The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



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Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

The turbulent storms in Jupiter’s polar regions are driven by processes familiar to physicists studying Earth’s oceans and atmosphere. 



This is the conclusion of new research led by Lia Siegelman, a physical oceanographer at UC San Diego’s <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>.



Siegelman first observed the connection in 2018, noting the similarity between images of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-use-exoplanet-hunter-to-study-jupiters-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter’s cyclones</a> and the ocean turbulence she studied on Earth. 



Since air and water are both fluids, it isn’t so far-fetched to apply ocean physics to Jupiter. “Jupiter is basically an ocean of gas,” explained Siegelman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-convection-helps-sustain-jupiter-s-storms">Convection helps sustain Jupiter’s storms</h2>



This observation led to a 2022 study published in <a href="https://rdcu.be/dwJMT" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>, which analyzed high-resolution infrared images of Jupiter’s cyclones taken by NASA’s Juno spacecraft.&nbsp;



The study revealed that convection, similar to that seen on Earth, helps sustain Jupiter’s massive storms, which can be thousands of miles wide and last for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-filaments-in-jupiter-s-storms">Role of filaments in Jupiter’s storms</h2>



The 2022 study focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amalthea-jupiter-tiny-moon-captured-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter’s cyclones</a>, but Siegelman also noted the presence of filaments, or wispy tendrils, between the vortices. 



These filaments appeared analogous to phenomena on Earth, prompting further investigation using Juno’s detailed imagery to explore whether this similarity was merely superficial.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/jupiter-cloud-system_northern-hemisphere_closeup_juno_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/jupiter-cloud-system_northern-hemisphere_closeup_juno_nasa_1s.jpg" alt="Cloud system in Jupiter's northern hemisphere imaged by Juno spacecraft. Photo: NASA" class="wp-image-1935977"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cloud system in Jupiter's northern hemisphere imaged by Juno spacecraft. Photo: NASA</figcaption></figure>



The current study has uncovered additional similarities between the processes driving Jupiter’s cyclones and those on Earth, revealing that the filaments between Jupiter’s cyclones work in tandem with convection to sustain the planet’s giant storms. 



Specifically, these filaments act in ways resembling <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/striking-seawater-colored-by-phytoplankton-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fronts on Earth</a>, which are boundaries between gas or liquid masses with different densities, often leading to strong vertical velocities that create winds or currents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperatures-and-wind-speeds-on-jupiter">Temperatures and wind speeds on Jupiter</h2>



To understand the role of the filaments visible in Juno’s images, Siegelman and her co-author, Patrice Klein, analyzed a series of infrared images of Jupiter’s north polar region taken in 30-second intervals.&nbsp;



The infrared images allowed the researchers to determine temperatures, with bright areas indicating warmer regions and dark areas indicating cooler regions.&nbsp;



On <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a>, warmer areas correspond to thin clouds, while cooler areas represent thick cloud cover, blocking more heat from the planet’s super-heated core. 



By tracking the movement of clouds and filaments, the researchers calculated horizontal wind speeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-from-jupiter-s-interior">Heat from Jupiter’s interior </h2>



Combining these measurements with methods from ocean and atmospheric science, Siegelman and Klein calculated the vertical wind speeds that corresponded to the derived temperatures and horizontal wind speeds.&nbsp;



The findings confirmed that Jupiter’s filaments behaved like Earth’s fronts, playing a significant role in transporting energy in the form of heat from Jupiter’s hot interior to its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-turbulent-atmosphere-includes-a-high-speed-jet-stream/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upper atmosphere</a>, thereby fueling the giant cyclones. 



While convection is the primary driver, the fronts contribute to a quarter of the total kinetic energy and forty percent of the vertical heat transport powering Jupiter’s cyclones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-filaments-with-a-big-impact">Small filaments with a big impact</h2>



“These cyclones on Jupiter’s poles have persisted since they were first observed in 2016,” Siegelman said. “These filaments in between the large vortices are relatively small but they are an important mechanism for sustaining the cyclones.”



“It’s fascinating that fronts and convection are present and influential on Earth and Jupiter - it suggests that these processes may also be present on other turbulent fluid bodies in the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mechanisms-on-far-away-planets-nbsp">Earth's mechanisms on far-away planets&nbsp;</h2>



Siegelman emphasized that Jupiter’s vast scale and Juno’s high-resolution imagery offer a clearer visualization of how smaller-scale phenomena like fronts connect to larger systems like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-moving-tropical-cyclones-are-becoming-more-powerful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyclones</a> and the atmosphere at large.&nbsp;



These connections are often challenging to observe on Earth due to their smaller and more ephemeral nature. However, a new satellite known as SWOT might make observing these ocean phenomena much easier.



“There is some cosmic beauty in finding out that these physical mechanisms on Earth exist on other far-away planets,” Siegelman concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-jupiter-s-storms-nbsp">More about Jupiter’s storms&nbsp;</h2>



Jupiter is known for its magnificent and turbulent weather systems, including some of the most colossal and enduring storms in the solar system.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-red-spot-nbsp">Great Red Spot&nbsp;</h3>



The most famous of these is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smaller-storms-feed-jupiters-great-red-spot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Red Spot</a>, a giant storm larger than Earth that has been raging for at least 350 years.&nbsp;



This storm is a high-pressure anticyclone, characterized by swirling clouds of reddish hues, and it stands out against the rest of the planet's mostly white and ochre atmosphere.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-s-rapid-rotation-nbsp">Jupiter's rapid rotation&nbsp;</h3>



The dynamics of Jupiter’s storms are driven by the planet's rapid rotation, which is the fastest of all the solar system’s planets, completing a rotation roughly every 10 hours.&nbsp;



This rapid rotation contributes to strong jet streams that divide the clouds of the upper atmosphere into dark belts and bright zones.&nbsp;



Storms often form along the boundaries of these belts and zones, where the atmosphere exhibits dramatic shifts in composition and temperature.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-appearance-and-duration">Varied appearance and duration</h3>



Besides the Great Red Spot, Jupiter is home to many other storms, some appearing as smaller red spots, white ovals, or even brown splotches.&nbsp;



These storms can last for varying lengths of time - some persisting for years and others dissipating much more quickly.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41567-024-02516-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>.



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Jupiter’s iconic storms can last for centuries, but what fuels them?

The turbulent storms in Jupiter’s polar regions are driven by...

A recent investigation reveals a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollution-is-a-greater-health-threat-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concerning forecast</a> for ozone pollution levels across the United States by 2050, indicating potential non-compliance with air quality standards and increased public health risks.



This study paints a detailed picture of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monsoons-launch-ozone-depleting-substances-into-the-stratosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate-induced changes</a> could intensify ground-level ozone, a molecule composed of three oxygen atoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-ozone-pollution">What is ozone pollution?</h2>



Ozone pollution, also known as ground-level ozone, refers to the presence of ozone gas (O₃) in the Earth's lower atmosphere. Unlike the protective ozone layer in the stratosphere, ground-level ozone is a harmful pollutant. 



It forms when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight. Common sources of these pollutants include vehicle emissions, industrial facilities, and chemical solvents.



Ozone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/short-term-pollution-claims-more-than-one-million-lives-per-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a> poses significant health risks. It can cause respiratory problems, aggravate asthma, reduce lung function, and increase susceptibility to respiratory infections. 



