Black holes have baffled and fascinated both scientists and the public for decades. Their enormous gravity and mysterious interiors have led to endless debates, movies and books feeding our curiosity about what might be hidden inside these cosmic objects.



Now, recent findings from the University of Sheffield point to surprising possibilities linked to time and dark energy.



Researchers suggest that black holes might shift into what they are calling “white holes,” which could throw matter and even time back out into our universe.



In simpler terms, this study proposes a revolutionary link between time and dark energy, suggesting that the mysterious force driving the universe's expansion may be used to measure time



This idea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges standard views</a> of how black holes function and basically upends everything we thought we knew about the Universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-mechanics-and-the-singularity">Quantum mechanics and the singularity</h2>



Dr. Steffen Gielen, from the University of Sheffield’s School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences (<a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/mps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPS</a>), has long studied the interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/central-theory-of-quantum-gravity-is-modeled-in-the-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics and gravity</a>.



His latest collaboration, entitled ‘Black Hole Singularity Resolution in Unimodular Gravity from Unitarity,’ is now published in Physical Review Letters.



In it, the authors explore how conventional knowledge breaks down at a black hole’s central point, known as the singularity.



“It has long been a question as to whether quantum mechanics can change our understanding of black holes and give us insights into their true nature,” said Dr. Gielen. 



“In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>, time as we understand it cannot end as systems perpetually change and evolve.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-time-and-dark-energy">Linking time and dark energy</h2>



In this theoretical framework, the team positions dark energy as a potential measuring stick for time. 



They propose that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timescape-dark-energy-doesnt-exist-causing-lumpy-universe-expansion-cmbr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, thought to power the universe’s expansion, might function as a reference for temporal progression.



“While time is, in general, thought to be relative to the observer, in our research time is derived from the mysterious dark energy which permeates the entire universe,” Dr. Gielen continued.



“We propose that time is measured by the dark energy that is everywhere in the Universe, and responsible for its current expansion. This is the pivotal new idea that allows us to grasp the phenomena occurring within a black hole.”



By framing time through dark energy, the researchers open fresh avenues for interpreting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-suggests-that-dark-energy-comes-from-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes could evolve</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-holes-as-a-new-phase">White holes as a new phase</h2>



White holes are often portrayed as the reverse of black holes. Instead of trapping matter forever, they are thought to expel energy, matter, and even time back into cosmic space.



In the Sheffield study, co-written with Lucía Menéndez-Pidal from <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University</a> of Madrid, this transformation from black hole to white hole occurs when quantum effects become significant at the singularity, replacing a terminal point with a new phase.



“Hypothetically you could have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-survives-in-quantum-superposition-for-a-record-shattering-23-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">an observer</a> - a hypothetical entity - go through the black hole, through what we think of as a singularity and emerge on the other side of the white hole. It’s a highly abstract notion of an observer but it could happen, in theory,” Dr. Gielen added.



This scenario, though speculative, underscores the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolving insights</a> into how physics might handle extreme conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planar-vs-conventional-black-holes">Planar vs. conventional black holes</h2>



Their work relies on a simplified model known as a planar black hole. This version differs from conventional black holes, which are spherical, by featuring a flat boundary.



Despite the differences, the team believes that similar processes may apply to the black holes observed throughout space.



Any departure from the usual view of a singularity raises big questions about how time, space, and quantum effects unite.



By using quantum mechanics to show that a singularity could be replaced by fluctuating regions, the authors hint at a richer description of where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physics and time</a> continue to operate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-einstein-unimodular-gravity-and-spacetime">Einstein, unimodular gravity, and spacetime</h2>



Unimodular gravity, a version of Einstein’s theory that treats certain variables as fixed, plays a key role in this research.



In standard general relativity, the cosmological constant is an extra piece that can shape the universe’s expansion.



In unimodular gravity, this constant is partly integrated into how the theory sets up space and time.



Some physicists see it as a simpler way to handle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-expansion-rate-dark-energy-measured-11-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a> because it can separate how gravity affects geometry from how energy drives cosmic growth.



In this study, unimodular gravity underpins the argument that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-universe-remains-predictable-insights-from-quantum-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole singularities</a> might not mark the end of time.



By adjusting the underlying equations, the approach provides a path to include quantum effects that keep space and time going.



This aligns with the hypothesis that matter and time could be released as a white hole forms.



Though questions remain about how these mathematical insights translate to actual observations, this framework adds another dimension to discussions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-holes-and-new-textbooks">White holes and new textbooks</h2>



To sum it all up in a tidy package, these researchers are suggesting that black holes may transform into white holes that release matter and time, overturning old ideas and hinting at a new link between dark energy and our measure of time. 



They present a model where black holes don’t end in singularities but shift into regions of quantum fluctuations, and they believe this perspective could unify quantum mechanics and gravity.



From this theory, the scientists see potential for connecting these ideas with efforts to merge gravity and quantum mechanics.



Such approaches could reshape our understanding of how cosmic expansion, dark energy, and black holes fit together in a single theoretical picture.



The new research also suggests novel approaches to reconciling gravity and quantum mechanics, potentially paving the way for transformative new fundamental theories and breakthroughs in our understanding of the universe.



As these ideas progress, scientists will continue testing how dark energy and quantum processes might shed light on the puzzle at the heart of these powerful cosmic objects.



May the force be with us all.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.101501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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'White holes' change everything: Don't just rewrite the textbooks, throw them away

Black holes have baffled and fascinated both scientists and the public for decades. Their enormous gravity and mysterious interiors have led to endless debates, movies and books feeding our curiosity about what might be hidden inside these cosmic objects. Now, recent findings from the University of Sheffield point to surprising possibilities linked to time and dark energy. Researchers suggest that black holes might shift into what they are calling “white holes,” which could throw matter and even time back out into our universe. In simpler terms, this...

A seemingly unassuming fern from the remote island of New Caledonia has made a big splash in the world of science. 



Researchers have discovered that ferns of the species Tmesipteris oblanceolata possess a genome that dwarfs all others known to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-and-its-measurement">Genome and its measurement</h2>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> is the entire collection of an organism's genetic material,&nbsp;its DNA.&nbsp;This DNA houses all the necessary instructions for the organism's growth, development, functioning, and reproduction.&nbsp;



DNA itself is a long,&nbsp;complex molecule composed of four chemical building blocks called bases:&nbsp;adenine (A),&nbsp;cytosine (C),&nbsp;guanine (G),&nbsp;and thymine (T).



Specific sequences of these bases form genes,&nbsp;which act as blueprints for creating proteins.&nbsp;Proteins are essential molecules that carry out a vast array of tasks within cells,&nbsp;from providing structural support to catalyzing chemical reactions.



Beyond genes,&nbsp;the genome also contains stretches of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> that do not code for proteins.&nbsp;These non-coding regions play crucial roles in regulating gene activity,&nbsp;determining when and where genes are turned on or off.&nbsp;They also contribute to maintaining the structural integrity of chromosomes,&nbsp;the thread-like structures that package and organize DNA within cells.



The size of a genome,&nbsp;measured in base pairs (bp),&nbsp;varies greatly across different species.&nbsp;For instance,&nbsp;the human genome comprises roughly 3.1 billion base pairs,&nbsp;whereas some plants and animals have significantly larger genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-fern-with-a-huge-amount-of-dna">Tiny fern with a huge amount of DNA</h2>



The genome of the Tmesipteris oblanceolata fern contains a massive 160.45 gigabase pairs (Gbp) of DNA.&nbsp;This quantity is over 50 times larger than the human genome,&nbsp;which is approximately 3.2 Gbp.&nbsp;



To visualize the immense size of this fern's DNA,&nbsp;consider that if the DNA from a single Tmesipteris cell were stretched out end-to-end,&nbsp;it would exceed 100 meters in length.&nbsp;This surpasses the height of London's Elizabeth Tower,&nbsp;famously home to Big Ben.



