small, clear dishes within the frogs' habitat. This allowed the frogs to see the prey but not access it directly.



"The idea was that if they're excited, we might see something different based on whether they can catch the flies," Fisher explained. However, the frogs continued to tap their toes with gusto, suggesting that the tapping was not merely a byproduct of excitement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tap-dance-on-different-stages">A tap dance on different stages</h2>



To further explore the purpose of the toe tapping, the researchers introduced another variable: the surface on which the frogs were standing. They observed the frogs' behavior on soil, leaf litter, gel, and glass – surfaces with varying degrees of responsiveness to vibrations.



"Soil and leaves are natural substances, but soil is not very responsive while leaves are. On the other hand, gels are responsive and glass is not, but they are both unnatural surfaces to frogs," Fischer noted.



The results were intriguing. The frogs' tap rate varied depending on the surface, but surprisingly, this had no impact on their feeding success. "Although we saw that the frogs ate in every context, it was exciting to see that they changed their behavior based on what they're standing on," said Fischer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-mealtime-moves">More than just mealtime moves</h2>



While the study strongly suggests that toe tapping plays a role in feeding, the researchers believe it may have other functions as well. "For example, we have seen that the frogs tap more when there are other frogs nearby, so there may be a social aspect to it," noted Fischer.



The researchers are eager to continue their investigations, exploring the biomechanical intricacies of the frogs' toe-tapping muscles and investigating other potential triggers for this behavior.



So, the next time you see a poison dart frog tap dancing its way across a leaf, remember: there's more to this performance than meets the eye. It's a symphony of vibrations, a secret language, and a testament to the fascinating complexity of the natural world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eth.13465" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ethology</a>.



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Some frogs tap their tiny toes when they see prey

There's something mesmerizing about watching a poison dart frog tap...

According to a recent study, a mysterious ancient human-like skull found in China may have been the love child of two species. They believe the 900,000-year-old individual was a hybrid - part Homo sapien, part Homo longi, a long-lost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragon-man-may-be-our-new-closest-relative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> known as the “Dragon Man.” 



The skull, named “the Yunxian Man” after the Yunyang District of Hubei province where it was discovered in 2022, baffled archaeologists due to its strange shape and features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragon-man-and-homo-sapiens-nbsp">Dragon Man and Homo sapiens&nbsp;</h2>



The experts recreated a full 3D model of the skull, revealing it had facial bones of a human but a flattened cranium, boxed eyes, and a thicker brow bone of Homo longi. The researchers concluded that the Yunxian Man might represent a lineage close to the last common ancestor of Homo sapiens and Dragon Man.&nbsp;



The skull was one of three found in China over the past 50 years that initially puzzled scientists. Determining which bones belong to which species is complex, and there is still no agreement on how many human-like species existed in our recent archaeological history.



“It might seem like simple science to determine what bone fits to what species, but scientists have yet to agree just how many human-like species there were in our recent archaeological history,” said Anna Goldfield, an archaeologist at <a href="https://www.bu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-and-denisovans-nbsp">Neanderthals and Denisovans&nbsp;</h2>



It is widely accepted that there were two archaic human species - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and Denisovans - which roamed the Earth as distinct groups until about 30,000 years ago and had distinct features. But the Yunxian Man skull was difficult to categorize. 



Researchers initially thought it might belong to the Denisovan family, which originated in Asia about 500,000 years ago, due to its physical characteristics and location.&nbsp;



However, while the Yunxian Man had an elongated skull similar to Denisovans, it also had distinct boxy eyes, setting it apart. Thus, the scientists speculate that the Dragon Man lineage could include Denisovans since these groups lived around the same time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-offspring-of-dragon-man-nbsp">Offspring of Dragon Man&nbsp;</h2>



Analyzing the new skull, the experts determined its traits were similar to those found in early humans and Dragon Men, suggesting it was likely an offspring of both. Homo longi had large, blocky eye sockets, larger molars, a thick brow bone, and a similar brain size to humans.&nbsp;



“The reconstructed Yunxian 2 suggests that it is an early member of the Asian 'Dragon Man' lineage, which probably includes the Denisovans, and is the sister group of the Homo sapiens lineage,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Both the H. sapiens and Dragon Man lineages had deep roots extending beyond the Middle Pleistocene, and the basal position of the Yunxian fossil cranium suggests it represents a population lying close to the last common ancestor of the two lineages.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-human-evolution-nbsp">New insights into human evolution&nbsp;</h2>



Modern humans, Homo sapiens, emerged about one million years ago in Africa before spreading globally. Neanderthals originated in Europe and Asia around 400,000 years ago, characterized by long <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-humans-first-evolve-in-europe-ape-skull-sparks-new-debate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skulls</a>, thick ridges above their eyes, and wider, bigger noses. 



