Volcanic eruptions have profoundly impacted human societies throughout history, causing cold weather, reduced sunlight, and crop failures. In 43 BC, for instance, a volcanic eruption in Alaska ejected vast amounts of sulfur into the stratosphere, leading to poor harvests, famine, and disease around the Mediterranean.&nbsp;



While written records from ancient Greece and Rome document these events, no such records exist from the Neolithic period. 



However, climate scientists and archaeologists have uncovered evidence of a similar catastrophic volcanic eruption around 2,900 BC, shedding light on its devastating effects on Neolithic communities in Northern Europe.



This discovery, made by researchers from the <a href="https://nbi.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niels Bohr Institute</a> at the University of Copenhagen, has led archaeologists to reevaluate findings from the Neolithic Vasagård site on Bornholm, Denmark.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-next-big-volcano-eruption-will-cause-global-chaos-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> and its aftermath appear to have influenced the ritual practices of these early agricultural societies, particularly their reverence for the sun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harsh-climate-conditions-after-massive-eruption-nbsp">Harsh climate conditions after massive eruption&nbsp;</h2>



By analyzing ice cores from Greenland, researchers detected significant sulfur deposits indicative of a massive volcanic eruption around 2,900 BC. This event caused reduced solar radiation and a subsequent drop in temperatures across Europe and the United States, leading to prolonged cooling.&nbsp;



Evidence from dendrochronological studies of fossilized wood reveals signs of frost during the spring and summer months before and after the eruption, emphasizing its harsh climatic consequences.



Such conditions would have been devastating for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-neolithic-mountain-settlers-used-complex-farming-methods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neolithic communities</a> that depended on agriculture. With shorter growing seasons and failed harvests, the people of Northern Europe likely faced widespread food shortages and societal strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-stones-of-vasagard">Sun stones of Vasagård</h2>



The volcanic eruption and its climatic impact have recontextualized archaeological findings from Vasagård on Bornholm, a site known for its unique “sun stones.”&nbsp;



These engraved flat shale pieces, featuring sun motifs and patterns, are believed to have symbolized fertility and been used in rituals to ensure agricultural success.



Archaeologist Rune Iversen of the University of Copenhagen, who has participated in excavations at Vasagård, explained the significance of these artifacts.



“One type of find that is completely unique to Bornholm is the so-called sun stones, which are flat shale pieces with engraved patterns and sun motifs. They symbolized fertility and were probably sacrificed to ensure sun and growth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-stones-in-sacrificial-ditches">Sun stones in sacrificial ditches </h2>



Large quantities of sun stones were discovered in sacrificial ditches alongside animal bones, broken clay vessels, and flint objects, suggesting they were part of elaborate rituals.&nbsp;



These sacrifices likely aimed to appease forces believed to control the sun, especially during a time of diminished sunlight caused by the volcanic eruption.



“It is reasonable to believe that the Neolithic people on Bornholm wanted to protect themselves from further deterioration of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> by sacrificing sun stones - or perhaps they wanted to show their gratitude that the sun had returned again,” Iversen added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cultural-transformation">Climate change and cultural transformation</h2>



The Neolithic period around 2,900 BC was marked not only by climate-related challenges but also by other crises. DNA analysis of human remains from this time reveals widespread and deadly outbreaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-farming-population-decimated-by-plague-dna-skull/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plague</a>.&nbsp;



These dual pressures - climate instability and disease - likely contributed to major cultural changes in Northern Europe.



For instance, the once-dominant Funnel Beaker Culture, known for its distinct ceramics and passage graves, began to fade. At Vasagård, the rituals involving sun stones gave way to new practices, including the construction of extensive palisades and circular cult houses.



“At the causewayed enclosure we have excavated on Bornholm, we can also see that, after the sacrifice of the sun stones, the residents changed the structure of the site so that instead of sacrificial ditches, it was provided with extensive rows of palisades and circular cult houses,” Iversen said.&nbsp;



“We do not know why, but it is reasonable to believe that the dramatic climatic changes they had been exposed to would have played a role in some way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-worship-across-eras">Sun worship across eras</h2>



The sun stones from Vasagård provide an early example of a sun cult in Northern Europe, predating similar practices seen in the Nordic Bronze Age, such as the Sun Chariot, and even echoing henge structures like Stonehenge in England.