The extraordinary size of the Tmesipteris oblanceolata genome has garnered it recognition from the Guinness World Records.&nbsp;It currently holds the following titles:



<ul>
<li>Largest plant genome:&nbsp;This signifies that Tmesipteris oblanceolata has the most extensive amount of DNA compared to any other known plant species.</li>



<li>Largest genome:&nbsp;This title confirms that Tmesipteris oblanceolata possesses the largest genome of any organism on Earth,&nbsp;encompassing all life forms.</li>



<li>Largest fern genome:&nbsp;This indicates that within the fern family,&nbsp;Tmesipteris oblanceolata boasts the most extensive amount of DNA compared to any other fern species.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-genome-size">Importance of genome size</h2>



The size of an organism's genome,&nbsp;or the total amount of DNA it possesses,&nbsp;is a significant factor influencing various aspects of its biology and survival.



Larger genomes often correlate with slower growth rates due to the increased time and resources required for DNA replication and cell division.&nbsp;



Additionally,&nbsp;organisms with larger genomes may exhibit reduced efficiency in photosynthesis,&nbsp;the process by which they convert light energy into chemical energy.&nbsp;This is because the maintenance and functioning of a larger genome demand more energy,&nbsp;potentially diverting resources away from photosynthetic processes.



Furthermore,&nbsp;organisms with larger genomes typically have higher nutrient requirements,&nbsp;particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus,&nbsp;which are essential for DNA synthesis and other cellular functions.&nbsp;



These increased demands can pose challenges in nutrient-limited environments,&nbsp;making it more difficult for these organisms to compete with those possessing smaller genomes.



The cumulative effects of slower growth,&nbsp;reduced photosynthetic efficiency,&nbsp;and increased nutrient requirements can significantly impact an organism's ability to adapt to changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-volcanoes-chaos-poisoned-ferns-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.&nbsp;



In the face of environmental fluctuations,&nbsp;organisms with larger genomes may be less able to adjust their physiological processes or compete for resources,&nbsp;potentially increasing their vulnerability to extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fern-surpasses-predictions">Fern surpasses predictions</h2>



"For a long time, we thought that breaking the previous size record of Paris japonica was going to be an impossible mission, but once again, the limits of biology have surpassed our most optimistic predictions," said lead researcher Dr. Jaume Pellicer.



"Who would have thought this tiny, unassuming plant that most people would likely walk past without notice, could bear a world-beating record in genome size," added Dr. Ilia Leitch, a senior research leader at the <a href="https://www.kew.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a>.



The discovery of this DNA giant serves as a powerful reminder of the vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-had-complex-leaf-vein-networks-200-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> that exists within the plant kingdom.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Compared to other organisms, plants are incredibly diverse when viewed at the DNA level, and that should make us pause to think about their intrinsic value in the wider picture of global biodiversity," said Dr. Leitch.
</blockquote>



The exploration of the Tmesipteris genome is far from over.&nbsp;Scientists are eager to delve deeper into the secrets this remarkable fern holds,&nbsp;unlocking further insights into the boundaries of biological possibility.&nbsp;



As we continue to explore the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-genetics-research-just-got-a-lot-easier-with-a-simple-trick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant genetics</a>,&nbsp;we are reminded that even the most unassuming organisms can harbor extraordinary surprises.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01111-8?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004224011118%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Tiny fern contains 50 times more DNA than humans

A seemingly unassuming fern from the remote island of New...

Imagine a vibrant library,&nbsp;filled with books chronicling the rich history of life on Earth.&nbsp;Each book details the unique chemical reactions that have fueled life's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-life-on-earth-may-have-been-found-in-ancient-hot-springs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution over billions of years</a>.&nbsp;



Now,&nbsp;imagine that some of these books have been lost to time,&nbsp;leaving gaps in our understanding of how life came to be.&nbsp;This is the tantalizing mystery that researchers at the Earth-Life Science Institute (<a href="https://www.elsi.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELSI</a>) and the California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>) have set out to explore.



Scientists have long pondered the origins of life,&nbsp;and a central question is how much of this history has vanished into the depths of time.&nbsp;Species can abandon biochemical reactions,&nbsp;and if this occurs across many species,&nbsp;such reactions could effectively be "forgotten" by life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quest-for-lost-chemical-reactions-of-life">Quest for lost chemical reactions of life</h2>



But is there any way to tell if the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulfur-may-have-played-key-role-origin-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biochemistry</a> is riddled with forgotten reactions?&nbsp;



To answer this,&nbsp;the ELSI and CalTech researchers embarked on a quest to trace the chemical path from simple geochemical molecules to the complex biological molecules found in living organisms today.&nbsp;They hypothesized that forgotten chemistry would appear as discontinuities or "breaks" in this path.



The early Earth was rich in simple compounds like hydrogen sulfide,&nbsp;ammonia,&nbsp;and carbon dioxide,&nbsp;which are not typically associated with sustaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.&nbsp;



Yet,&nbsp;billions of years ago,&nbsp;these compounds served as the raw materials for early life.&nbsp;Over time,&nbsp;biochemical processes gradually transformed these precursors into the compounds we find in living organisms today.



To model the history of biochemistry, the researchers needed an inventory of all known biochemical reactions. They turned to the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database, which contains over 12,000 cataloged reactions. 



With this vast dataset in hand, they began to model the step-by-step development of metabolism, the intricate network of chemical reactions that sustain life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atp-reactions-and-life-s-origins">ATP reactions and life's origins</h2>



Previous attempts to model the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-first-sparked-in-shallow-soda-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of metabolism had stumbled,&nbsp;failing to produce the complex molecules used by modern life.&nbsp;This time,&nbsp;the researchers encountered the same roadblock.&nbsp;Their model could only generate a few compounds,&nbsp;and the reason was not immediately clear.



The breakthrough came when they focused on adenosine triphosphate (ATP),&nbsp;the universal energy currency of cells.&nbsp;ATP is essential for driving reactions that wouldn't occur spontaneously,&nbsp;such as building proteins.&nbsp;



However,&nbsp;ATP has a unique property:&nbsp;the reactions that produce ATP also require ATP.&nbsp;This creates a cyclic dependency,&nbsp;an "ATP bottleneck" that was halting the model's progress.



To resolve this bottleneck,&nbsp;the researchers discovered a workaround.&nbsp;The reactive portion of ATP is strikingly similar to an inorganic compound called polyphosphate.&nbsp;



By allowing ATP-generating reactions to use polyphosphate instead of ATP,&nbsp;a minor modification of just eight reactions,&nbsp;the model was able to generate almost all of the core metabolism found in contemporary life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rediscovering-lost-reactions">Rediscovering lost reactions</h2>



With this hurdle overcome,&nbsp;the researchers could now estimate the relative ages of all common metabolites and delve into the history of metabolic pathways.&nbsp;



They sought to determine if biological pathways evolved linearly,&nbsp;with reactions added sequentially,&nbsp;or as a mosaic,&nbsp;with reactions of different ages combined to create new pathways.



The researchers found that both types of pathways are almost equally common throughout metabolism.&nbsp;They were also able to quantify how much biochemistry might be lost to time.&nbsp;



"We might never know exactly, but our research yielded an important piece of evidence: only eight new reactions, all reminiscent of common biochemical reactions, are needed to bridge geochemistry and biochemistry," said Smith.



"This does not prove that the space of missing biochemistry is small,&nbsp;but it does show that even reactions which have gone extinct can be rediscovered from clues left behind in modern biochemistry."



This remarkable research offers a glimpse into the vast and complex history of biochemistry.&nbsp;It suggests that even seemingly lost reactions can be rediscovered,&nbsp;revealing the intricate pattern of life's evolution.&nbsp;



The journey to uncover the secrets of life's origins continues,&nbsp;and with each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/charles-darwins-complete-research-library-published-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new discovery</a>,&nbsp;we gain a deeper appreciation for the remarkable story written into the chemistry of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02361-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Clues to life's beginnings found in ancient chemical reactions

Imagine a vibrant library,&nbsp;filled with books chronicling the rich history...