Denisovans, whose fossils have been found only in Siberia and China, likely roamed the entire Asian continent. Despite being genetically similar enough to interbreed, each species had unique traits.



These species were genetically similar enough to mate, akin to how horses and donkeys produce mules. Evidence of interbreeding exists today, as some modern humans carry Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA. This discovery of the Yunxian Man provides new insights into human evolution and the complex interactions between different hominin species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-human-evolution-nbsp">The story of human evolution&nbsp;</h2>



Human evolution is a fascinating journey that traces the development of our species, Homo sapiens, from our earliest ancestors millions of years ago. This process is marked by significant physical and behavioral changes influenced by environmental pressures, migration, and adaptation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-hominins">Early hominins</h3>



The story begins in Africa, where the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-used-to-eat-their-ancestral-relatives-practicing-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a>, which include our direct and indirect ancestors, diverged from the lineage that would lead to our closest living relatives, the chimpanzees and bonobos, around six to seven million years ago. 



These early hominins were not yet humans but displayed traits that hinted at what was to come, such as bipedalism - the ability to walk upright on two legs - which allowed for more efficient movement across the savanna.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use">Tool use</h3>



As time progressed, different species of early humans evolved, each adapting to their environments in unique ways. These species developed tools and used fire, which played crucial roles in their survival and the development of social structures.&nbsp;



For instance, the control of fire allowed for cooking, which in turn helped in the easier digestion and absorption of nutrients.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homo-genus">Homo genus</h3>



The genus Homo, which includes all modern humans, first appeared approximately 2.5 million years ago. This genus was characterized by a significant increase in brain size and more complex tool use, compared to earlier hominins.&nbsp;



Homo erectus, one of the earliest species in this genus, was highly successful, spreading throughout Africa and into Asia.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homo-sapiens-nbsp">Homo sapiens&nbsp;</h3>



Our own species, Homo sapiens, emerged around 300,000 years ago. With even larger brains and more sophisticated tools, language, and culture, Homo sapiens were able to innovate and adapt in ways that no hominin had before.&nbsp;



This included the creation of art and complex social structures, establishing trade routes, and the ability to adapt to a wide variety of environments.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-migrations-nbsp">Human migrations&nbsp;</h3>



Migrations played a key role in the spread of Homo sapiens across the globe. Starting from Africa, humans moved into the Middle East, Asia, Australia, Europe, and eventually the Americas.&nbsp;



Throughout these migrations, there were interactions with other hominin species, such as Neanderthals in Europe and Denisovans in Asia. Evidence suggests that these interactions included interbreeding, which has had a lasting impact on the human genome.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-of-human-evolution-nbsp">Study of human evolution&nbsp;</h3>



Today, Homo sapiens are the only surviving species of a once diverse family tree of hominins.&nbsp;



The study of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> continues to evolve itself, with new discoveries and technologies shedding light on this complex history, helping us understand not just where we have come from, but perhaps where we are heading as well.



A pre-print version of the Dragon Man study is published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.16.594603v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: Gary Lee Todd/ Flickr&nbsp;



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"Dragon Man" skull sheds new light on human evolution

According to a recent study, a mysterious ancient human-like skull...

As our planet warms, many species are relocating to new areas, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> are lagging behind other plants and animals. A recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2308811121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS) suggests that the reason for this delay in tree migration might be found underground - in soil fungi.&nbsp;



The researchers found that trees, especially those in northern regions, may be moving to soils that lack the mycorrhizal fungi necessary to support them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-soil-fungi-in-a-warming-world-nbsp">Trees and soil fungi in a warming world&nbsp;</h2>



Most plants, including large coniferous trees in northern latitudes, rely on symbiotic relationships with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a>.&nbsp;These microscopic fungi form networks in the soil, connecting with plant roots to supply essential nutrients in exchange for carbon.&nbsp;



The study showed that 35% of tree-fungi partnerships could be negatively impacted by climate change, according to lead author Michael Van Nuland, a fungal ecologist at the <a href="https://www.spun.earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for the Protection of Underground Networks</a> (SPUN).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-soil-fungi-help-trees-survive">Diverse soil fungi help trees survive</h2>