“The sun stones are completely unique, also in a European context,” noted Lasse Vilien Sørensen, a senior researcher at the <a href="https://en.natmus.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Denmark</a> and co-author of the study.&nbsp;



“The closest we get to a similar sun-cult in the Neolithic is some passage graves in southern Scandinavia or henge structures like Stonehenge in England, which some researchers associate with the sun. With the sun stones, there is in my mind no doubt.”



The discovery underscores how early agricultural societies revered the sun as a vital force, closely tied to survival and fertility. This reverence persisted even into later periods, such as the volcanic disaster of 536 AD, when Scandinavian societies deposited large gold hoards as sacrifices during another significant climate crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-neolithic-life">A window into Neolithic life</h2>



The evidence of volcanic activity from ice cores, coupled with the archaeological findings at Vasagård, provides a vivid picture of how Neolithic communities responded to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-disasters-like-tsunamis-cause-lasting-health-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental disasters</a>.&nbsp;



The sacrifices of sun stones and subsequent cultural shifts demonstrate both the adaptability and the ritual practices of these early societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-the-sun-stones">Legacy of the sun stones</h2>



Four of the sun stones from Vasagård will be displayed at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, offering a glimpse into the lives of Neolithic communities and their response to one of history’s earliest documented climate disasters.



These artifacts, tied to the earliest known sun-cults in Scandinavia, illuminate how deeply ancient societies were connected to their environment and how they sought to influence or understand natural forces during times of crisis.&nbsp;



The Vasagård sun stones serve as a testament to humanity’s enduring relationship with the sun - a source of life and a beacon of survival in the face of nature’s extremes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2024.217" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



Image Credit: National Museum of Denmark



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Sun stones and sacrifice: How ancient farmers faced climate chaos

Volcanic eruptions have profoundly impacted human societies throughout history, causing cold weather, reduced sunlight, and crop failures. In 43 BC, for instance, a volcanic eruption in Alaska ejected vast amounts of sulfur into the stratosphere, leading to poor harvests, famine, and disease around the Mediterranean.&nbsp; While written records from ancient Greece and Rome document these events, no such records exist from the Neolithic period. However, climate scientists and archaeologists have uncovered evidence of a similar catastrophic volcanic eruption around 2,900 BC, shedding light on its devastating effects...

Although we often seek peace and quiet in the woods, a recent study led by the USDA Forest Service <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/rmrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Research Station</a> has revealed that our recreation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise</a> follows us, disturbing wildlife. 



This noise triggers fear responses in animals, akin to escaping predators, raising concerns about whether these habitats offer real refuge when humans are present and highlighting the need to balance recreation and conservation.



“Providing outdoor recreational opportunities to people and protecting wildlife are dual goals of many land managers,” wrote the study authors.



“However, recreation is associated with negative effects on wildlife, ranging from increased stress hormones to shifts in habitat use to lowered reproductive success.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-responses-to-recreation-noise-nbsp">Wildlife responses to recreation noise&nbsp;</h2>



“Wildlife responses to recreation noise are often unobservable, and it was a fun research challenge,” said lead author Katherine Zeller, an expert in wildlife biology at the Rocky Mountain Research Station.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to quantify responses to human-produced recreation noise based on recreation type, group size, group vocalizations, and wildlife species. Information like this can help managers balance recreation opportunities with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> management, which is critical as outdoor recreation continues to grow in popularity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-recreation-noise-to-study-wildlife">Mimicking recreation noise to study wildlife</h2>



The research was conducted in the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. The scientists used an innovative method to isolate and study the effects of recreation noise on various mammal species.&nbsp;



The team placed wildlife cameras and speakers on trails, playing different types of noise when animals approached and capturing their reactions. These noises mimicked activities such as hiking, mountain biking, and off-highway vehicle use, with variations in group size and vocal presence.&nbsp;



This setup allowed scientists to observe immediate changes in animal behavior and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inequitable-impacts-of-urban-noise-pollution-harm-people-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> presence in response to these noises. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-of-the-study">Key findings of the study</h2>



<ul>
<li>Increased fleeing and vigilance: Wildlife were 3.1 to 4.7 times more likely to flee and showed vigilance behaviors for 2.2 to 3.0 times longer when exposed to recreation noise compared to natural sounds or silence.</li>