Juice,Spacecraft,Orbiting,Jupiter's,Moons.,Showing,Europa,,One,Of,The

Ever since the discovery of icy ocean worlds like Europa and Enceladus within our solar system, the scientific community has been captivated by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential for life</a> beneath their frozen surfaces. 



These subsurface oceans have intrigued astrobiologists for decades, as they ponder whether the conditions necessary for life exist in these hidden waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-s-moon-europa">Jupiter's moon Europa</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-jupiter-moon-europa-deep-ocean-shifting-icy-shell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a>, one of Jupiter's largest moons, captivates scientists with its potential for harboring life. Discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610, Europa is slightly smaller than Earth's moon.



Its surface is a shell of ice, believed to cover a vast subsurface ocean. This ocean, possibly containing twice the water volume of Earth's oceans, lies beneath a layer of ice estimated to be 10 to 15 miles thick.



Europa's surface is relatively smooth, with few craters, suggesting a young and active icy crust. The surface features extensive cracks and streaks, caused by the tidal forces from Jupiter's gravity.



These tidal forces also likely generate heat, maintaining the subsurface ocean in a liquid state. This heating could create conditions suitable for life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-present-and-future-space-missions">Past, present and future space missions</h2>



The Galileo spacecraft, which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003, provided most of our current knowledge about Europa. It revealed a magnetic field indicative of a salty, conductive ocean beneath the ice.



Scheduled for launch in late 2024, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/send-your-name-to-jupiters-ocean-moon-as-europa-clipper-mission-searches-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa Clipper</a> mission will conduct detailed reconnaissance of Europa's ice shell and subsurface ocean, searching for signs of habitability and providing critical data for future missions that may seek to land on Europa and probe its hidden ocean.



Finally ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Juice" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (Juice)</a> launched in April 2023 to study Jupiter and its three largest icy moons: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moon-ganymede-has-huge-internal-ocean-and-salty-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ganymede</a>, Callisto, and Europa. 



This mission aims to unravel the mysteries surrounding these celestial bodies and shed light on their potential habitability. 



Juice's journey is expected to last approximately 7.6 years, with the spacecraft using gravity assist maneuvers around Earth and Venus to reach Jupiter. 



Upon arrival, Juice will conduct multiple flybys of the moons before entering orbit around Ganymede in 2034. This extended mission phase will allow for detailed studies of the largest moon in the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-and-metabolic-processes-on-europa">Iron and metabolic processes on Europa</h2>



A recent study offers compelling insights into this enigma, delving deep into the bioenergetics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa's ocean</a>.



Dr. Sahai, professor and Ohio Research Scholar in the School of Engineering and Polymer Science at the <a href="https://www.uakron.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Akron</a>, collaborated with Dr. John Senko, professor of geomicrobiology at UA, and Dr. Doug LaRowe, associate professor of Earth science at the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a>.



The team explored the potential for various forms of bacterial metabolisms to thrive in Europa's ocean, including iron reduction, sulfate reduction, and methanogenesis. They investigated whether these metabolic processes could sustain life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-snow-model-for-life-on-europa">Iron snow model for life on Europa</h2>



Using sophisticated model simulations, the researchers examined the feasibility of these bacterial processes occurring under the specific environmental conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-solves-an-intriguing-mystery-about-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present on Europa</a>. 



They considered factors such as temperature, pressure, and the chemical composition of the ocean.



Their simulations aimed to determine how iron reduction, sulfate reduction, and methanogenesis could take place within Europa's unique and extreme environment, assessing the energy yields and viability of these metabolisms in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-may-exist-on-one-of-jupiters-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supporting microbial life</a>.



What sets this research apart is the innovative "iron snow" model proposed by Dr. Sahai and her team. 



Drawing parallels with acid mine drainage systems on Earth, this model suggests a plausible mechanism for enhanced bacterial productivity in Europa's ocean. 



The iron snow model eliminates the need for highly reactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moon-europa-creates-enormous-amount-of-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> species (ROS) to be transported from the surface to the ocean floor. 



This not only increases the likelihood of detecting life but also mitigates the harmful effects of ROS on biological molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-europa-and-life-beyond-earth">Iron, Europa, and life beyond Earth</h2>



The implications of this research are profound. The study not only sheds light on the potential habitability of Europa's ocean but also expands our understanding of the conditions necessary for life to thrive in extreme environments.



The greater diversity of microbial metabolisms identified by Dr. Sahai and her team suggests a wealth of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraterrestrial-life-moons-planets-detected-single-grain-ice-floating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biosignature molecules</a> that could be targeted for detection.



"The iron snow model overcomes critical conceptual roadblocks to life in the oceans of Europa and other icy worlds," Dr. Sahai concluded.



Significantly, our model increases the diversity of habitable ecological niches in icy ocean worlds, their habitable space, and total productivity driven primarily by iron reduction, which is usually neglected in models of metabolism in icy ocean world oceans.



The research brings us one step closer to unraveling the mystery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-compound-suggests-that-life-beyond-earth-could-be-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life beyond Earth</a>. By enhancing our understanding of the bioenergetics of Europa's ocean and proposing the innovative iron snow model, scientists are paving the way for future explorations and discoveries in the quest for extraterrestrial life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2316452121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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"Iron snow" brings hope for finding life on Jupiter's moon Europa

Ever since the discovery of icy ocean worlds like Europa...

Climate change poses significant challenges and opportunities within the agricultural sector. The transformation of abandoned farmland into areas that contribute positively to the environment is an emerging solution that strikes a balance between ecological needs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-wheat-market-has-been-remarkably-resilient-amid-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural demands</a>.



Recent research demonstrates how these forgotten fields could be pivotal in the broader climate change strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abandoned-farmlands">Abandoned farmlands</h2>



Abandoned farmland refers to agricultural land that is no longer actively used for farming. 



Over time, these fields have been left untended, often due to economic challenges, urbanization, changes in farming practices, or environmental factors. 



As a result, the land may revert to natural states like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-crucial-role-global-agriculture-environment-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grasslands</a>, shrublands, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>.



Farmers might abandon land if it's no longer profitable due to poor soil quality, low crop yields, or market changes. Urban expansion can also lead to farmland being deserted, as cities grow and encroach on rural areas. 



Sometimes, government policies or incentives might encourage farmers to leave certain areas fallow to conserve resources or protect the environment.



Abandoned farmland represents a significant, underutilized resource. With proper management, it can be repurposed to support ecological projects, such as growing bioenergy crops that sequester carbon or restoring natural habitats to increase biodiversity. 



By identifying and utilizing these lands, we can address climate change challenges and promote sustainable land use practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-abandoned-farmland-for-climate-change-mitigation">Mapping abandoned farmland for climate change mitigation</h2>



Led by Yanhua Xie and Tyler Lark at the <a href="https://www.glbrc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center</a>, a team of scientists has developed a cutting-edge tool using machine learning.



This tool has mapped nearly 30 million acres of U.S. abandoned farmland since the 1980s, illustrating substantial opportunities for sustainable practices that could aid in climate change mitigation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/abandoned-farmland-crops_us-map_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/abandoned-farmland-crops_us-map_1s.jpg" alt="Map showing abandoned farmland and crops in the U.S." class="wp-image-1936186"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Map showing abandoned farmland and crops in the U.S.</figcaption></figure>



The findings, published in the journal Environmental Research Letters, highlight potential uses for these lands, including the cultivation of bioenergy crops like switchgrass or sorghum that sequester carbon in the soil.



“If we can understand where these lands are and what the characteristics are, we can really understand their true potential for things like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate mitigation</a>,” explains Tyler Lark, associated with the University of Wisconsin–Madison’s <a href="https://sage.nelson.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment</a>.