The trees most at risk in North America belong to the pine family. The study highlighted that trees on the edges of their ranges, where conditions are harshest, have higher survival rates when they have more diverse mycorrhizal fungi. This diversity is critical for helping trees withstand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-in-boreal-forests-are-sensitive-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



“Ectomycorrhizal fungi have a different relationship to climate than ectomycorrhizal trees do,” explained co-author Clara Qin, a data scientist at SPUN.&nbsp;



“While we expect climate-driven migrations to be limited by abiotic factors like the availability of space at higher latitudes and elevations, we don't usually account for biotic limitations like the availability of symbiotic partners.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assisted-migration-strategies-nbsp">Assisted migration strategies&nbsp;</h2>



“It’s absolutely vital that we continue to work to understand how climate change is affecting mycorrhizal symbioses,” Van Nuland added. “These relationships underpin all life on Earth - it’s critical that we understand and protect them.”



“While more empirical work on this topic is certainly warranted, it may help explain previous observations of migration failure amongst a wide range of North American tree species. Consequently, our findings suggest that mycorrhizal fungi will need to be carefully considered as part of any assisted migration strategies for North American tree species,” the authors concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pine-trees-of-north-america">Pine trees of North America</h2>



The pine family, scientifically known as Pinaceae, is a prominent group of coniferous trees that are widespread across North America. This family includes not only pines but also firs, spruces, cedars, and larches, among others.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pine-tree-characteristics">Pine tree characteristics</h3>



These trees are characterized by their needle-like leaves, which are typically evergreen, and their cone-bearing reproductive structures.&nbsp;



Pines, in particular, are known for their long, slender needles grouped in clusters called fascicles, which can contain anywhere from one to five needles depending on the species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pine-species-diversity-nbsp">Pine species diversity&nbsp;</h3>



In North America, the diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-of-californias-pine-forests-may-never-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pine species</a> is significant, adapting to a wide range of climates and soils. They are found from the cold boreal forests of Canada, where species like the white pine and red pine thrive, to the warm southern regions where species like the ponderosa and lodgepole pine are common.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-economic-significance-nbsp">Ecological and economic significance&nbsp;</h3>



The adaptability of these trees makes them ecologically important as they provide habitat and food for wildlife, help in soil stabilization, and contribute to the forest's fire dynamics due to their flammable resin.



Economically, the pine family is equally significant. Many species are harvested for timber and paper production, and pine trees are also popular as Christmas trees due to their appealing fragrance and shape.&nbsp;



The resilience and utility of the pine family make it a vital component of North American forests, both in natural settings and in managed landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-soil-fungi-in-tree-health">Role of soil fungi in tree health</h2>



Soil fungi play a crucial role in the health and growth of trees primarily through their symbiotic relationships with tree roots. These fungi, particularly mycorrhizal fungi, extend their networks into the soil, greatly expanding the surface area of tree roots.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-and-essential-nutrients">Water and essential nutrients</h3>



This increased surface area allows trees to absorb water and essential nutrients, like phosphorus and nitrogen, more efficiently than roots could on their own.&nbsp;



In return, the fungi receive carbohydrates produced by the trees through photosynthesis, which are vital for their growth and reproduction.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-and-soil-structure-nbsp">Fungi and soil structure&nbsp;</h3>



Moreover, soil fungi improve the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-dark-earth-could-revolutionize-forest-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil structure</a>, which enhances water retention and aeration, providing a better growing environment for trees.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-composition-nbsp">Soil composition&nbsp;</h3>



Fungi also play a key role in decomposing organic matter in the soil, which recycles nutrients that are essential for the ecosystem's sustainability. 



This interaction not only boosts tree health but also enhances their resistance to various stresses, including drought and diseases, helping maintain the overall resilience and stability of forest ecosystems.&nbsp;



By fostering a complex web of interactions within the soil, fungi contribute significantly to the ecological success and longevity of trees.



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Trees are moving to soils that lack the fungi to support them

As our planet warms, many species are relocating to new...

A team of researchers has recently identified a specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain region</a>, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), that governs our willingness to help others, based on a study of patients with brain damage to that region. The study was led by experts at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a> and the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prosocial-behavior-by-young-children-extends-to-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prosocial behaviors</a> are essential for addressing global challenges,” said lead author Patricia Lockwood, a professor of decision neuroscience at Birmingham. “Yet helping others is often effortful and humans are averse to effort. Understanding how effortful helping decisions are processed in the brain is extremely important.”