<li>Reduced wildlife presence: The local wildlife abundance was 1.5 times lower in the week following exposure to recreation noise.</li>



<li>Impact of group size and activity type: Larger groups, especially vocal hikers and mountain bikers, had a 6 to 8 times greater likelihood of causing wildlife to flee.</li>



<li>Species sensitivity: Elk and black bears were most sensitive to recreation noise, fleeing most consistently, while large carnivores were least affected.</li>
</ul>



“Our findings highlight the need for thoughtful planning, with potential consideration of noise mitigation measures to minimize the impact on wildlife while still providing outdoor recreational opportunities for people,” said study co-author Mark Ditmer, an ecologist at the Rocky Mountain Research Station.



“Noise from recreation can carry far beyond a trail system, so understanding how noise alone can affect wildlife is important for management.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-human-noise-on-wildlife">Impacts of human noise on wildlife</h2>



Human noise has significant impacts on wildlife, disrupting their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-and-light-pollution-alter-the-breeding-behavior-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural behaviors</a> and habitats. This noise, often originating from urban development, transportation, and industrial activities, can interfere with animals' communication, making it difficult for them to find mates, avoid predators, and care for their young. 



For instance, birds may sing louder and at higher pitches to be heard over the din, which can be energetically costly and less effective.&nbsp;



Marine life, particularly species like whales and dolphins that rely on echolocation, can be severely affected by underwater noise pollution from ships and sonar, leading to disorientation, stress, and even strandings.&nbsp;



Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-traffic-noise-disrupts-bird-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic noise exposure</a> can alter wildlife behavior, causing animals to avoid noisy areas, which may result in the loss of critical habitats and food sources. 



These disturbances can also affect reproduction rates and increase mortality rates due to accidents or predation in unfamiliar territories.&nbsp;



The overall biodiversity and health of ecosystems can be compromised as species struggle to adapt to the relentless presence of human-made noise.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.05.030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Outdoor recreation noise triggers fear response in wildlife

Although we often seek peace and quiet in the woods,...

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> that grow toward the light and precipitate carbonates.



First appearing 3.48 billion years ago, these formations dominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> as the sole living carbonate factory for nearly three billion years.



They played a crucial role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>, which introduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> to our atmosphere and drastically altered Earth's environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-layers-and-stromatolites">Algae layers and stromatolites</h2>



Stromatolites are layered structures formed by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/clear-lake-turns-green-with-algal-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity of algae</a>, specifically cyanobacteria. These ancient formations date back 3.48 billion years and are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth. 



Cyanobacteria in stromatolites perform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, capturing sunlight and producing oxygen, which was crucial in transforming Earth's early atmosphere.



Stromatolites thrived for billions of years, dominating Earth's shallow marine environments and playing a pivotal role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a> around 2.4 billion years ago. 



This event introduced significant amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere, paving the way for more complex life forms to evolve.



Despite their ancient origins, stromatolites are not just relics of the past. They can still be found today in extreme environments where other life forms struggle to survive. 



Notable locations include Shark Bay in Australia, where hypersaline conditions limit competition, and now, Sheybarah Island in the Red Sea. These environments mimic conditions from the Proterozoic era, allowing stromatolites to thrive.



The recent discovery on Sheybarah Island by Volker Vahrenkamp and his team has renewed interest in these ancient structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-and-resurgence-of-stromatolites-and-algae-layers">Decline and resurgence of stromatolites and algae layers</h2>



Stromatolites initially thrived, eliminating competition with their oxygen production. However, as more life forms adapted to the oxygen-rich atmosphere, stromatolites began to decline. 



Today, they appear in the geological record primarily after mass extinctions or in extreme environments.



"The bacteria are always around, but they don't usually get the chance to make stromatolites," explains Volker Vahrenkamp, the author of a new study in Geology. "They are largely outcompeted by corals."



Today, stromatolites are found in niche environments like hypersaline marine settings (e.g., Shark Bay, Australia) and alkaline lakes. 



Until recently, the only known modern analogue to the biologically diverse, shallow marine settings of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughing-gas-supported-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic</a> era was the Exuma Islands in the Bahamas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-in-the-red-sea">Surprising discovery in the Red Sea</h2>



This changed when Vahrenkamp discovered living stromatolites on Sheybarah Island, located on the northeastern shelf of the Red Sea in Saudi Arabia. 