He emphasizes the importance of deploying clean energy solutions in these areas to minimize competition with food production and other land uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-resolution-approach">High-resolution approach</h2>



Previously, data on abandoned farmland were vague and generalized at best. The recent study changes this by providing detailed, field-level insights. 



"This is really the highest resolution analysis available, looking right on the landscape—field by field, acre by acre -- of where these crop lands are," Lark says.



Utilizing satellite imagery data from 1986 to 2018, the algorithm developed by the researchers can accurately identify and categorize these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-land-abandonment-affect-biodiversity/">abandoned fields</a>, pinpointing their locations and the approximate times of abandonment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-findings-on-land-use">Surprising findings on land use</h2>



The analysis shows that much of the abandoned farmland has naturally transitioned to different types of vegetation. 



These include pastures, grasslands, shrublands, and wetlands. These areas have developed naturally over time without active human intervention.



Surprisingly, less than 20% of this abandoned land is part of formal conservation programs. This indicates that a significant portion of this land remains underutilized in terms of structured environmental management. 



This presents a considerable opportunity to transform these areas for purposes that can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-potential-of-tidal-wetlands-as-blue-carbon-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitigate climate change</a>. 



By converting these underutilized lands, we can implement sustainable practices that contribute positively to the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abandoned-farmland-and-climate-change">Abandoned farmland and climate change</h2>



The researchers plan to delve deeper into the reasons behind the abandonment of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-regrow-naturally-on-abandoned-farmlands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lands</a> and to explore potential optimal uses.



Integrating additional data, such as socioeconomic factors and tax records, will provide further clarity on how best to utilize these lands in the context of climate change. 



Whether for bioenergy production, solar installations, or restoring natural ecosystems, the possibilities are vast.



This remarkable study, supported by the U.S. Department of Energy and in collaboration with <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a>, has provided an essential tool available in the GLBRC’s interactive atlas.



This atlas not only charts abandoned farmland but also tracks trends in farmland use and irrigation, serving as a critical resource for those aiming to align agricultural practices with climate change mitigation goals.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad2d12">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Abandoned farmland can be used for climate change mitigation

Climate change poses significant challenges and opportunities within the agricultural...

In a recent study, researchers have unearthed the earliest known use of specialized stone tools, marking a significant shift in prehistoric technology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a>.



These findings shed light on how our ancestors adapted to environmental changes and the disappearance of large game, specifically elephants, by developing tools designed for processing smaller and quicker prey like fallow deer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-stone-tools-evolution">Prehistoric stone tools evolution</h2>



The stone tools, identified as Quina scrapers, were discovered at the Jaljulia site and Qesem Cave. 



Characterized by their scalloped working edges, these scrapers were not only instrumental in butchering fallow deer but also in processing their hides. 



This technological shift was driven by necessity, as the decline of elephant populations pushed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient hunters</a> to target smaller animals, necessitating more precise and effective tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-shift-driven-by-ecological-change">Cultural shift driven by ecological change</h2>



For about a million years, humans relied on simple stone tools to process the hides and meat of large game, predominantly elephants. 



These animals were a crucial source of sustenance. However, around 400,000 years ago, a significant change occurred. 



"The large game, particularly elephants, had disappeared, prompting humans to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer. Butchering a large elephant is vastly different from processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer," explains Vlad Litov from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>.



This shift not only changed the stone tools but also required a more systematic approach to hunting and processing to make up for the smaller size of fallow deer compared to elephants. 



The new Quina scrapers, which first appeared on a small scale at Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago and later more extensively at Qesem Cave, offered a sharper, more uniform edge that greatly improved efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sacred-landscapes-and-resource-management">Sacred landscapes and resource management</h2>



The study also highlights a fascinating aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-masters-woodworking-crafting-wooden-hunting-weapons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early human</a> perception and resource management.



"We identified a double connection, both practical and perceptual, between the technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans," Prof. Ran Barkai points out.



Notably, the Quina scrapers were stone tools made using non-local flint procured from the Mountains of Samaria, located about 20km east of the archaeological sites.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/400k-year-old-stone-tools_Quina-like-scraper_Tel-Aviv-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/400k-year-old-stone-tools_Quina-like-scraper_Tel-Aviv-University_1s.jpg" alt="Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1936180"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



This area was not only a rich source of flint but also the calving area for fallow deer, suggesting a deep-seated connection between the resources used by ancient hunters and the geography of their environment.



The perceived abundance and utility of the Samarian highlands likely elevated their status to something sacred among the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-humans-used-ancient-plant-fiber-technology-to-make-tools-39000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> peoples of Qesem Cave and Jaljulia.



"We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric people</a> of Qesem Cave and Jaljulia because that's where the fallow deer came from," Litov concludes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-stone-tools-show-adaptation">Prehistoric stone tools show adaptation</h2>



The findings from Jaljulia and Qesem Cave provide a vivid snapshot of how early humans adapted their tool-making techniques to meet the challenges posed by new hunting targets and ecological realities. 



The development of Quina scrapers is not just a technological advancement; it represents a profound adaptation to a changing world, showcasing the ingenuity and resilience of our ancient ancestors. 



This study serves as a reminder of the complex interplay between human innovation, cultural perceptions, and environmental conditions that has shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human history</a> from its earliest days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-this-discovery">Significance of this discovery</h2>



Prehistoric stone tools are some of the earliest evidence of human technology. These tools, dating back millions of years, demonstrate the ingenuity and adaptability of our ancestors. 



Early stone tools, such as those from the Oldowan industry, were simple and used for basic tasks like cutting and scraping. 



As time progressed, more complex tools emerged during the Acheulean period, characterized by hand axes and cleavers.



The Middle Paleolithic saw the development of the Levallois technique, where stone flakes were carefully shaped before being removed from a core, leading to more efficient and specialized tools. 



The Upper Paleolithic era brought further innovation with the creation of finely crafted blades, burins, and microliths. These tools enabled our ancestors to perform more complex tasks, such as hunting, crafting clothing, and constructing shelters.



Overall, prehistoric stone tools provide crucial insights into the technological advancements, survival strategies, and cognitive evolution of early humans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



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400,000-year-old stone tools show technological adaptations of prehistoric humans

In a recent study, researchers have unearthed the earliest known...

You may have heard the age-old adage "you are what you <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/binge-eating-linked-to-a-specific-set-of-brain-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eat</a>," but what if your cells believe you're overindulging, even when you're not? A recent study&nbsp;reveals a fascinating connection between how our cells perceive nutrient levels and the acceleration of aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tricking-the-cellular-messenger">Tricking the cellular messenger</h2>



Led by Alejo Efeyan, head of the Metabolism and Cell Signalling Group at the National Cancer Research Centre (<a href="https://www.cnio.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNIO</a>), the research team embarked on an ambitious endeavor to understand the intricate relationship between nutrient intake and aging. 



Their focus was on a protein complex called mTOR, a key player in cellular metabolism and energy utilization.



The researchers cleverly devised a way to manipulate mTOR's activity by tricking the protein responsible for signaling nutrient availability. 



This genetic modification led the cells to believe they were receiving an excess of nutrients, even when the animals were on a normal diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammation-and-accelerated-cell-aging">Inflammation and accelerated cell aging</h2>



The consequences of this cellular deception were dramatic. As the animals reached maturity, their cells began to malfunction, leading to a cascade of events that accelerated aging. The skin thinned, and vital organs like the pancreas, liver, and kidneys showed signs of damage.



"The immune system cells come to repair them but are overwhelmed by the amount of damage. They accumulate and, instead of repairing, trigger inflammation that further increases problems in those organs," explains Ana Ortega-Molina, the first author of the study and head of the Metabolism in Cancer and Ageing Laboratory at the Severo Ochoa Molecular Biology Centre (<a href="https://www.cbm.uam.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBM</a>).