Long-term exposure can lead to chronic respiratory diseases and even premature death. Additionally, ground-level ozone can harm ecosystems, damaging crops, forests, and wildlife.



Climate change exacerbates ozone pollution by increasing temperatures, which accelerates the chemical reactions that produce ozone. Efforts to control ozone levels focus on reducing NOx and VOC emissions through regulatory measures and technological advancements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-pollution-on-the-rise">Ozone pollution on the rise</h2>



Ground-level ozone isn't just a minor irritant; it's a major health hazard, linked to reduced lung function and airway inflammation, contributing to hundreds of thousands of deaths annually.



Study lead author James East, a former PhD student at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>, is now a researcher at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>.



"Climate change influences ozone formation through a myriad of factors. Predominantly, warmer temperatures correlate with ozone increases in already polluted areas. Furthermore, expected rises in naturally occurring VOC emissions, particularly in regions like the Southeast U.S., could worsen the situation," explained East.



The study, "Projecting Changes in the Frequency and Magnitude of Ozone Pollution Events Under Uncertain Climate Sensitivity," navigates through these complexities.



The research extends beyond mere predictions, incorporating various models and statistical tools to gauge future ozone pollution landscapes. In particular, the study explores how often (and by how much) ozone levels might exceed public health standards by mid-century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-quality-thresholds">Air quality thresholds</h2>



The results of the study are presented as a range, acknowledging the ongoing debates among climate scientists about how drastically the climate reacts to greenhouse gas concentrations. 



"The best-case scenario, with low climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide, suggests an average increase in peak ozone levels by less than 0.3 parts per billion (ppb)," noted East. "This increase might still keep many areas within safe air quality thresholds."



However, East warns of a less optimistic outcome where the climate shows high sensitivity to carbon dioxide. 



Here, peak ozone levels could rise by more than 2.3 ppb on average, leading to a significant increase in days where ozone levels surpass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-gets-an-unpredictable-boost-from-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> norms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-public-health-and-policy">Implications for public health and policy</h2>



The practical implications of these findings are stark. "Our study estimates that between 5 million and 13 million additional people could be exposed to dangerously high ozone levels by 2050," said East.



This projection is crucial for policymakers, especially those involved in the Environmental Protection Agency's ongoing review of the ozone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-air-pollution-levels-have-dropped-but-not-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality standards</a>.



Fernando Garcia Menendez, the study's corresponding author and an associate professor of environmental engineering at NC State, emphasized the broader significance of these insights.



"While state and federal governments strive to control ozone levels through emissions reductions, our findings suggest these efforts might be less effective in the future, particularly in areas already struggling to meet air quality standards," said Menendez.



"This research not only deepens our understanding of climate change's impact on air quality but also aids in refining the cost-benefit analyses of climate regulations and related technological advances."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-responses-to-ozone-challenges">Strategic responses to ozone challenges</h2>



This work underscores the need for a proactive approach in reviewing and possibly revising air quality standards to better protect public health in the face of evolving climate conditions.



By offering a clearer picture of the potential scenarios, the research arms policymakers with vital data to make informed decisions, potentially leading to more robust strategies to mitigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adverse effects</a> of ozone pollution.



As climate patterns continue to shift, such studies will be pivotal in guiding effective responses to safeguard environmental and public health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023EF003941" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Ozone pollution will harm tens of millions of people at current pace

A recent investigation reveals a concerning forecast for ozone pollution...

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have pinpointed a specific group of neurons that appear to drive compulsive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating</a> behaviors (binge eating), even in the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/being-overweight-makes-it-harder-for-brain-to-resist-unhealthy-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunger</a>.



This finding could significantly advance our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunger-hormones-in-the-gut-can-change-our-eating-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating disorders</a> and offer new targets for treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-binge-eating">What is binge eating?</h2>



Binge eating, also known as compulsive eating, is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-disorders-can-be-contagious-among-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disorder</a> characterized by frequent episodes of consuming large amounts of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort. 



Unlike regular overeating, binge eating is driven by an overwhelming urge to eat, even when not hungry. People experiencing this disorder often feel a lack of control during these episodes and may eat in secret due to feelings of shame or guilt.



This behavior can lead to various physical health problems, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-now-affects-more-than-a-billion-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>, diabetes, and heart disease. It also significantly impacts mental health, often associated with stress, anxiety, and depression.



The exact cause of binge eating is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental factors.



Treatment typically involves therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and sometimes medication to address underlying psychological issues. Early intervention is crucial for better management and recovery outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-link-to-binge-eating">Neural link to binge eating</h2>



Located in the periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain - a region already associated with a variety of bodily functions such as mood regulation, sleep, and stress response - these neurons are identified as vesicular GABA transporter cells, or VGAT cells. They utilize the neurotransmitter GABA, which is pivotal in controlling neuronal activity.



Despite the known functions of VGAT cells in various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-region-that-influences-our-food-preferences-can-be-manipulated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain regions</a>, their relationship with feeding behaviors was previously unclear. This link was unveiled quite unexpectedly by researchers focusing on anxiety, not feeding.



"Our initial hypothesis centered on VGAT cells reducing fear and panic. Instead, activating them caused mice to frantically search for food," noted Brazilian neuroscientist Fernando Reis, first and corresponding author of the article, and a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-behaviors-in-lab-mice">Surprising behaviors in lab mice</h2>



Further experimentation revealed intriguing results related to binge eating: well-fed mice exhibited an intense foraging behavior upon activation of these cells, consuming more than usual.



Conversely, when the VGAT neurons were inhibited, even food-deprived mice showed reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-behavior-is-influenced-by-the-unconscious-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating behavior</a>.



The experiments also demonstrated that the mice enjoyed the stimulation, spending more time where their VGAT cells were activated, suggesting that the activation not only spurred eating but also triggered feelings of pleasure and reward. 



Remarkably, the mice were even willing to endure discomfort, such as mild electric shocks, to satisfy their induced cravings, indicating a strong drive to eat that overpowered other aversive sensations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-techniques-and-implications">Advanced techniques and implications</h2>



The research employed the cutting-edge technique of optogenetics, which enables precise control over specific neurons using light. 



This method was implemented by introducing a genetically modified virus that carries a light-sensitive protein derived from green algae into the mice. 



As a result, only the targeted VGAT cells within the periaqueductal gray were selectively activated or inhibited.



This precise neural manipulation not only affected the periaqueductal gray but also influenced deeper brain structures, such as the zona incerta. 



"We observed an increase in neural activity in this area when the mice were approaching food," said Juliane Ikebara, a co-author of the study. 



This observation underscores the broad impact of VGAT cell activation on the brain's neural circuits involved in feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-compulsive-eating">Understanding compulsive eating</h2>



The study raises intriguing questions about the potential parallels in humans, given that humans also possess VGAT cells in similar brain regions. 



Although direct experimentation in humans is not currently feasible, the researchers are hopeful. 



"Our findings can't be directly tested in humans right now, but future studies may show whether activation of these cells in monkeys triggers a search for food, suggesting something similar might happen in humans," noted Avishek Adhikari, the team's senior researcher.



Moving forward, the team plans to investigate whether stimulating these neurons influences cravings for specific types of food like proteins or sugars, noting a distinct preference in mice for high-calorie foods over vegetables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-compulsive-eating-disorders">Treating compulsive eating disorders</h2>



This discovery opens up potential new avenues for understanding and treating conditions such as binge eating and anorexia. 