Initially studying tepee structures -- salt crust domes visible from space -- Vahrenkamp unexpectedly came across the stromatolite field.



"When I stepped on them, I knew what they were," says Vahrenkamp. "It is 2000 km of carbonate platform coastline, so in principle it is a desirable area to look for stromatolites… but then, it is the same in the Bahamas, and yet there is only one small area where you find them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-environmental-conditions">Unique environmental conditions </h2>



Sheybarah Island features an intertidal-to-shallow subtidal setting with alternating wet and dry conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-coast-has-warmed-significantly-and-experiences-many-extreme-temperature-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme temperature</a> variations from 46.4°F (8°C) to over 118.4°F (48°C), and oligotrophic conditions, similar to those in the Bahamas.



These environmental conditions suggest that other stromatolite fields might exist nearby. 



Vahrenkamp and his team are currently exploring this possibility, but finding these algae structures can be challenging due to their small size, about 15 cm across.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-stromatolite-growth">Understanding stromatolite growth</h2>



The Sheybarah Island field contains several hundred stromatolites formed by algae layers, ranging from well-developed examples to more sheet-like formations.



 "Perhaps they could be juvenile," hypothesizes Vahrenkamp, "but we don't know what a baby stromatolite looks like. They must start small, but we don't know."



One challenge in studying stromatolites is determining their growth rate. 



Dating them is difficult because they contain two types of carbonate: the microbe-precipitated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-are-disrupting-earths-largest-carbon-storage-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonate</a> of interest and the misleading carbonate sand from the environment.



Vahrenkamp's team monitors the field monthly to record any changes. There are plans to transfer some stromatolites to an aquarium to study their growth in a controlled environment -- an exciting experimental prospect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-early-life-and-beyond">Implications for early life and beyond</h2>



Vahrenkamp's discovery provides an opportunity to better understand algae structures like stromatolites, their formation and growth.



This research can offer insights into early life and ocean evolution on Earth and aid in the search for life on other planets, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-search-for-signs-of-life-on-mars-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>.



Stromatolites, as some of the first life forms on Earth, offer a promising avenue for understanding what life might look like on Mars and how we could recognize it.



By studying these ancient algae structures, we continue to uncover the mysteries of early life on our planet and beyond.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/52/5/347/634859/Discovery-of-modern-living-intertidal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Stromatolites found in the Red Sea offer new clues to the earliest life on Earth

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of algae that...

After 128 years of exploration and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ugly-fossil-unveils-secrets-of-extinct-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> excavation, researchers have finally unearthed the skull of Genyornis newtoni.



The skull of Australia's own giant megafauna bird was discovered by researchers from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Adelaide, South Australia, shedding new light on the species that once roamed the Australian outback.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-skull-fossils-of-genyornis-newtoni">New skull fossils of Genyornis newtoni</h2>



The only previously known skull of Genyornis newtoni, reported in 1913, was heavily damaged, leaving much about this bird a mystery.



However, recent excavations from the saline, dry beds of Lake Callabonna in South Australia have brought new, nearly complete skull fossils to light. 



These findings, attributed to field trips in 2019, provide a clearer picture of what this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient bird</a> looked like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-fossil-skull">Insights into the fossil skull</h2>



Published in the journal Historical Biology, the detailed description of this remarkable skull has enabled researchers to explore the ecology, functional morphology, and evolutionary relationships of Genyornis newtoni.



Weighing around 230 kg, this bird was approximately five times the weight of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-bird-may-soon-go-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cassowary</a>.



The skull features a massive braincase, large jaws, and a distinctive casque on its head. 



Its upper beak, in particular, shows surprising morphology, setting it apart from its closest relatives. 



"Genyornis newtoni had a tall and mobile upper jaw like that of a parrot but shaped like a goose, a wide gape, strong bite force, and the ability to crush soft plants and fruit on the roof of their mouth," explains Flinders University researcher Phoebe McInerney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-evolutionary-mysteries">Unraveling evolutionary mysteries</h2>



The skull also showed complex similarities to early diverging waterfowl lineages, such as the South American Screamers and the Australian Magpie Goose. 



"The exact relationships of Genyornis within this group have been complicated to unravel; however, with this new skull, we have started to piece together the puzzle which shows, simply put, this species to be a giant goose," McInerney adds.