This vicious cycle of damage and inflammation shortened the lifespan of the genetically modified animals by a staggering 20%, the equivalent of about 16 years in humans. 



The study also found that blocking the inflammatory response could partially reverse the damage, offering a potential therapeutic avenue for mitigating age-related decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-our-aging-cells">Glimpse into our aging cells</h2>



The researchers drew parallels between the cellular changes observed in the genetically modified animals and those seen in natural aging. 



They compared their model to naturally aging mice colonies and found striking similarities, such as reduced activity of lysosomes, the cellular "recycling centers" responsible for removing waste.



"When there is an excess of nutrients, it makes sense that the cell shuts down the recycling activity of lysosomes, because this recycling operates especially when there are no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>," Efeyan notes. 



This decrease in lysosomal activity also occurs in human aging, as confirmed by analyzing blood samples from young people and septuagenarians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-cell-aging">Mysteries of cell aging</h2>



Efeyan is optimistic about the potential of this new animal model to unlock the secrets of aging. "It’s a tool that many more people can use," he says, envisioning future studies that could delve into how nutrient signaling affects specific organs and contributes to neurodegenerative diseases.



This research provides valuable insights into the connection between obesity,&nbsp;aging,&nbsp;and potential interventions for promoting longevity.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that individuals with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/being-overweight-makes-it-harder-for-brain-to-resist-unhealthy-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher body mass index</a> (BMI),&nbsp;often associated with excess nutrient intake,&nbsp;may experience accelerated aging due to similar mechanisms observed in the genetically modified animals.



Furthermore,&nbsp;the study sheds light on the positive effects of calorie restriction,&nbsp;a dietary approach known to extend lifespan in various organisms.&nbsp;



The research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-restriction-slows-brain-aging-and-increases-lifespan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limiting nutrient intake</a> could activate genes that interact with the mTOR pathway,&nbsp;potentially mitigating the negative impact of excess nutrients on cellular function and aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The study sheds light on the complex relationship between nutrient perception and aging. By manipulating the mTOR protein complex, researchers have demonstrated how overeating signals can accelerate aging in animal models. 



This remarkable research opens up new avenues for exploring therapeutic interventions and understanding the intricate mechanisms behind aging in humans. 



It is a testament to the power of scientific inquiry and the potential for future discoveries to improve our health and well-being as we age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-benefits-of-eating-less">Other benefits of eating less</h2>



Limited nutrient intake, commonly known as calorie restriction, offers several benefits beyond promoting longevity. One significant advantage is improved metabolic health. 



Calorie restriction enhances insulin sensitivity, reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes. It also lowers blood pressure and cholesterol levels, contributing to cardiovascular health.



Another benefit is the reduction in oxidative stress. Calorie restriction decreases the production of reactive oxygen species, which can damage cells and contribute to aging and various diseases. 



This reduction in oxidative stress helps protect against age-related conditions such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-and-calorie-restriction-for-aging-cells">Autophagy and calorie restriction for aging cells</h2>



Moreover, limited nutrient intake boosts autophagy, a cellular process that removes damaged components and recycles them. 



Enhanced autophagy helps maintain cellular health and function, preventing the accumulation of cellular debris that can lead to diseases.



Calorie restriction also strengthens the immune system. Studies have shown that it can increase the production of infection-fighting cells, improving the body's ability to fend off illnesses.



Additionally, limited nutrient intake can improve mental health. Research indicates that it enhances mood and cognitive function, possibly by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that supports neuron growth and survival.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00635-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Tricking cells into thinking they ate less food can slow the aging process

You may have heard the age-old adage "you are what...

As the Sun reaches the peak of its activity cycle, known as the solar maximum, Mars scientists have been eagerly awaiting the arrival of epic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rare-g5-level-geomagnetic-storm-highest-level-hits-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar storms</a>.



Over the past month, their patience has been rewarded as NASA's Mars rovers and orbiters have provided them with an unparalleled opportunity to witness a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">series of solar flares</a> and coronal mass ejections reaching the Red Planet. 



In some cases, these events have even triggered breathtaking Martian auroras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-front-row-seat-on-mars-for-the-solar-maximum">Front row seat on Mars for the solar maximum</h2>



Don Hassler of Southwest Research Institute's Solar System Science and Exploration Division in Boulder, Colorado is the principal investigator of Curiosity's Radiation Assessment Detector (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/radiation-assessment-detector-for-mars-science-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RAD</a>). 



He remarked, "I wouldn't be surprised if this active region on the Sun continues to erupt, meaning even more solar storms at both Earth and Mars over the coming weeks."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x12-solar-flare-is-troubling-for-astronauts">X12 solar flare is troubling for astronauts</h2>



On May 20, an extreme solar event took center stage. Based on data from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Solar_Orbiter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Orbiter spacecraft</a>, a joint mission between ESA (European Space Agency) and NASA, the solar flare was later estimated to be an X12 -- the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strongest of several types</a>. 



The flare unleashed a torrent of X-rays and gamma rays towards Mars, closely followed by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coronal mass ejection</a> carrying charged particles. 



While the X-rays and gamma rays arrived first at the speed of light, the charged particles trailed slightly behind, reaching the Red Planet in just tens of minutes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars_solar-storm_surface_nasa_1m.gif" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars_solar-storm_surface_nasa_1s.gif" alt="Extreme solar storm smashes surface of Mars. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1936174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Extreme solar storm smashes surface of Mars. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



Had astronauts been standing next to NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity Mars rover</a> during this event, they would have been exposed to a radiation dose of 8,100 micrograys -- equivalent to 30 chest X-rays. 



Although not deadly, this surge was the most significant measured by RAD since the rover's landing 12 years ago. 



The data collected by RAD will be invaluable in helping scientists plan for the highest level of radiation exposure that future astronauts might encounter on Mars. 



As Hassler points out, "Cliffsides or lava tubes would provide additional shielding for an astronaut from such an event. In Mars orbit or deep space, the dose rate would be significantly more."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dancing-snow-and-disoriented-orbiters">Dancing snow and disoriented orbiters</h2>



The intensity of the May 20 solar storm was evident in its impact on the Martian surface and orbiting spacecraft. 



Curiosity's black-and-white navigation camera images appeared to <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-watches-mars-light-up-during-epic-solar-storm#carousel-05ee4c72-6ace-43ab-b0cb-79f14b38cc9d-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dance with "snow"</a> -- white streaks and specks caused by charged particles striking the cameras. 



High above, NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/odyssey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2001 Mars Odyssey</a> orbiter experienced a momentary disorientation as its star camera, used for orientation, was overwhelmed by the influx of solar particles. 



Despite this brief lapse, the orbiter managed to collect crucial data on X-rays, gamma rays, and charged particles using its High-Energy Neutron Detector.



This wasn't Odyssey's first encounter with a powerful solar flare. In 2003, an estimated X45 solar flare fried the orbiter's radiation detector, which was designed to measure such events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-auroras-engulfing-the-red-planet">Auroras engulfing the Red Planet</h2>



While Curiosity and Odyssey faced the storm head-on, NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/maven/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAVEN</a> (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN) orbiter captured a stunning display of auroras engulfing the entire planet. 



Unlike Earth, which is protected by a strong magnetic field that limits auroras to the polar regions, Mars lost its internally generated magnetic field long ago. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars_solar-storm_auroras_MAVEN_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars_solar-storm_auroras_MAVEN_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Auroras seen on Mars’ nightside by MAVEN. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1936172"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Auroras seen on Mars’ nightside by MAVEN. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



As a result, when charged particles bombard the Martian atmosphere, they create a global aurora that illuminates the entire planet.



Christina Lee of the University of California, Berkeley's Space Sciences Laboratory (<a href="https://www.ssl.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SSL</a>), who serves as MAVEN's Space Weather Lead, emphasized the magnitude of this event.