By identifying the neural circuits involved in compulsive eating, researchers can explore innovative strategies to modulate these behaviors, offering hope for those battling eating disorders.



The research not only highlights the complex interplay between brain regions and binge eating behaviors but also underscores the potential for targeted neural interventions in addressing compulsive eating.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46430-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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'Binge eating' linked to a specific group of neurons in the brain

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have pinpointed a specific group...

A recent study has revealed that 62% of marine protected areas (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPAs</a>) aimed at protecting migratory fish, especially rare species, fail to cover their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential habitats</a>.



The research, conducted by a team from the <a href="https://www.ofb.gouv.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">French Biodiversity Agency</a>, <a href="https://www.institut-agro.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institut Agro</a>, and <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INRAE</a>, highlights a significant gap in conservation efforts and underscores the need for better alignment between MPAs and the actual habitats of these fish.



The mismatch poses a significant challenge for conservation efforts, especially for threatened species such as shads and the critically endangered European eel, as listed by the IUCN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-marine-protected-areas">What are marine protected areas?</h2>



MPAs are specific regions in oceans, seas, and large lakes where human activities are regulated to protect natural and cultural resources. These areas are established to conserve marine biodiversity, safeguard endangered species, and preserve vital ecosystems. 



MPAs vary in their level of protection, from fully protected reserves where all extractive activities like fishing and mining are prohibited, to partially protected areas where certain activities are allowed under strict management.



The primary goal of MPAs is to create safe havens for marine life, allowing ecosystems to thrive without the pressures of human interference. 



This helps maintain ecological balance, supports sustainable fisheries, and ensures the resilience of marine environments against threats such as climate change, pollution, and overfishing. 



By protecting critical habitats, breeding grounds, and nursery areas, MPAs contribute to the overall health and sustainability of the world's oceans, benefiting both marine life and human communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-protecting-diadromous-fish">Challenge of protecting diadromous fish</h2>



Diadromous fish,<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-catastrophic-decline-in-migratory-freshwater-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> migratory fish</a> that transition between fresh and marine waters, face a unique set of challenges.



These species are subject to various threats, including agricultural runoff, habitat destruction, and climate change, which affect them throughout their complex life cycles. 



Despite these pressures, the study shows that only 55% of the core habitats for these migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-catastrophic-decline-in-migratory-freshwater-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> fall within MPAs, and of those, only half have specific conservation measures in place.



For individual species, the situation is even more dire. The endangered Mediterranean twaite shad, for example, has less than 30% of its core habitat protected by MPAs. 



For the European eel and European smelt, around 70% of their habitats are covered, but protection measures are scarce. Only 9% of MPAs have specific protections for the European eel, and none are in place for the European smelt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-model-for-protecting-migratory-fish">New model for protecting migratory fish</h2>



The research team, based in France and collaborating across multiple institutions, has developed a new modeling approach to predict the core and unsuitable habitats for these migratory fish. 



This "Combined Model for Accurate Prediction" aims to refine how conservation areas are designated by integrating more accurate data on species distribution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/">habitat</a> needs.



Dr. Sophie Elliott, the study's lead author, highlighted the urgency of the situation, noting the sharp decline in diadromous fish populations reported by the Living Planet Index. "Given these declines, it's surprising that more isn't being done to protect these species," she stated.



Dr. Anthony Acou, a co-author of the study, emphasized the challenges posed by the lack of data on rare species, which often leads to spatial protective measures being implemented with little understanding of their actual distribution and habitat needs. He refers to this dilemma as "the rare species paradox."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-protection-of-fish-habitats">Enhanced protection of fish habitats</h2>



The study's findings underscore the need for targeted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-conservation-does-not-have-to-mean-neglecting-people/">conservation</a> measures that are precisely aligned with the habitats of at-risk species.



"We hope that our 'Combined Model for Accurate Prediction' methodological framework can help improve accurate rare species distribution modelling for reliable biodiversity assessments, meaning conservation measures can be targeted in specific areas that protect rare and poorly detected species while also minimising conservation impacts on human activity," said study co-author Dr. Laurent Beaulaton.



As the researchers look to expand their modeling approach to larger areas in the Northeast Atlantic, they emphasize the need for additional data to better characterize functional habitats such as migratory corridors, nursery areas, and refuges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action-for-migratory-fish-habitats">A call to action for migratory fish habitats</h2>



The study serves as a call to action for policymakers, conservationists, and researchers to reevaluate and enhance the effectiveness of marine protected areas.



By aligning conservation efforts more closely with the actual needs and habitats of rare and migratory fish species, there is hope for reversing the troubling declines in these important populations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1365-2664.14664" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Marine protected areas lack critical fish habitats

A recent study has revealed that 62% of marine protected...

Approximately two million species inhabit the world's oceans, but scientists have only described about 10% of them. With rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> rates and global biodiversity threats, many species could vanish before being identified or their benefits understood.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-ocean-biodiversity-strategy-nbsp">National Ocean Biodiversity Strategy&nbsp;</h2>



The National Ocean Biodiversity Strategy, led by the <a href="https://www.si.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian</a> and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has recently called for a more unified approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean conservation</a>. This strategy aims to enhance the ability of scientists to gather and share knowledge and use it for more effective protections.



“We are confronting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss</a> and its implications for human well-being, alongside the challenges posed by climate change and social inequity,” said Ellen Stofan, Under Secretary for Science and Research at the Smithsonian.&nbsp;



“But we hold the power to overcome these obstacles with a united, society-wide effort to preserve nature and its benefits.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-benefits-will-degrade-with-biodiversity-loss-nbsp">Ocean benefits will degrade with biodiversity loss&nbsp;</h2>



The health and prosperity of the U.S. are closely tied to the ocean, contributing nearly $400 billion annually to the economy and providing 2.4 million jobs. The U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, covering an area larger than all 50 states combined, benefits greatly from the ocean's diverse species and habitats.



“Life in the ocean touches everyone,” said Gabrielle Canonico, leader of the U.S. Marine Biodiversity Observation Network at NOAA and co-chair of the strategy team.&nbsp;



“Every other breath we take comes from the oxygen produced by microscopic ocean plants, and more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. But these and other benefits will degrade with biodiversity loss, with dire consequences especially for frontline communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-gaps-in-our-knowledge-of-ocean-wildlife">Critical gaps in our knowledge of ocean wildlife </h2>



Despite the ocean's vast benefits, critical gaps remain in the protection and knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monitoring-ocean-life-through-underwater-soundscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean life</a>. Current information is scattered across different organizations, making it difficult to share.&nbsp;



Many smaller organisms, crucial for maintaining ecosystems, are barely studied. The strategy aims to address this by strengthening the ocean observing system and information pipeline.