Co-author Dr. Trevor Worthy was particularly excited about discovering the first fossil upper bill of Genyornis. 



"For the first time, we could put a face on this bird, one very different from any other bird, yet like a goose," he says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-past">Reconstructing the past</h2>



Examining the morphology of the skull provided researchers with insights into how the head functioned, including muscle and joint movement. 



"The form of a bone, and structures on it, are partly related to the soft tissues that interact with them, such as muscles and ligaments, and their attachment sites or passages," Co-author Jacob Blokland notes. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_credit-Jacob-Blokland_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_credit-Jacob-Blokland_1s.jpg" alt="Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: Jacob Blokland" class="wp-image-1936557"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: Jacob Blokland</figcaption></figure>



Using modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-largest-eagle-was-a-massive-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> as comparatives, they are able to put flesh back on the fossils and bring them back to life.



Blokland has successfully reconstructed Genyornis newtoni through a scientifically accurate model, revealing its true form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aquatic-adaptations">Aquatic adaptations</h2>



The study on skull fossils also uncovered several unusual adaptations for aquatic habitats in Genyornis newtoni.



These adaptations include features that allowed the bird to protect its ears and throat from water influx when submerged. 



The ability to close off its ears and throat would have been crucial for an animal living in or around water.



These adaptations suggest that Genyornis newtoni was well-suited to life in aquatic environments. The bird's ability to thrive in such habitats indicates a strong ecological connection to freshwater areas.



However, the transition of freshwater bodies in northern South Australia to salt lakes may have played a significant role in the extinction of Genyornis newtoni. 



The loss of suitable freshwater habitats would have made survival increasingly difficult for this species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-understanding-of-genyornis-newtoni">Greater understanding of Genyornis newtoni</h2>



With this new skull, researchers have gained a greater understanding of Genyornis newtoni. They have identified its unique features, including its tall and mobile upper jaw and its strong bite force. 



The skull also provided information about the bird's way of life, such as its diet and habitat preferences.



This discovery offers invaluable insights into the history of these giant birds. Researchers now have a clearer picture of how Genyornis newtoni lived and interacted with its environment.



Additionally, this finding helps explain the factors that led to the species' eventual disappearance from the Australian landscape.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2024.2308212" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Prehistoric 'giga-goose' bird recently discovered was a true giant

After 128 years of exploration and fossil excavation, researchers have...

Fossils discovered on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe have unveiled a new dinosaur species, Musankwa sanyatiensis.



This discovery marks only the fourth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-tyrannosaurus-mcraeensis-discovered-in-new-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur species</a> named from Zimbabwe, with research published in Acta Palaeontologica Polonica.



This discovery, led by Prof. Paul Barrett from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> in London, is significant as it is the first dinosaur named from the Mid-Zambezi Basin of northern Zimbabwe in over 50 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-zimbabwean-dinosaurs">History of Zimbabwean dinosaurs</h2>



Musankwa sanyatiensis is only the fourth dinosaur named from Zimbabwe, following Syntarsus rhodesiensis (1969), Vulcanodon karibaensis (1972), and Mbiresaurus raathi (2022).



The new specimen's rocks date back to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-oldest-known-dinosaur-recently-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Triassic period</a>, around 210 million years ago. The dinosaur is represented by a single hind leg, including the thigh, shin, and ankle bones.



"Despite the limited fossil material, these bones possess unique features that distinguish them from those of other dinosaurs living at the same time," says Dr. Kimberley "Kimi" Chapelle, assistant professor at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> and an honorary associate at Wits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musankwa-sanyatiensis-and-its-relatives">Musankwa sanyatiensis and its relatives</h2>



The dinosaur was named after the houseboat "Musankwa," which means "boy close to marriage" in the Tonga dialect. 



This vessel served as the research team's home and mobile laboratory during two field expeditions to Lake Kariba in 2017 and 2018, thanks to David and Julie Glynn and their crew -- Coster Katupu, Godfrey Swalika, Simbarashe Mangoroma, and Never Mapira.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_leg-bones_zimbabwe_Paul-Barrett_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_leg-bones_zimbabwe_Paul-Barrett_1s.jpg" alt="Musankwa sanyatiensis leg bones discovered in Zimbabwe. Credit: Paul Barrett" class="wp-image-1936546"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Musankwa sanyatiensis leg bones discovered in Zimbabwe. Credit: Paul Barrett</figcaption></figure>



Evolutionary analysis shows that Musankwa sanyatiensis was a member of the Sauropodomorpha, a group of bipedal, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-necked-reptiles-tanystropheus-were-easily-decapitated-by-dinosaur-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-necked dinosaurs</a>.