The vmPFC, located at the front of the brain, is crucial for decision-making and other executive functions. Previous studies linked the vmPFC to decisions involving a trade-off between rewards and the effort required, but those studies couldn’t confirm whether this part of the brain is essential for these functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-motivation-for-helping-others-nbsp">Brain’s motivation for helping others&nbsp;</h2>



The experts recruited three groups of participants: 25 patients with vmPFC damage, 15 patients with damage elsewhere in the brain, and 40 healthy control participants matched for age and gender. 



The experiment involved a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-making</a> task where participants met another person anonymously and decided how much physical effort (squeezing a grip force device) to exert to earn rewards for themselves and for the other person.



The results demonstrated that the vmPFC is necessary for motivation to help others. Patients with vmPFC damage were less willing to help, exerted less force even when they chose to help, and earned less money to help others compared to the control groups. 



Using lesion symptom mapping, researchers identified specific subregions of the vmPFC where damage made people particularly antisocial and unwilling to help, while damage to a nearby subregion made people relatively more willing to help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



“As well as better understanding prosocial motivation, this study could also help us to develop new treatments for clinical disorders such as psychopathy, where understanding the underlying neural mechanisms can give us new insights into how to treat these conditions,” said co-author Jo Cutter, a postdoctoral fellow in social decision neuroscience at the same university.



“This region of the brain is particularly interesting because we know that it undergoes late development in teenagers, and also changes as we get older,” said Lockwood.&nbsp;



“It will be really interesting to see whether this area of the brain can also be influenced by education – can we learn to be better at helping others?”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-benefits-of-helping-others-nbsp">Mental health benefits of helping others&nbsp;</h2>



Helping others can significantly boost mental health in several ways. Engaging in acts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-in-all-cultures-offer-small-acts-of-kindness-to-strangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kindness</a> and support can lead to a deeper sense of satisfaction and purpose in life. 



When you assist someone, your brain releases endorphins, often referred to as "helper’s high," which can elevate your mood and reduce stress.&nbsp;



Furthermore, helping others can help foster social connections, making you feel less isolated and more connected to a community. This sense of belonging can be crucial for emotional well-being.&nbsp;



Additionally, when you focus on someone else's needs, it can provide a new perspective on your own challenges, often making them seem more manageable.&nbsp;



Being helpful and kind can boost your self-esteem and self-worth as you see yourself as a positive force in someone's life. These factors combined can lead to significant improvements in overall mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interesting-facts-about-prosocial-behavior-nbsp">Interesting facts about prosocial behavior&nbsp;</h2>



Research suggests there is a biological basis for prosocial behavior. For example, the hormone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-holds-the-keys-to-both-your-heart-and-your-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxytocin</a> is linked to bonding and increases trust and generosity in humans.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-norms">Cultural norms</h3>



Prosocial behaviors are influenced by cultural norms and values. For instance, some cultures emphasize communal values more than others, which can lead to higher rates of altruistic behavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toddlers-helping-others-nbsp">Toddlers helping others&nbsp;</h3>



Prosocial behavior develops in early childhood and can be observed as young as infancy. Toddlers often begin to show concern for others in distress and will try to comfort them in simple ways.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy">Empathy</h3>



Empathy is a strong predictor of prosocial behavior. Individuals who can empathize with others are more likely to engage in actions that benefit other people.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influential-factors">Influential factors</h3>



Situational factors can greatly influence prosocial behavior. People are more likely to help others when they are not in a hurry, when they are in a good mood, and when they have just observed someone else being helpful.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01899-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behavior</a>. 



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What motivates us to help others? Key brain region identified 

A team of researchers has recently identified a specific brain...

On May 27, 2024, at 3:08 a.m. Eastern Time, NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory captured a powerful solar flare <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/solar-flare_x-class_X2-8_SDO_NASA_052724_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erupting from the Sun</a>. 



The flare, classified as an X2.8, marks one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-blasts-biggest-x-class-solar-flare-nineteen-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense solar events</a> in recent years, prompting scientists to closely monitor its potential impact on Earth.



The solar flare was observed by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/sdo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SDO</a>), a spacecraft dedicated to studying the Sun's activity. 



Solar flares of this magnitude can have significant effects on our planet, including disruptions to radio communications, power grids, and navigation systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-solar-flares">Understanding solar flares</h2>



Solar flares are massive bursts of energy that erupt from the Sun's surface. 