“We are advancing frontier technologies for biodiversity science and understanding,” said Sarah Kapnick, NOAA chief scientist. “But it is critical that we come together around the use of evidence-based metrics and indicators for decision-making in ocean spaces, and for monitoring, reporting, and verification to ensure that investments in conservation or development deliver the desired outcomes while minimizing negative impacts to ocean life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-biodiversity-is-in-trouble-nbsp">Ocean biodiversity is in trouble&nbsp;</h2>



“Biodiversity is the beating heart of the ocean that supports society, but it’s in trouble,” noted Emmett Duffy, chief scientist of <a href="https://serc.si.edu/research/projects/marinegeo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MarineGEO</a> at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center and co-chair of the strategy team.&nbsp;



“This strategy is our best chance yet to turn the tide. We need to implement it to reach a future where people and the rest of nature thrive together by joining forces and leveraging the power of people and technology to understand the living ocean ecosystem.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roadmap-to-a-more-sustainable-ocean">Roadmap to a more sustainable ocean</h2>



The National Ocean Biodiversity Strategy outlines a three-pronged plan to create a more inclusive, evidence-based network of protection in U.S. ocean waters and the Great Lakes:



<ul>
<li>Coordinate ocean research and conservation across the entire nation: This involves bringing together federal agencies with ocean-related missions to engage stakeholders, including states, Tribes, and local communities, to co-design solutions. Part of this process includes documenting the economic and cultural values of the ocean to reveal hidden costs of degrading nature and incorporating them into economic decision-making across government and private sectors.</li>



<li>Strengthen the U.S. information pipeline: The U.S. has a wealth of data on ocean life, but much of it is inaccessible to policymakers and managers. The strategy calls for stronger support of centralized, open-source databases accessible to all stakeholders. This also involves revamping taxonomy to reveal undiscovered species and using new technologies like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/racing-boat-collects-edna-samples-on-a-round-the-world-sailing-competition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> (eDNA), satellites, and artificial intelligence to track biodiversity.</li>



<li>Conserve, restore, and sustainably use ocean biodiversity: Success hinges on partnerships with states, Tribes, local communities, NGOs, and the private sector. Listening sessions will help build collaborations based on trust, allowing managers to co-create protection measures that work long-term with community input.</li>
</ul>



According to the experts, this strategy is a high-level roadmap to a more sustainable ocean and a first step toward implementing a plan to outline specific actions tailored to regions and communities based on stakeholder feedback.



The full strategy can be found on the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/NSTC_National-Ocean-Biodiversity-Strategy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Office of Science and Technology Policy website</a>.



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World Ocean Day: A unified approach to protect biodiversity 

Approximately two million species inhabit the world's oceans, but scientists...

Primordial black <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecules-scramble-quantum-information-equally-well-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">holes</a> (PBHs) are being reevaluated through the application of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-vortex-created-lab-mimic-black-hole-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> field theory - a concept traditionally reserved for microscopic phenomena - to the vast expanses of the early universe.



Researchers have found a surprising scarcity of these miniature black holes, contradicting many existing models. 



Primordial black holes are considered potential candidates for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, the elusive substance that constitutes a significant portion of the universe’s total mass yet remains invisible. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-primordial-black-holes">What are primordial black holes?</h2>



Primordial black holes (PBHs) are a theoretical type of black hole formed in the early universe, shortly after the Big Bang. 



Unlike black holes formed from the collapse of massive stars, PBHs could have originated from high-density regions in the young universe due to extreme fluctuations in density. These black holes vary in size and mass, potentially ranging from microscopic to several solar masses.



It is believed that these early-formed black holes could explain the missing mass not accounted for by visible matter.



However, recent studies using quantum field theory suggest that PBHs might be scarcer than previously thought, challenging their viability as dark matter candidates. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflation-dark-matter-and-primordial-black-holes">Inflation, dark matter, and primordial black holes</h2>



The universe is an ancient expanse, about 13.8 billion years old, originating from a massive explosion and expanding rapidly in a phase known as inflation. This process transformed the universe from a uniform state into one rich with structure and detail. 



Despite the vast empty spaces, the universe weighs more than visible matter can account for, leading scientists to hypothesize the existence of dark matter. Recently, ancient black holes have emerged as possible explanations for this discrepancy.



“Primordial black <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primordial-black-holes-may-be-shifting-earths-orbit/">holes</a> are fascinating not only as dark matter candidates but also because their large numbers could explain the binary black hole mergers observed through gravitational wave astronomy. However, despite theoretical expectations of their abundance, actual observations have been lacking, pointing to a gap in our understanding,” noted Jason Kristiano, a graduate student involved in the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theoretical-models">Theoretical models</h2>



Kristiano, along with his supervisor, Professor Jun’ichi Yokoyama, director of two prominent research institutes at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>, have meticulously examined the prevailing theories of primordial black hole formation.



Their analysis reveals a mismatch between these theories and the observations of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) - the residual radiation from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visible-matter-dark-matter-evolved-together-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, which serves as a cosmic fingerprint of the universe's inception.



To address this discrepancy, Yokoyama and Kristiano revised the leading model of PBH formation from cosmic inflation, aligning it more closely with observed data. Their revised theory awaits further validation from upcoming observations by global gravitational wave observatories.



“At the universe's beginning, it was infinitesimally small - smaller than an atom. Cosmic inflation then expanded it dramatically. During this period, small fluctuations could generate large amplitude but short wavelength waves," explained Yokoyama.



"We discovered that these small but intense waves could amplify longer waves that we now detect in the CMB. This occasional coherence among early, short waves, describable by quantum field theory, suggests a rare but significant influence on larger-scale cosmic structures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primordial-black-holes-and-cosmic-insights">Primordial black holes and cosmic insights</h2>



The study posits that early, small-scale fluctuations may reshape our understanding of the universe's coarse structures. 



Moreover, measuring CMB wavelengths can help constrain the properties of wavelengths from the universe’s earliest moments, which in turn limits potential phenomena dependent on these short, powerful waves - including the formation of primordial black holes.



“The early universe’s short but strong wavelengths likely led to the creation of PBHs. However, our findings indicate that there should be far fewer PBHs than required if they are to be considered viable candidates for dark matter or sources of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-cosmic-object-detected-gravitational-wave-signal/">gravitational waves</a>,” noted Kristiano.



As research continues, the world's leading gravitational wave observatories - LIGO in the U.S., Virgo in Italy, and KAGRA in Japan - are actively engaged in missions to detect these elusive small black holes.



The outcomes of these observations are anticipated to provide crucial data, helping researchers refine their theories and possibly reshaping our understanding of the universe’s dark matter.



Through this innovative application of quantum field theory to cosmology, the study not only challenges existing paradigms about primordial black holes and dark matter but also underscores the intricate connections between the smallest particles and the vast cosmic structures, highlighting the universe’s profound complexity and the continuing mystery of its true composition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.221003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Early black holes were too scarce to explain the unseen universe

Primordial black holes (PBHs) are being reevaluated through the application...

After suffering a career-ending injury, Retired Command Sgt. Maj. Gretchen Evans was confronted with severe challenges. Service <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-detect-human-stress-levels-sniffing-breath-compounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, starting with Aura, a black Labrador Retriever, played a pivotal role in her transition.



She was fraught with loneliness and depression when she tried to adapt to life with disabilities, including near-total hearing loss and PTSD.



Later, Rusty -- a golden retriever and black lab mix service <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-detect-scents-better-than-the-most-advanced-lab-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> -- joined her, further enhancing her safety and social interactions.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-strong-bonds-pet-ownership-may-not-improve-severe-mental-illness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companion animals</a> not only provided companionship but also transformed her daily life, offering a poignant example of how these dogs can significantly aid veterans facing similar struggles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-service-dogs-reduce-loneliness">Service dogs reduce loneliness</h2>



Personal stories like that of Evans have long suggested the benefits of assistance dogs, but rigorous scientific evidence was sparse. 