It appears to be closely related to contemporaries in South Africa and Argentina. Weighing around 390 kg, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isle-of-wight-fossils-suggest-that-europe-had-unique-plant-eating-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-eating dinosaur</a> was one of the larger dinosaurs of its era.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-s-dinosaur-discovery-history">Africa's dinosaur discovery history</h2>



Africa has a significant history of dinosaur discoveries. This history began with the first dinosaur found in the southern hemisphere in South Africa. 



This discovery happened just three years after Sir Richard Owen introduced the term "dinosaur" in 1842. Since then, Africa has continued to yield important dinosaur fossils, contributing to our understanding of prehistoric life on the continent. 



The discoveries from Africa include many species that help scientists learn more about dinosaur diversity and evolution.



However, most known dinosaur fossils come from just ten countries, primarily in the northern hemisphere, leading to a sparse representation of African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-highlight-dinosaur-diversity-in-prehistoric-patagonia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur diversity</a>.



"The main reason for the underrepresentation of African dinosaur fossils is 'undersampling,'" says Barrett. "There have been fewer people looking for and unearthing dinosaurs compared to other regions of the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-zimbabwe-s-fossil-record">Importance of Zimbabwe's fossil record</h2>



Despite fewer discoveries in Africa, many fossils are historically and scientifically significant, including some of the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> like Nyasasaurus parringtoni from Tanzania and Mbiresaurus raathi from Zimbabwe.



The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic sediments of Zimbabwe are vital for studying the End-Triassic extinction event. This event occurred around 200 million years ago and significantly altered the diversity of life on Earth. 



By examining these sediments, scientists can gain insights into the environmental changes and biological impacts that occurred during this period. 



Understanding these changes helps researchers reconstruct the history of life on Earth and the factors that led to the mass extinction and subsequent evolution of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musankwa-sanyatiensis-paleontological-potential">Musankwa sanyatiensis paleontological potential</h2>



This new species highlights the untapped potential of Zimbabwe for further paleontological discoveries. 



"Over the last six years, many new fossil sites have been recorded in Zimbabwe, yielding a diverse array of prehistoric animals, including the first sub-Saharan mainland African phytosaurs, metoposaurid amphibians, lungfish, and other reptile remains," Barrett elaborates.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_zimbabwe_illustration_Atashni-Moopen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/dinosaur_musankwa-sanyatiensis_zimbabwe_illustration_Atashni-Moopen_1s.jpg" alt="Illustration of Musankwa sanyatiensis. Credit: Atashni Moopen" class="wp-image-1936548"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of Musankwa sanyatiensis. Credit: Atashni Moopen</figcaption></figure>



As more fossil sites are explored, there is hope for uncovering further significant finds that will shed light on the early evolution of dinosaurs and their ecosystems. 



"Based on where it sits on the dinosaur family tree, Musankwa sanyatiensis is the first dinosaur of its kind from Zimbabwe," Dr. Chapelle explains. "It highlights the potential of the region for further paleontological discoveries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-by-international-scientists">Collaborative effort by international scientists</h2>



An international team from the University of the Witwatersrand (<a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wits</a>) in South Africa, the Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe, and <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> in New York, led by Prof. Paul Barrett from the Natural History Museum in London, conducted the study.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app011002023.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</a>.



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New dinosaur species is named Musankwa sanyatiensis

Fossils discovered on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe...

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death globally, responsible for approximately one in three deaths. There were over 20 million CVD fatalities reported in 2021, according to a 2024 World Heart Federation report.



Despite significant advancements in heart disease prevention, treatment, and intervention, climate change threatens to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reverse these gains</a>.