"This was the largest solar energetic particle event that MAVEN has ever seen. There have been several solar events in past weeks, so we were seeing wave after wave of particles hitting Mars," Lee emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-solar-storms-on-mars-for-future-astronauts">Tracking solar storms on Mars for future astronauts</h2>



In summary, as the Sun's fury continues to unleash itself upon our cosmic neighborhood, scientists remain vigilant in their quest to unravel the mysteries of solar storms and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-martian-sky-often-has-an-eerie-green-glow-at-night-called-nightglow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact on the Red Planet</a>. 



Through the tireless efforts of NASA's Mars rovers and orbiters, we have gained an unprecedented glimpse into the awe-inspiring power of our star and the challenges that future astronauts may face on their journey to Mars. 



As we eagerly await the next wave of solar activity, one thing remains certain: the Sun's wrath will continue to captivate our imagination and drive us to push the boundaries of our understanding, propelling us ever closer to unlocking the secrets of our universe.



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Massive solar storm strikes Mars, spacecraft capture surface storm and auroras

As the Sun reaches the peak of its activity cycle,...

Tropical forests, storing a third of the world’s carbon, face uncertain futures as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-losing-their-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sinks</a> due to nutrient-poor soils. However, a new study published in the journal the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.19812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a> has found that these forests have flexible nutrient acquisition strategies that might allow them to thrive despite nutrient limitations.



“We may not have to worry about it so much,” said senior author Sarah Batterman, a tropical forest ecologist at the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>. “Because of these flexible strategies, trees may be able to support a carbon sink in the future, even with nutrient constraints.”&nbsp;



“Our findings support the potential of tropical reforestation and conserving intact forests as a long-term climate solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrient-acquisition-strategies-of-tropical-forests">Nutrient acquisition strategies of tropical forests</h2>



The experts conducted an unprecedented experiment in the lowland tropical wet forest of Panama, covering 76 plots across 16 square kilometers.&nbsp;



The team examined how forests of different ages adjust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-eating-mammals-fertilize-the-soil-in-tropical-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient acquisition</a> strategies to access phosphorus, using either an enzyme called phosphatase or mycorrhizal fungi. Both methods require significant carbon and nitrogen investment from the trees.



“While belowground processes are very important for ecosystem function, they are poorly understood compared to above-ground processes because they are more difficult to study,” said lead author Michelle Wong, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and former postdoctoral fellow at the Cary Institute.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-differ-depending-on-the-forest-s-age">Strategies differ depending on the forest’s age</h2>



The research showed that forests of different ages respond differently to nutrient additions. Younger forests, often limited by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>, showed increased phosphatase activity when nitrogen was added, enabling better phosphorus acquisition.&nbsp;



In contrast, older forests displayed increased phosphatase activity when phosphorus was added, indicating a shift from nitrogen to phosphorus limitation as forests mature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-tropical-forests">Flexibility of tropical forests</h2>



These findings highlight the flexibility of nutrient acquisition strategies in tropical forests, with phosphatase activity increasing by half in response to nitrogen and decreasing by half in response to phosphorus. However, mycorrhizal colonization responses were less predictable.



“We still don’t know whether the flexibility is enough to get all the nutrients forests need in the future,” Batterman said. Despite this, there is a buffering capacity that may alleviate nutrient limitations temporarily.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the ability to adjust strategies might provide forests with resilience to recover from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/land-use-changes-expose-the-amazon-to-environmental-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land-use changes</a> and maintain productivity in a carbon-rich world.



For forest managers and reforestation organizations, the study offers practical advice: consider nutrient limitations and use a diversity of trees with different phosphorus acquisition strategies. Ensuring trees are adapted to the phosphorus levels at each site is crucial.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-forests-as-a-climate-solution-nbsp">Tropical forests as a climate solution&nbsp;</h2>



Currently, most reforestation efforts focus on quickly planting available seedlings, but Batterman is optimistic about forests as a climate solution if managed correctly.



“We can implement it immediately, it’s low cost, and it has so many co-benefits, like protecting watersheds, enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-plantations-have-hidden-impacts-on-tropical-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, and protecting species that are important to Indigenous people. But it needs to be done correctly," said Batterman.



"We’re at a point where science can guide the process and ensure the carbon is going to be there for a long time to come."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-tropical-forests-nbsp">More about tropical forests&nbsp;</h2>



Tropical forests, also known as rainforests, are dense, warm, and wet woodlands located near the equator. These forests experience a hot climate and receive high annual rainfall, making them incredibly biodiverse, home to more than half of the world's plant and animal species.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics">Characteristics</h3>



They are characterized by multiple layers of vegetation including towering trees, shorter understory plants, and ground level flora, which create a complex ecosystem. The tall canopy of the forest supports a variety of animals and plants, while the lower parts of the forest provide shelter and food for countless species.



Tropical forests play a crucial role in regulating global climates by absorbing carbon dioxide, and they are vital in maintaining the Earth's water cycle through their transpiration processes.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-threats-nbsp">Ongoing threats&nbsp;</h3>



However, they are under threat from deforestation, which is driven by logging, agriculture, and urban expansion. This loss not only threatens the biodiversity within these forests but also has a significant impact on global climate patterns and carbon storage capabilities.&nbsp;



Conservation efforts are ongoing, aiming to protect these valuable ecosystems by promoting sustainable practices and establishing protected areas.



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Tropical forests have strategies to survive in nutrient-poor soils

Tropical forests, storing a third of the world’s carbon, face...

On February 22, a significant milestone in space exploration was achieved when the lunar lander Odysseus, developed by <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intuitive Machines</a>, successfully touched down near the Moon’s South Pole. 



This event is hailed as the “dawn of radio astronomy from the Moon” by Jack Burns, an astrophysicist at the University of Colorado Boulder.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-achievement-in-radio-astronomy-nbsp">Major achievement In radio astronomy&nbsp;</h2>



The lander, which had to overcome various technical difficulties, deployed four antennas to record <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-radio-waves-disrupt-the-magnetic-compass-of-migratory-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio waves</a> around the lunar surface, marking a major achievement in the field.



Burns, a co-investigator on the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/today/2024/02/06/radio-telescope-cu-boulder-ties-lands-moons-south-pole" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radio wave Observations at the Lunar Surface of the photo Electron Sheath</a> (ROLSES) experiment aboard Odysseus, will provide updates on the data collected and discuss future plans for radio astronomy from the Moon at the <a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">244th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a> in Madison, Wisconsin. 



“It was heroic for Intuitive Machines to land under these conditions, and to deploy our antennas, take some data and get that data back to Earth,” said Burns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-radio-waves-from-earth-nbsp">Capturing radio waves from Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The ROLSES experiment, led by Natchimuthuk Gopalswamy at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, aimed to record a wide range of radio emissions near the Moon and in deep space. Despite the mission's challenges, ROLSES managed to capture unique data, including radio waves from Earth, which provided a perspective of Earth as an exoplanet. 



“We viewed Earth as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-class-of-exoplanets-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a>, or a planet orbiting another star,” Burns explained. “That enables us to ask: What would our radio emissions from Earth look like if they came from an extraterrestrial civilization on a nearby exoplanet?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenging-journey-of-odysseus-nbsp">The challenging journey of Odysseus&nbsp;</h2>



Odysseus’ journey was part of NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a> (CLPS) program, which aims to deploy spacecraft built by private companies on the Moon. This mission was the first to achieve a “soft landing,” despite the lander tipping onto its side during the process. 



Among other challenges, Odysseus had to rely entirely on its optical camera system for navigation due to the failure of its laser-guided system.



One of the ROLSES antennas overheated and popped out during the journey, allowing the team to capture radio waves from Earth for nearly 90 minutes.&nbsp;



This data, more comprehensive than a similar experiment led by Carl Sagan from NASA’s Galileo spacecraft in the 1990s, could help identify similar signals from distant planets, potentially indicating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-signals-are-aliens-trying-to-contact-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligent life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radio-emissions-from-the-early-universe-nbsp">Radio emissions from the early universe&nbsp;</h2>



NASA has approved a second ROLSES experiment for another CLPS mission, likely in 2026. Burns is also involved in the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/ness/projects/lunar-surface-electromagnetics-experiment-night-lusee-night" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment-Night</a> (LuSEE-Night), scheduled to land on the Moon's far side in 2026. 