A recent study conducted by Sarah Leighton at the <a href="https://vetmed.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona College of Veterinary Medicine</a> has started to fill this research gap.



The findings revealed that veterans paired with service dogs reported significantly lower PTSD symptoms, anxiety, and depression, while experiencing enhanced quality of life and reduced feelings of isolation, compared to those without such assistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-service-dog-adoption">Challenges in service dog adoption</h2>



Despite these positive outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assistance-dogs-improve-mental-health-of-veterans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">veterans</a> encounter several barriers when accessing service dogs.



Limited funding for service dog nonprofits, lack of insurance coverage, and legislative gaps hinder the widespread adoption of this intervention. 



Leighton pointed out the critical need for complementary interventions that can enhance traditional treatments for PTSD, which could lead to significant improvements in veterans' healthcare outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pawsitive-healing">'Pawsitive' healing</h2>



To deepen understanding of how assistance dogs can impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drug-mdma-shows-promise-for-reducing-post-traumatic-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PTSD</a> treatment, Maggie O'Haire and her team from the OHAIRE research group, alongside experts from various fields within the University of Arizona, have secured funding for a comprehensive clinical trial.



This study aims to assess how assistance dogs might enhance the effectiveness of prolonged exposure therapy, a recognized treatment for PTSD.



The goal is to alleviate the treatment's challenges, improve patient adherence, and ultimately, enhance therapeutic outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-service-dogs-in-ptsd-treatment">Future of service dogs in PTSD treatment</h2>



The preliminary results are promising, but the research team stresses the need for further studies to optimize the integration of service dogs into therapeutic settings. 



The upcoming trial represents a significant step towards harnessing the potential of service dogs to improve the lives of veterans. 



Such research not only seeks to refine treatment approaches but also aims to explore the depth of the human-animal bond within therapeutic contexts. 



As veterans like Evans have shown, the benefits of service dog partnerships extend beyond managing symptoms -- they enrich lives, providing both emotional support and a renewed sense of purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-benefits-of-service-dogs">Other benefits of service dogs</h2>



Service dogs can help veterans in various ways beyond the research findings:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-assistance">Physical assistance</h3>



Service dogs can be trained to perform a variety of physical tasks that aid veterans with disabilities. For instance, they can retrieve dropped items, open and close doors, turn on and off lights, and even assist with dressing or undressing. This support helps veterans maintain independence and reduces the need for human assistance in daily activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seizure-alerts">Seizure alerts</h3>



Some service dogs can be trained to detect subtle changes in their handler's behavior or scent that indicate an oncoming seizure. These dogs can alert the veteran beforehand, allowing them to move to a safe location or take medication to prevent or lessen the severity of the seizure. This can be life-saving and provides a sense of security.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nightmare-interruption">Nightmare interruption</h3>



Veterans with PTSD often suffer from nightmares that disrupt their sleep and cause severe distress. Service dogs can be trained to recognize the signs of a nightmare, such as thrashing or vocalizing in sleep. They can gently wake the veteran, providing comfort and grounding, which helps reduce the frequency and severity of nightmares.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mobility-support">Mobility support</h3>



For veterans with mobility impairments, service dogs can provide crucial support. They can help with balance while walking, pull wheelchairs, or assist in getting up from a seated position. This mobility support enables veterans to move around more safely and confidently, enhancing their overall quality of life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interaction">Social interaction</h3>



Service dogs often act as social bridges, facilitating interactions between veterans and other people. The presence of a service dog can attract positive attention and initiate conversations, helping veterans feel more comfortable in social settings. This reduces feelings of isolation and encourages social engagement.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-reduction">Stress reduction</h3>



The presence of a service dog has been shown to reduce stress and promote relaxation. Physical contact, such as petting or hugging the dog, can lower cortisol levels and increase the production of oxytocin, a hormone associated with bonding and stress relief. This helps veterans manage anxiety and maintain a calmer state of mind.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-support">Emotional support</h3>



The dogs offer unconditional love and companionship, which can be profoundly comforting for veterans dealing with emotional challenges. The bond between a veteran and their service dog provides constant emotional support, helping them cope with feelings of loneliness, depression, and anxiety.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2819452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA</a>.



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Service dogs reduce anxiety and depression in veterans

After suffering a career-ending injury, Retired Command Sgt. Maj. Gretchen...

Approximately 50,000 years ago, North America was a realm dominated by megafauna, teeming with an array of colossal creatures. Mammoths traversed the tundra, while mastodons dominated the woodlands.



The landscape also hosted fierce saber-toothed tigers, massive wolves, towering camels, and hefty bison that roamed in herds. 



Giant beavers navigated the region's waterways and immense ground sloths, each weighing over a ton, thrived east of the Rocky Mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-disappearance-of-megafauna">The disappearance of megafauna</h2>



As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/">Last Ice Age</a> drew to a close, these monumental animals began to vanish, leaving a puzzle that has intrigued scientists for decades. The reasons behind their disappearance are still debated.



Some scholars suggest that human arrival played a crucial role in the disappearance of megafauna through hunting, habitat alteration, or competition for resources. Others argue that rapid climate shifts following the ice age overwhelmed the adaptive capabilities of these fascinating creatures.



The debate between these two perspectives has been both fierce and enduring. Over time, numerous theories have emerged, including disease, a catastrophic comet impact, or a combination of various factors contributing to the extinction of megafauna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-the-past">Piecing together the past</h2>



One major obstacle in solving this mystery has been the condition of the bones left behind. While many sites have preserved these remains well, the bones at other sites have suffered from exposure, abrasion, and biomolecular decay - leaving them fragmented and difficult to identify.



This has significantly hindered our understanding of where these animals lived, when they disappeared, and how they interacted with changing environments and human populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-approach-to-study-old-bones">A new approach to study old bones</h2>



In a breakthrough study, researchers have turned to exceptional fossil collections housed at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a>.



This institution holds a vast array of bones unearthed from numerous archaeological digs conducted over the last century, providing a rich resource for understanding the fate of North America's megafauna.



"Museum legacy collections, often derived from large-scale archaeological excavations, can serve as paleoenvironmental archives of Late Pleistocene megafaunal composition and dynamics," wrote the study authors. 



"Many of these collections, however, contain large quantities of highly fragmented and morphologically indistinct bones that cannot be identified to a specific taxon and are therefore of limited use to paleoenvironmental and archaeological analyses."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-collagen-from-bones">Extracting collagen from bones</h2>



To overcome the challenges posed by fragmented bones, scientists are employing a cutting-edge technique known as Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry, or ZooMS. This method utilizes the durable nature of bone collagen, a protein that can persist for millennia.



The unique sequences of collagen vary slightly among different animal groups and species, acting like a molecular barcode that helps identify otherwise unrecognizable bone fragments.



The process involves extracting tiny collagen segments from these bones, which are then analyzed using a mass spectrometer. This technology allows for the precise identification of the species the bone fragments belong to, a task that traditional archaeological methods could not achieve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-megafauna-extinction">Exploring megafauna extinction</h2>



The ZooMS approach is reshaping how archaeologists study ancient remains. Instead of solely relying on new excavations, researchers are revisiting existing collections with these sophisticated techniques, uncovering details that were previously inaccessible.



As this method continues to be refined and applied, it holds the promise of finally unlocking the secrets of the disappearance of megafauna.