These phenomena occur when the magnetic fields in the Sun's atmosphere become tangled and release their stored energy in a sudden, explosive manner. 



The resulting flare can send radiation and charged particles hurtling towards Earth at mind-boggling speeds.



The solar flare that occurred on May 27 was classified as an X2.8 flare, putting it in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-solar-flare-since-2019-erupted-today-more-radio-blackouts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most intense category</a> of solar flares, earning an "X-class" designation. 



The X-class designation is reserved for the strongest flares, and the accompanying number provides further information about its strength. In this case, the 2.8 rating indicates an extremely powerful event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impacts-on-earth">Potential impacts on Earth</h2>



Solar flares and their associated eruptions can have significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rare-g5-level-geomagnetic-storm-highest-level-hits-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts on our planet</a>. They can disrupt radio communications, cause fluctuations in electric power grids, and interfere with navigation signals. 



Moreover, these events pose risks to spacecraft and astronauts in orbit, as the intense radiation can damage electronic components and pose health hazards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-activity-in-the-past-24-hours">Solar activity in the past 24 hours</h2>



Over the past 24 hours, solar activity decreased to low levels. However, multiple C-class flares were observed originating from Regions 3691 and 3697. 



The largest of these was a C8.9 flare at 7:16 p.m. UTC on May 27, which emerged from Region 3961. This region exhibited slight growth and possible separation of its leader spots. 



Region 3693 also showed some growth, while the newly numbered Region 3967 was too close to the limb for accurate classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-activity-forecast-what-lies-ahead">Solar activity forecast: What lies ahead</h2>



Looking ahead, solar activity is expected to remain at moderate to high levels over the next few days. 



Occasional M-class flares are likely, which could cause minor to moderate radio blackouts. 



There is also a chance for isolated X-class flares, potentially leading to strong radio blackouts, particularly through May 30.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-particle-activity-is-mixed">Energetic particle activity is mixed</h2>



The past 24 hours saw normal to moderate levels of electron flux above 2 MeV, while the proton flux above 10 MeV remained at background values. 



The forecast suggests that electron flux will remain at similar levels through May 30. 



However, there is a slight chance of a proton event exceeding the S1 (Minor) threshold between May 28 and May 30, due to the flare potential of Regions 3691 and 3697.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-conditions">Solar wind conditions</h2>



Solar wind parameters were generally at or near nominal levels over the past day. Wind speeds ranged from 331 to 389 kilometers per second, while the total magnetic field strength varied between 1 and 7 nanoTesla.



The Bz component, which plays a crucial role in determining the level of interaction with Earth's magnetic field, fluctuated between +5 and -4 nanoTesla.



The solar wind conditions are expected to remain near nominal levels through May 28. However, an enhancement may arrive in the late hours of May 29 due to the indirect shock from the X2.8 flare event. 



As we move into May 30, the solar wind environment is likely to return to ambient-like levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-field-activity">Geomagnetic field activity</h2>



Over the past 24 hours, the geomagnetic field remained at quiet to unsettled levels. The forecast indicates that these conditions will persist through May 28. 



However, isolated active levels, with a chance of minor (G1) storming, may occur if the shock from the May 27 coronal mass ejection (CME) arrives. As any lingering shock effects subside, quiet to unsettled conditions are expected to prevail on May 30.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staying-informed">Staying Informed</h2>



To stay updated on how space weather may affect Earth, it is highly recommended to visit NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center at <a href="https://spaceweather.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://spaceweather.gov/</a>. 



This website serves as the U.S. government's official source for space weather forecasts, watches, warnings, and alerts. By staying informed, we can better prepare for and mitigate the potential impacts of solar flares and other space weather events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nasa-s-vital-role-in-space-weather-research">NASA's vital role in space weather research</h2>



As a research arm of the nation's space weather effort, NASA plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding of the Sun and its effects on Earth. 



The agency operates a fleet of spacecraft that constantly observe the Sun's activity, its atmosphere, and the particles and magnetic fields in the space surrounding our planet. 



Through these observations and the tireless work of scientists, we continue to unravel the mysteries of our star and develop better ways to predict and prepare for space weather events.



The X2.8 solar flare captured by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory serves as a stark reminder of the incredible power and unpredictability of our Sun. 



As we continue to monitor its activity and study its impacts on Earth, it is essential that we remain vigilant and prepared for the potential consequences of these awe-inspiring cosmic events.