This location will provide an ideal environment to study radio emissions from the universe's early “Dark Ages,” offering insights into cosmic evolution.



“Because NASA is going to send two or three landers to the Moon every year, we have a way to upgrade our instruments and learn from what goes wrong in a way we haven’t been able to do since the early days of the space program,” said Burns.



The continuous improvements and frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar missions</a> hold great potential for advancing space exploration, allowing rapid learning and innovation reminiscent of the early days of the space program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-radio-waves">Earth's radio waves</h2>



Earth's radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than infrared light. These waves are used for a variety of applications, from communication to navigation.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources">Sources</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-radio-waves-are-coming-from-the-center-of-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radio waves</a> are generated both naturally and by human activities. Natural sources include lightning and astronomical objects, while human-generated radio waves are used in broadcasting, mobile phones, and wireless networking.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-propagation-nbsp">Propagation&nbsp;</h3>



The atmosphere of Earth plays a critical role in how radio waves propagate, affecting their range and clarity.&nbsp;



For instance, different layers of the Earth’s atmosphere, like the ionosphere, can reflect or refract radio waves, enabling them to travel long distances around the globe. This property is crucial for long-range communication without satellites.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-frequency-radio-waves-nbsp">Low-frequency radio waves&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, the Earth itself emits low-frequency radio waves, which can be studied to understand geological and atmospheric conditions.&nbsp;



In the broader context of the universe, Earth's radio emissions are just a tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes all forms of light and radiation, each with its own unique properties and applications.



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Earth’s radio waves recorded from the Moon for the first time

On February 22, a significant milestone in space exploration was...

In recent years,&nbsp;the menacing glow of wildfires has painted an increasingly familiar picture across North America.&nbsp;While flames consume forests and scorch landscapes,&nbsp;their tendrils of smoke reach far <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beyond the burn zones</a> (such as lakes),&nbsp;silently invading ecosystems that might seem untouched by the inferno.&nbsp;



A remarkable study from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California,&nbsp;Davis</a> has illuminated the startling extent of this smoky invasion,&nbsp;revealing that nearly every lake in North America has been touched by wildfire smoke for at least one day per year from 2019 to 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-smoke-day">Lake-smoke day</h2>



To grasp the magnitude of this phenomenon,&nbsp;the UC Davis researchers introduced a novel concept:&nbsp;the "lake-smoke day." This metric quantifies the number of days a lake is exposed to smoke during a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-activity-is-expected-to-intensify-in-the-pacific-northwest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire season</a>,&nbsp;providing a standardized way to track and compare the impact of smoke across different lakes and regions.



"With this study, we quantified for the first time the scope of the smoke problem," said lead author Mary Jade Farruggia, a PhD candidate at UC Davis. "We show that it's not just a widespread problem, but one that is long-lasting in a lot of places."



The implications of this widespread smoke exposure are far-reaching.&nbsp;Smoke particles can alter the amount and composition of sunlight reaching lakes,&nbsp;disrupting the delicate balance of aquatic ecosystems.&nbsp;



Additionally,&nbsp;smoke and ash can deposit nutrients,&nbsp;carbon,&nbsp;and even toxic compounds into lakes,&nbsp;with potentially cascading effects on water quality and the organisms that call these lakes home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-lakes-exposed-to-wildfire-smoke-over-30-days">Most lakes exposed to wildfire smoke over 30 days</h2>



Even more concerning is the finding that a staggering 89% of North American lakes experienced smoke for more than 30 days each year during the study period.&nbsp;



This persistent exposure raises questions about the long-term consequences for lake ecosystems and the services they provide,&nbsp;such as clean water,&nbsp;recreation,&nbsp;and fisheries.



The study's findings serve as a wake-up call,&nbsp;highlighting the need to understand and manage the impacts of wildfire smoke on aquatic environments.&nbsp;As wildfires continue to rage with increasing frequency and intensity,&nbsp;their smoky fingerprints are spreading across the continent,&nbsp;leaving few lakes untouched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-concern">A global concern</h2>



While the study focused on North America,&nbsp;the issue of wildfire smoke's impact on lakes is a global concern.&nbsp;



As climate change fuels hotter,&nbsp;drier conditions,&nbsp;wildfires are becoming more prevalent and severe in many parts of the world.&nbsp;The UC Davis research underscores the need for international collaboration to monitor and mitigate the effects of smoke on aquatic ecosystems.



"Smoke is widespread, and smoke is pervasive," said study senior author Steven Sadro, a UC Davis limnologist. "We knew that by looking out the window and looking at satellite images we see almost every summer. Now we’re starting to quantify it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-lakes-from-wildfire-smoke">Protecting lakes from wildfire smoke</h2>



The research team's innovative use of the "lake-smoke day" metric opens new avenues for studying and managing the impacts of wildfire smoke on lakes.&nbsp;By quantifying the extent and duration of smoke exposure,&nbsp;scientists and policymakers can develop targeted strategies to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-use-wildfires-and-drought-as-an-opening-to-move-in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect these vital ecosystems</a>.



The experts noted that the effects of wildfire smoke on lake ecosystems are not yet fully understood. However, the pervasive nature of smoke exposure, now impacting nearly every lake in North America, underscores the urgency to study and address this issue.



With the increasing frequency and intensity of wildfires,&nbsp;the presence of smoke in lake environments is becoming more persistent.&nbsp;This continued exposure could have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-conditioning-systems-trap-harmful-particles-from-wildfire-smoke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant consequences</a> for water quality,&nbsp;aquatic life,&nbsp;and the overall ecological balance of these vital ecosystems.



By recognizing the widespread and potentially harmful impact of wildfire smoke on lakes,&nbsp;scientists,&nbsp;policymakers,&nbsp;and communities can work together to develop and implement proactive measures.&nbsp;These actions could include improved wildfire management strategies,&nbsp;early warning systems for smoke events,&nbsp;and research to better understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-effects-of-wildfires-on-soil-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term effects</a> of smoke exposure on lakes.



Protecting these valuable freshwater resources is crucial to ensuring their health and resilience for future generations.&nbsp;By addressing the threat of wildfire smoke,&nbsp;we can safeguard the essential ecological services that lakes provide,&nbsp;such as clean water,&nbsp;biodiversity,&nbsp;and recreational opportunities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17367" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Wildfire smoke has affected almost every lake in North America

In recent years,&nbsp;the menacing glow of wildfires has painted an...

We've all been there.&nbsp;You're standing at a crossroads,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pondering</a> the "what ifs" of life.&nbsp;Should you take that new job offer? Move to a different city?&nbsp;Break up with your significant other?&nbsp;While the future remains uncertain,&nbsp;our brains have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-waves-move-in-opposite-ways-to-make-memories-and-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating way</a> of simulating possible outcomes and planning accordingly.



A remarkable study&nbsp;has unveiled the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural pattern</a> that takes place during planning.&nbsp;Researchers have found that the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus,&nbsp;two key brain regions,&nbsp;collaborate to create mental simulations of potential actions,&nbsp;allowing us to make informed decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prefrontal-cortex-and-hippocampus">Prefrontal cortex and hippocampus</h2>



The prefrontal cortex,&nbsp;located at the front of the brain,&nbsp;plays a crucial role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychological-poverty-greatly-impacts-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planning and decision-making</a>.&nbsp;It acts as a mental simulator,&nbsp;allowing us to envision different scenarios and their potential outcomes.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;this simulation process relies on information from another brain region:&nbsp;the hippocampus.