By understanding what happened to these magnificent creatures, scientists can gain deeper insights into the historical interactions between humans and their environment, as well as the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.



The ongoing research not only sheds light on the past but also enhances our understanding of present and future ecological challenges. The mystery of North America's lost megafauna is slowly but surely being unraveled, thanks to the convergence of archaeological tradition and modern scientific innovation.



"Archaeological collections of megafauna exist in repositories around the world. Higher resolution investigation of these collections using novel biomolecular tools like ZooMS will foster new insights into local and regional links between climate, environment, human behavior and megafaunal composition, offering new perspectives on the timing and extent of past biodiversity change and the causes and consequences of megafaunal extinction," concluded the study authors. 



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmamm.2024.1399358/full">Frontiers in Mammal Science</a>.



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Tracing the disappearance of North America's megafauna

Approximately 50,000 years ago, North America was a realm dominated...

Ants are everywhere – in our backyards,&nbsp;our kitchens,&nbsp;and even our picnics.&nbsp;But have you ever wondered how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-use-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny creatures</a> determine their sex?&nbsp;It's not as simple as you might think.



A recent discovery by scientists in Mainz and Lausanne has unveiled a fascinating new piece of this puzzle,&nbsp;and it involves a rather unexpected player:&nbsp;a "noncoding" gene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-path-to-ant-sex-determination">Different path to ant sex determination</h2>



In humans,&nbsp;biological sex is determined by the inheritance of specific sex chromosomes.&nbsp;



Individuals with two X chromosomes typically develop as females,&nbsp;while those with one X and one Y chromosome typically develop as males. This system of sex determination relies on the presence or absence of the Y chromosome.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-genetic-basis-of-butterfly-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> like ants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squash-bees-ability-withstand-heat-varies-size-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, and wasps employ a distinct mechanism for sex determination called haplodiploidy. 



In this system, rather than sex chromosomes, the number of chromosome sets an individual possesses determines their sex. 



Males develop from unfertilized eggs and therefore inherit only one set of chromosomes from their mother (haploid). 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queen-behavior-changes-based-on-social-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Females</a>, on the other hand, develop from fertilized eggs and inherit two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent (diploid).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-processes-involved">Molecular processes involved</h2>



While the basic principle of haplodiploidy is understood,&nbsp;scientists have long been interested in uncovering the specific molecular processes that trigger the development of a male or female organism from a haploid or diploid egg.&nbsp;



To investigate this further,&nbsp;researchers turned their attention to an unusual phenomenon observed in Argentine ants:&nbsp;the occurrence of diploid males.&nbsp;These males,&nbsp;typically infertile,&nbsp;arise from fertilized eggs due to a genetic anomaly.&nbsp;



By studying these diploid males,&nbsp;scientists hoped to gain insights into the underlying genetic mechanisms responsible for sex determination in these insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-oddity-that-cracked-the-code">Genetic oddity that cracked the code</h2>



"This allowed us to compare the two sets of chromosomes present in females and diploid males,&nbsp;which differ from their haploid counterparts that possess only one set of chromosomes," explains Dr.&nbsp;Qiaowei Pan,&nbsp;a scientist at the Institute of Molecular Biology (<a href="https://www.imb.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMB</a>) in Mainz and the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a>.



By analyzing the genetic makeup of these ants,&nbsp;the researchers found a striking difference in a small region of the genome.&nbsp;



"We were able to identify seven differing versions in a 5,000 base pair region of the genome," says Dr.&nbsp;Pan.&nbsp;"All the females had two different versions of this region while all the diploid males had the same alleles twice.&nbsp;Thus,&nbsp;this genomic location is fundamental to determining sex in this ant."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-hero-in-ant-sex-determinism">Unexpected hero in ant sex determinism</h2>



This discovery was groundbreaking, but what really surprised the scientists was the nature of this sex-determining region. 



Unlike a similar finding in honeybees, where a protein-coding gene is responsible, the researchers found something completely different in ants.



"To our surprise,&nbsp;we found that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-corals-have-sex-new-secrets-of-spawning-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sex</a>-determining gene site in ants does not encode a protein," says Dr.&nbsp;Pan.&nbsp;"In other words,&nbsp;it does not contain the information required to make a protein.&nbsp;This is called a noncoding RNA gene."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rna-s-starring-role">RNA's starring role</h2>



Noncoding RNA genes produce RNA molecules that don't translate into proteins,&nbsp;yet they play crucial roles in many biological processes.&nbsp;In this case,&nbsp;the amount of RNA produced from this noncoding gene seems to be the key.



"The level of RNA expression of this gene is higher in females who carry two versions of the sex-determining region than it is in diploid males with two identical copies of the region," explains Dr.&nbsp;Pan.&nbsp;



When the researchers experimentally switched off this gene in female embryos,&nbsp;they developed into males,&nbsp;confirming its pivotal role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-puzzle">Solving the puzzle</h2>



Although the identification of a noncoding RNA gene responsible for sex determination in Argentine ants is a significant breakthrough,&nbsp;it raises further questions that require investigation.&nbsp;



Researchers are keen to understand why the presence of two different versions (alleles) of this gene results in increased RNA expression compared to when two identical alleles are present.&nbsp;This could involve complex regulatory mechanisms at the genetic or epigenetic level.



Additionally,&nbsp;the precise molecular pathways through which this RNA molecule influences the development of male or female traits remain unclear.&nbsp;



It is possible that this RNA interacts with other genes or proteins, initiating cascades of events that ultimately lead to the differentiation of sexual characteristics. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-sex-determinism-needs-more-research">Ant sex determinism needs more research</h2>



In summary, understanding these mechanisms would provide valuable insights into the intricate processes governing sex determination and development in ants.



The quest to answer these questions continues, highlighting the vastness of the natural world and the complexity of its biological processes. 



This discovery serves as a reminder that even seemingly simple organisms like ants possess intricate genetic mechanisms that are far from fully understood.



So, the next time you encounter an ant, consider that its sex isn't determined by a simple genetic switch like the X and Y <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a> in humans. 



Instead, it is orchestrated by a noncoding RNA gene that acts as a conductor, directing a complex symphony of genetic activity. 



This intricate pattern of gene expression ensures the proper balance of males and females within the colony,&nbsp;ultimately contributing to the survival and propagation of the species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp1532" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Determining the sex of ants is no easy task

Ants are everywhere – in our backyards,&nbsp;our kitchens,&nbsp;and even our...

Protoplanetary,Disk.,New,Planetary,System,,3d,Illustration

The James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) continues to revolutionize our understanding of the cosmos,&nbsp;this time by uncovering a surprising abundance of carbon-rich molecules in the planet-forming disks around very low-mass stars.&nbsp;



This remarkable discovery challenges our previous assumptions about the composition of these disks and raises intriguing questions about the nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-butterfly-iras-23077-discovery-flips-planet-formation-understanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> forming in such environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-disks-around-young-stars">Planetary disks around young stars</h2>



Planets form within rotating disks composed of gas and dust,&nbsp;which surround young stars.&nbsp;



The MIRI Mid-Infrared Disk Survey (<a href="https://minds.cab.inta-csic.es" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MINDS</a>) project,&nbsp;under the direction of Thomas Henning at the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</a>,&nbsp;utilizes the James Webb Space Telescope's Mid-Infrared Instrument (<a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/instruments/miri.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIRI</a>) to investigate these protoplanetary disks with exceptional precision.&nbsp;



By examining the chemical composition and physical characteristics of these disks,&nbsp;researchers seek to unravel the intricate processes that lead to planet formation and determine the potential types of planets that can emerge around stars with varying masses and properties.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abundance-of-carbon-gases-around-star-disks">Abundance of carbon gases around star disks</h2>



In a recent study&nbsp;the MINDS team focused on a disk around a very low-mass star,&nbsp;just 11% the mass of our Sun.&nbsp;



What they found was astonishing:&nbsp;the disk was teeming with carbon-bearing molecules like methane,&nbsp;ethane,&nbsp;ethylene,&nbsp;and even benzene,&nbsp;but lacked oxygen-rich compounds like water and carbon dioxide.