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Solar fury: NASA captures X-class flare, Earth braces for impact

On May 27, 2024, at 3:08 a.m. Eastern Time, NASA's...

Feeding children <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peanuts-have-a-beneficial-impact-on-vascular-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peanuts</a> regularly from infancy to age five has been shown to reduce the rate of peanut allergy in adolescence by 71 percent, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a> (KCL). The research  suggests that early consumption of peanuts can achieve long-term prevention of peanut allergies. 



“Today’s findings should reinforce parents’ and caregivers’ confidence that feeding their young children peanut products beginning in infancy according to established guidelines can provide lasting protection from peanut allergy,” said Dr. Jeanne Marrazzo, director of the <a href="https://www.niaid.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases</a> (NIAID), which co-funded the study.



“If widely implemented, this safe, simple strategy could prevent tens of thousands of cases of peanut allergy among the 3.6 million children born in the United States each year.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-peanut-consumption-nbsp">Early peanut consumption&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.leapstudy.co.uk/leap-trio.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LEAP-Trio</a> trial -  a study of early peanut consumption - initially revealed an 81 percent reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-treatment-peanut-allergies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peanut allergy</a> by age five when peanuts were introduced early. Follow-up results demonstrate sustained benefits, with only 4.4 percent of early peanut consumers developing allergies by age 12 or older, compared to 15.4 percent in those who avoided peanuts.



“Participants from a randomized peanut consumption trial were assessed for peanut allergy following an extended period of eating or avoiding peanuts as desired. The primary end point was the rate of peanut allergy at age 144 months,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



“Decades of advice to avoid peanuts has made parents fearful of introducing peanuts at an early age,” said senior author Gideon Lack, an expert in immunology and pediatrics at KCL. “The evidence is clear that early introduction of peanuts in infancy induces long term tolerance and protects children from allergy well into adolescence.”



The study's results are significant, particularly as peanut allergies are rising in Western countries, affecting about two percent of young children in North America, the UK, Western Europe, and Australia. Small amounts of peanuts can cause life-threatening allergic reactions, leading to fear and conflicting advice about introducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peanuts-have-a-beneficial-impact-on-vascular-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peanuts</a> into diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-risk-of-peanut-allergy-nbsp">Reduced risk of peanut allergy&nbsp;</h2>



The LEAP-Trio study monitored participants from age six to twelve and found that regular, early peanut exposure reduced the risk of peanut allergy by 71 percent compared to early avoidance.&nbsp;



“This is a safe and highly effective intervention which can be implemented as early as 4 months of age. The infant needs to be developmentally ready to start weaning and peanut should be introduced as a soft pureed paste or as peanut puffs,” said co-lead investigator George Du Toit, an expert in pediatric allergy at KCL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protective-effect-of-early-peanut-consumption-nbsp">Protective effect of early peanut consumption&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, the study showed that the protective effect of early peanut consumption persisted without the need for consistent peanut intake throughout childhood and early adolescence.&nbsp;



The researchers tested for peanut allergy primarily through an oral food challenge and verified self-reported peanut consumption through measurements of peanut in dust from participants’ beds.



“Peanut consumption, starting in infancy and continuing to age 5 years, provided lasting tolerance to peanut into adolescence irrespective of subsequent peanut consumption, demonstrating that long-term prevention and tolerance can be achieved in food allergy,” wrote the researchers.



“Early consumption of peanuts will prevent more than 100,000 new cases of peanut allergy every year worldwide,” Lack concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-peanut-allergies">More about peanut allergies</h2>



Peanut allergies are a significant health concern that affect both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indoor-pets-reduce-the-risk-of-food-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a> and adults. When someone has a peanut allergy, their immune system mistakenly identifies proteins from peanuts as harmful.



This immune response can trigger a range of symptoms that vary from mild, such as hives or gastrointestinal discomfort, to severe, like anaphylaxis - a potentially life-threatening reaction that impairs breathing and can send the body into shock.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/allergy-season-will-become-increasingly-brutal-as-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anaphylaxis</a> can occur within minutes of exposure to peanuts and can cause symptoms like difficulty breathing, swelling of the throat, a sudden drop in blood pressure, rapid pulse, dizziness, or loss of consciousness. Immediate treatment with epinephrine is crucial to manage this reaction.



The exact cause of peanut allergies isn't fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://evidence.nejm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NEJM Evidence</a>.



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Early peanut consumption could prevent 100,000 allergy cases each year

Feeding children peanuts regularly from infancy to age five has...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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