The hippocampus,&nbsp;nestled deep within the brain's temporal lobe,&nbsp;is responsible for memory formation and storage.&nbsp;It creates a mental representation of our experiences,&nbsp;forming a cognitive map of the world around us.&nbsp;This map includes information about spatial relationships,&nbsp;objects,&nbsp;and events.



When the prefrontal cortex engages in planning,&nbsp;it accesses this cognitive map stored in the hippocampus.&nbsp;It uses this information to construct detailed mental simulations of potential actions and their consequences.&nbsp;By drawing on our past experiences and knowledge,&nbsp;the prefrontal cortex can evaluate different options and make informed decisions about how to proceed.



"The prefrontal cortex acts as a 'simulator,' mentally testing out possible actions using a cognitive map stored in the hippocampus," explained Marcelo Mattar, assistant professor at <a href="https://nyu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a> and co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-model-of-brain-s-planning">Computational model of brain's planning</h2>



To better understand the brain's planning process,&nbsp;the research team developed a computational model that could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predict brain activity</a> during decision-making.&nbsp;



The model,&nbsp;a recurrent neural network (RNN),&nbsp;learned patterns from incoming information,&nbsp;much like how our brains adapt and learn over time.



This innovative model took into account "imagined actions," the mental simulations we create when considering different choices.&nbsp;



It's like a chess player envisioning several moves ahead before settling on the best one.&nbsp;By simulating potential futures,&nbsp;we can quickly adjust to new environments,&nbsp;such as finding an alternate route when our usual path is blocked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-of-rats-and-humans-while-planning">Brain of rats and humans while planning</h2>



To validate their computational model,&nbsp;the research team conducted experiments involving both humans and rats.&nbsp;Human participants were tasked with navigating a virtual maze on a computer screen,&nbsp;while their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-focus-with-so-many-distractions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> was monitored using neuroimaging techniques.&nbsp;



The researchers specifically focused on recording neural activity during the moments when participants paused to plan their next move within the maze.



In a parallel experiment, rats were placed in a physical maze that mirrored the design of the virtual maze used for humans.Neural recordings were taken from the rats' brains as they navigated through the maze, allowing the researchers to compare the neural patterns observed in both species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-brain-activity">Surprising brain activity </h2>



The results of these experiments were noteworthy.&nbsp;In humans,&nbsp;there was a clear correlation between the time spent deliberating over the next move in the maze and the intensity of neural activity observed in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.&nbsp;



This suggests that these brain regions are actively engaged in the planning process,&nbsp;with increased activity reflecting a greater degree of mental simulation and decision-making.



Furthermore,&nbsp;the neural activity patterns recorded in the rats closely resembled those predicted by the computational model.&nbsp;This alignment between real-world observations and model predictions provides strong evidence for the validity of the model and its ability to accurately capture the neural mechanisms underlying planning behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



This study has far-reaching implications for understanding the neural underpinnings of planning - a crucial aspect of human and animal intelligence. 



"This research sheds light on the neural and cognitive mechanisms of planning - a core component of both human and animal intelligence. A deeper understanding of these brain mechanisms could ultimately improve the treatment of disorders affecting decision-making abilities," said Mattar.



By unraveling the intricate pattern between the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus,&nbsp;scientists are one step closer to unlocking the mysteries of the brain's planning prowess.&nbsp;



This knowledge could pave the way for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-speed-indicator-brain-health-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new therapies</a> for individuals struggling with decision-making difficulties,&nbsp;potentially improving their quality of life.



To sum it up,&nbsp;the next time you find yourself lost in thought,&nbsp;contemplating the endless possibilities of the future, remember that your brain is hard at work,&nbsp;simulating those scenarios to guide you toward the best decision.&nbsp;It's like having a personal fortune-teller inside your head,&nbsp;helping you navigate life's uncertainties.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01675-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Our brain has a 'simulator' that imagines scenarios while planning

We've all been there.&nbsp;You're standing at a crossroads,&nbsp;pondering the "what...

Recent research into infant learning suggests that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human infants</a> are perceived as significantly more helpless than their animal counterparts, this period of vulnerability is actually a critical time for cognitive development, akin to the initial training phases of sophisticated artificial intelligence systems like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-outperforms-humans-in-creativity-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChatGPT</a>.



This phase allows infants to absorb and process vast amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-perception-speed-varies-greatly-among-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory information</a>, laying the groundwork for advanced cognitive abilities later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-learning">Infant learning</h2>



Infant learning begins right from birth. During this period, babies start recognizing faces, sounds, and patterns. This early learning is crucial for cognitive development.



Newborns spend a lot of time observing and interacting with their environment. They track moving objects with their eyes, respond to familiar voices, and start to understand basic cause and effect. For example, when they cry, they learn that a caregiver will come to comfort them.



Mothers and other caregivers play a vital role in this learning process. They provide stimulation through talking, singing, and making eye contact. They also offer physical comfort, which helps babies feel secure and ready to explore their world. 



Simple activities like reading stories, playing peek-a-boo, and encouraging reaching and grasping help stimulate an infant's brain, laying the foundation for future learning and development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-infant-learning-beyond-helplessness">Rethinking infant learning: Beyond helplessness</h2>



Historically, the apparent helplessness of human babies was attributed to the physical constraints of childbirth and the resultant immaturity of the brain. 



This traditional view suggested that the size of human heads necessitates an earlier birth, leading to an extended period of developmental vulnerability that can last up to a year. 



However, a groundbreaking study challenges this long-held belief with new insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-babies-in-parentese-boosts-their-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infant brain</a>, revealing a crucial phase of infant learning that has been overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-brain-imaging">Insights from brain imaging</h2>



Led by a team of neuroscientists and AI researchers, the study utilized advanced neuroimaging techniques to explore the state of the infant brain shortly after birth. 



The research team included Professor Rhodri Cusack, who specializes in the development of the infant brain and mind using neuroimaging; Professor Christine Charvet from <a href="https://www.auburn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auburn University</a>, who compares brain development across species; and Dr. Marc'Aurelio Ranzato, a senior AI researcher at DeepMind, enhancing the study with a deep understanding of AI learning patterns.



Contrary to previous beliefs that infant brain systems are underdeveloped and inactive, the findings reveal that these systems are already processing a wealth of sensory information. 



This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> is more mature at birth than commonly thought, especially when compared with other species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-like-a-machine">Learning like a machine</h2>



The research draws an intriguing parallel between infant learning and modern machine learning techniques. 



In artificial intelligence, models like those used in self-driving cars or generative AI initially undergo a pre-training phase, where they learn to recognize patterns in vast amounts of data without a specific task. 



Similarly, infants seem to use their early vulnerability as a phase to "pre-train" their brains, developing foundational cognitive models that will support more complex tasks later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ai-connection">The AI connection</h2>



"We propose that human infants use the ‘helpless’ period to learn powerful foundation models, which later underpin cognition with high performance and rapid generalization. This process is akin to the development of generative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psifi-wearable-ai-device-interprets-emotions-people-nearby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI technologies</a>," explained Professor Cusack, a leading cognitive neuroscientist.



Such insights not only enhance our understanding of human development but may also guide the next wave of AI innovations.



The study underscores a potential symbiotic relationship between developmental neuroscience and artificial intelligence. 



By studying how infants learn during their early years, scientists may unlock new methodologies for improving AI models, making them more efficient and less resource-intensive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-learning-and-future-cognitive-technologies">Infant learning and future cognitive technologies</h2>



This research marks a significant shift in our understanding of human infancy and its implications for both neuroscience and artificial intelligence. 



As we continue to decode the complexities of the infant brain, the findings may not only revolutionize our approach to early childhood development but also inspire advancements in AI, making the technology more adept and efficient. 



The future of both human and artificial cognition may well depend on the insights gathered during these critical early stages of infant learning.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(24)00114-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661324001141%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a>.



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Infant learning mirrors ChatGPT's training

Recent research into infant learning suggests that while human infants...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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