"This is profoundly different from the composition we see in disks around solar-type stars, where oxygen-bearing molecules such as water and carbon dioxide dominate," explained Inga Kamp, a member of the research team from the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Groningen</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/planetary-disk_iso-chai-147_hydrocarbons-spectrum_webb_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/planetary-disk_iso-chai-147_hydrocarbons-spectrum_webb_1s.jpg" alt="Hydrocarbon emissions map of planet-forming disk ISO-ChaI 147. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1935882"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Hydrocarbon emissions map of planet-forming disk ISO-ChaI 147. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



“These molecules have already been detected in our solar system, like in comets such as 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko and C/2014 Q2 (Lovejoy),” added &nbsp;lead author Aditya Arabhavi of the University of Groningen. 



“Webb allowed us to understand that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrocarbon molecules</a> are not just diverse but also abundant. It is amazing that we can now see the dance of these molecules in the planetary cradles. It is a very different planet-forming environment than we usually think of," Arabhavi concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-planet-formation">Implications for planet formation</h2>



This unexpected finding suggests that disks around very low-mass stars evolve differently than those around more massive stars like our Sun. 



This difference in composition could have significant implications for the types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> that form in these environments.



The abundance of carbon in these disks suggests that rocky planets forming around very low-mass stars might be carbon-rich, unlike Earth. 



Their atmospheres, if any, might be dominated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-a-galaxy-12-billion-light-years-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrocarbon compounds</a> rather than oxygen and water vapor.



"Many primary atmospheres of those planets will probably be dominated by hydrocarbon compounds and not so much by oxygen-rich gases such as water and carbon dioxide," said Thomas Henning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-missing-oxygen">Mystery of missing oxygen</h2>



While the carbon-rich nature of these disks is clear,&nbsp;the reason behind this imbalance remains a mystery.&nbsp;It could be due to an enrichment of carbon or a reduction of oxygen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-winds-from-planet-forming-discs-seen-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disk's material</a>.&nbsp;Further research is needed to unravel this puzzle.



If the carbon enrichment is caused by the vaporization of carbon from solid particles in the disk,&nbsp;then the resulting rocky planets would be carbon-poor,&nbsp;similar to Earth.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;their atmospheres would still be dominated by carbon-based chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-unique-capabilities">Webb's unique capabilities</h2>



The discovery of this carbon-rich chemistry was made possible by JWST's unique capabilities.&nbsp;



“It’s incredible that we can detect and quantify the amount of molecules that we know well on Earth, such as benzene, in an object that is more than 600 light-years away,” added team member Agnés Perrin of <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique</a> in France.



Its high sensitivity and spectral resolution allowed the researchers to detect faint emissions from less abundant molecules that were previously undetectable.



"These observations are not possible from Earth because the relevant gas emissions are absorbed by its atmosphere," said Arabhavi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-disks-carbon-and-the-search-for-life">Planetary disks, carbon, and the search for life</h2>



This discovery marks a new era in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-of-water-vapor-may-be-involved-in-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of planet formation</a> and carbon molecules within star disks. 



It challenges our preconceived notions and opens up a whole new realm of possibilities for the types of planets that might exist in the universe.



The MINDS team plans to expand their research to study a larger sample of disks around very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-discovered-a-massive-planet-too-big-for-its-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-mass stars</a>. 



This will help them determine how common these carbon-rich environments are and shed light on the processes that lead to their formation.



"Expanding our study will also allow us to understand better how these molecules can form," said Thomas Henning. "Several features in the data are also still unidentified, warranting additional spectroscopy to interpret our observations fully."



The James Webb Space Telescope continues to push the boundaries of our knowledge,&nbsp;revealing the hidden secrets of the universe and expanding our understanding of our place in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a>.&nbsp;



With each new discovery,&nbsp;we are reminded of the vastness and complexity of the universe and the endless possibilities that await us in our quest for knowledge.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adi8147" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Webb finds largest amount of carbon ever seen in a planet-forming disk

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) continues to revolutionize our...

The recent discovery of opalized jaw fossils in New South Wales' Lightning Ridge has significantly advanced our understanding of prehistoric monotremes. 



These fossils, dating back to the Cenomanian Age of the Cretaceous Period, between 102 million to 96.6 million years ago, represent a crucial era in Australia's ecological history. This was a time when the continent teemed with a variety of these unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-egg-laying-mammal-rediscovered-in-the-cyclops-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">egg-laying mammals</a>. Today, only the platypus and echidna remain as the surviving descendants.



The study was led by a team of Australian scientists at the <a href="https://australian.museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> (AM), <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museums Victoria</a> and <a href="https://www.australianopalcentre.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Opal Centre</a>. The research provides new insights into an epoch where Australia's landscape was dominated by diverse monotreme species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discoveries-from-a-lost-era">Discoveries from a lost era</h2>



Professor Tim Flannery, a key figure in this discovery, reflects on the significance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feredocodon-chowi-fossils-yield-clues-mammal-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>: "Discovering these new fossils is like uncovering a whole new civilization. Australia is known for its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-marsupial-was-unwittingly-saved-by-prince-philip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marsupials</a> today, but these findings hint at a former era dominated by diverse monotremes."



Professor Kris Helgen, Chief Scientist and Director of the Australian Museum Research Institute (AMRI), also played a pivotal role in analyzing the fossils.



Professor Helgen described Opalios splendens, a standout among the newly discovered species. This creature seems to serve as a bridge in evolutionary history, combining features of both the platypus and echidna.



"Opalios splendens sits on a place in the evolutionary tree prior to the common ancestor of today’s monotremes. Its anatomy suggests a blend of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-dams-are-significant-barriers-to-platypus-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platypus</a> and echidna traits," explained Professor Helgen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-insights-into-monotremes">Evolutionary insights into monotremes</h2>



The evolutionary journey from "toothy to toothless" is a central theme in the study of these ancient creatures.



"Some of the earlier monotremes retained up to five molars, whereas later species reduced to three. This evolutionary change is evident in our findings at Lightning Ridge," noted Professor Helgen.



Professor Flannery further elaborated on this topic by pointing out the modern-day dental characteristics of monotremes. "Echidnas are toothless, and adult platypuses only possess leathery pads instead of teeth, adaptations likely influenced by dietary changes and competition with newcomers like the Australian water rat."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-monumental-gathering-of-species">A monumental gathering of species</h2>



The diversity uncovered at Lightning Ridge is unprecedented. "The site has revealed six different species of monotremes, suggesting it was once the most diverse monotreme habitat known to science. This discovery significantly expands our understanding of their diversity," noted Dr. Matthew McCurry, Curator of Palaeontology at AMRI.



These insights are complemented by the efforts of researchers like Dr. Thomas Rich and Professor Patricia Vickers-Rich, who highlighted the ongoing excitement in paleontological studies as fieldwork continues to unveil new facets of ancient life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rarity-of-opalized-fossils">The rarity of opalized fossils</h2>



The significance of these opalized fossils is not lost on those who discovered them. Elizabeth Smith, associated with the Australian Opal Centre, expressed awe at the rarity and value of these finds. 



"Finding opalized monotreme fossils is exceptionally rare. Each discovery offers a precious glimpse into a world where these ancient, furry egg-layers thrived," said Smith. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-and-australia-s-geological-saga">Monotremes and Australia's geological saga</h2>



The findings at Lightning Ridge offer more than just a snapshot of ancient life; they provide a portal into the evolutionary lineage of Australia's unique fauna. 



As researchers continue to piece together the complex puzzle of Earth's biological history, each fossil serves as a testament to the dynamic changes that have shaped the natural world. 



This ongoing journey into the past not only enriches our understanding of biological diversity but also highlights the enduring impact of Australia's geological and ecological heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-monotremes">More about monotremes</h2>



Monotremes are a unique group of mammals that are distinct from other mammals because they lay eggs rather than giving birth to live young. This group includes intriguing species like the platypus and the echidnas, which are found primarily in Australia and New Guinea.&nbsp;



Monotremes are characterized by a mix of reptilian and mammalian features, which makes them especially interesting in studies of evolutionary biology. For example, they maintain a lower body temperature compared to other mammals and possess a cloaca, an organ common to birds and reptiles but unusual in mammals.



Another distinctive trait is their method of feeding their young; monotremes do not have nipples, instead, they secrete milk through specialized glands in their skin, which the young lap up.&nbsp;



The platypus, with its duck-bill and webbed feet, is particularly famous for its unusual appearance and the male's ability to deliver a venomous sting, a rare trait among mammals.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, echidnas are known for their spiny coats and snouty faces, used to feed primarily on ants and termites. These fascinating features highlight the evolutionary diversity and adaptability of mammals.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2024.2348753" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology</a>.



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Unearthing the lost world of unique mammals in Australia

The recent discovery of opalized jaw fossils in New South...

Woman,Works,At,The,Computer,And,Eating,Fast,Food.,Unhealthy

Have you ever felt down in the dumps after indulging in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-food-diet-triggers-lasting-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greasy diet</a> of burger and fries? Or maybe anxious after a sugar rush from a candy bar? Well, science is starting to back up that feeling of the brain. 



A recent study suggests that what we eat might directly influence our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-diet-positively-influences-the-brains-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain chemistry</a> and structure, potentially contributing to mental health issues like depression and anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mediterranean-diet-for-a-healthier-brain">Mediterranean diet for a healthier brain</h2>



Imagine this: a sunny seaside villa, a table laden with fresh vegetables, fruits, fish, and olive oil – the essence of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-keeps-the-brain-sharp-even-in-old-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean diet</a>, a way of eating celebrated for its heart-healthy benefits. But recent research suggests it may offer much more than just cardiovascular protection.



Scientists delved into the fascinating link between diet and brain health,&nbsp;comparing the brains of individuals adhering to a Mediterranean-style diet with those consuming a diet laden with sugar,&nbsp;saturated fats,&nbsp;and processed foods.&nbsp;



The findings were remarkable, revealing potential differences in brain structure and chemistry between the two groups. It appears that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-may-be-a-fountain-of-youth-for-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean diet</a> may hold the key to not only a healthy heart but also a happier, healthier brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unhealthy-diets-unbalance-your-brain">Unhealthy diets unbalance your brain</h2>



Brain scans revealed significant differences. In those with unhealthy diets, researchers found reduced levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brains-turn-intense-stress-into-constant-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GABA</a>, a neurotransmitter crucial for maintaining a calm and balanced brain. 



Insufficient GABA levels have been associated with increased anxiety and heightened susceptibility to mood disorders.



Conversely, these individuals also exhibited elevated levels of glutamate, a neurotransmitter that acts as the brain's accelerator. Excessive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bullied-kids-suffer-chemical-changes-in-their-brains-that-cause-lifelong-harm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glutamate</a> can lead to overstimulation, restlessness, and difficulty concentrating.



Additionally, brain scans revealed a decrease in grey matter volume in the frontal lobe, a region responsible for complex cognitive functions such as decision-making, emotional regulation, and impulse control. 



This reduction in grey matter could impair one's ability to cope with stress effectively, potentially contributing to a higher risk of mental health issues.



"We can eat ourselves well!" exclaims Dr. Piril Hepsomali, one of the study's authors from <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>. 



"Ultimately, we see that people who have an unhealthy diet have imbalanced excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, as well as reduced volume of grey matter in the frontal part of the brain. This part of the brain is involved in mental health issues such as depression and anxiety."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feelings-from-your-gut">Feelings from your gut</h2>



But how exactly does our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a> mess with our minds? Scientists are still piecing together the puzzle, but one clue lies in our gut. 



The trillions of bacteria living in our intestines (the microbiome) play a crucial role in our health, including our mental well-being. 



An unhealthy diet can disrupt this delicate ecosystem, potentially triggering a cascade of changes that affect the brain.



High levels of saturated fat and sugar seem to be particularly problematic. These dietary villains can:



<ul>
<li>Alter gut bacteria:&nbsp;Certain bacteria thrive on sugar and fat, while others that are beneficial for our mental health may dwindle.</li>



<li>Disrupt neurotransmitter production:&nbsp;The gut microbiome plays a role in producing neurotransmitters like GABA. An imbalance in gut bacteria can throw this production off-kilter.</li>



<li>Increase inflammation:&nbsp;A diet high in sugar and fat can trigger inflammation throughout the body, including the brain, which has been linked to mood disorders.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-for-thought">Food for thought</h2>



"I would like to note that GABA and glutamate are intimately involved in appetite and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chronic-stress-causes-the-brain-to-crave-comfort-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food intake</a>, too," adds Dr. Hepsomali. 



"Reduced GABA and/or increased glutamate might also be a driving factor in making unhealthy food choices. So, there may be a circular relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-your-secret-weapon-against-aging-and-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating well</a>, having a healthier brain and better mental wellbeing, and making better food choices to eat well."



This suggests that a poor diet might not only contribute to mental health issues but also make it harder to break free from unhealthy eating patterns. 



However, the good news is that the opposite may also be true. By choosing a healthier diet, we might not only improve our mental well-being but also find it easier to stick to those nutritious choices.



The link between diet and mental health is complex and still under investigation. But this study provides compelling evidence that what we eat can significantly impact our brain and our mood. 



So, the next time you reach for that sugary snack or greasy meal, remember that your brain might be paying the price. By choosing a diet rich in whole foods, fruits, vegetables, and healthy fats, you might not only be nourishing your body but also nurturing your mind.



This research was carried out by the University of Reading, <a href="https://www.roehampton.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roehampton University</a>, <a href="https://www.frieslandcampina.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FrieslandCampina</a> (Netherlands), and <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kings College London</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1028415X.2024.2355603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutritional Neuroscience</a>.



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Unhealthy diet leaves the brain feeling foggy, frazzled and sad

Have you ever felt down in the dumps after indulging...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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