NASA confirms that the average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/">global temperature</a> has risen by more than two degrees Fahrenheit over the last century, resulting in long-term shifts in weather patterns, disturbed ecosystems, and rising sea levels. Alarmingly, the ten hottest years on record have all occurred within the past decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cardiovascular-health">Climate change and cardiovascular health</h2>



A new study conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.bidmc.org/">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center</a> (BIDMC) has delved into the connection between climate change-related environmental stressors and cardiovascular disease. The team systematically reviewed 492 observational studies to explore this critical issue.



The findings reveal a strong association between extreme temperatures, hurricanes, and increased CVD mortality and incidence. 



Vulnerable populations, such as older adults, racial and ethnic minorities, and those from lower-income communities, are disproportionately affected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-environmental-stressors">The impact of environmental stressors</h2>



“Climate change is already affecting our cardiovascular health,” said Dhruv S. Kazi, associate director of the Richard A. and Susan F. Smith Center for Outcomes Research at BIDMC and the study's corresponding author. 



"Exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-related-cardiovascular-deaths-may-double-in-the-coming-decades/">extreme heat</a> can adversely affect heart rate and blood pressure, ozone or wildfire smog can trigger systemic inflammation, and living through a natural disaster can cause psychological distress." 



"Hurricanes and floods may disrupt healthcare delivery through power outages and supply chain disruptions. In the long term, the changing climate is projected to reduce agricultural productivity and the nutritional quality of the food supply, which could also compromise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-cardiovascular-health/">cardiovascular health</a>."



The research team screened nearly 21,000 peer-reviewed studies published between 1970 and 2023. 



These studies evaluated the associations between acute cardiovascular events, CVD mortality, healthcare utilization, and various climate change-related phenomena, including extreme temperatures, wildfires, air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-fuels-cardiovascular-deaths-worldwide/">pollution</a>, ground-level ozone, extreme weather events, sea level rise, salt-water intrusion, and climate-related migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-linked-to-cardiovascular-risks">Extreme weather linked to cardiovascular risks</h2>



Out of the 492 global observational studies included in the review, 182 examined extreme temperature, 210 focused on ground-level ozone effects, 45 investigated wildfire smoke, and 63 studied extreme weather events such as hurricanes, dust storms, and droughts. 



These studies spanned 30 high-income countries, 17 middle-income countries, and one low-income country.



The researchers found that exposure to extreme temperature was strongly linked to increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and mortality, with the impact varying based on temperature and exposure duration. 



Extreme weather events, including tropical storms, hurricanes, floods, and mudslides, were also associated with heightened cardiovascular risk, often lasting months or even years beyond the severe weather event.



One study on Hurricane Sandy, which caused nearly $20 billion in damage in New York City alone in 2012, showed that the risk of death from cardiovascular disease remained elevated for up to 12 months after the storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-knowledge-gaps">Addressing knowledge gaps </h2>



The researchers also identified significant gaps in knowledge regarding the impact of climate change on cardiovascular risk in lower-income nations.



Only one study was conducted in a low-income country, and just five were based in Africa, where climate change is expected to have disproportionate effects. 



“Though data on outcomes in low-income countries are lacking, our study shows that several environmental stressors already increasing in frequency and intensity with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">climate change</a> are linked with increased cardiovascular risk,” noted senior author Dr. Mary B. Rice, a pulmonary and critical care physician at BIDMC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recommendations-for-health-systems">Recommendations for health systems</h2>



These findings suggest that clinicians should be aware of climate-related cardiovascular risk in their community, whether related to extreme temperatures, wildfire smoke, or extreme weather events.



For instance, in areas prone to hurricanes or flooding, clinicians should help patients develop contingency plans to ensure uninterrupted access to medications and healthcare as needed. 



Health systems should also evaluate the resilience of their infrastructure to climate change.



“Climate change is already adversely affecting cardiovascular health in the U.S. and worldwide,” the researchers concluded. “Urgent action is needed to mitigate climate change-related cardiovascular risk, particularly among our most vulnerable populations.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamacardiology/article-abstract/2820068">JAMA Cardiology</a>.



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Climate change worsens cardiovascular health risks

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death globally,...

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill our lives with giggles, cuddles, and the occasional diaper explosion. But did you know that the baby formula or breast milk they eat in their early months could shape their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-diets-of-infants-provide-the-building-blocks-of-human-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a> for years to come?



Scientists from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> are making exciting strides in ensuring all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> get the best nutrition possible through options such as baby formula, even if they aren't exclusively breastfed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-milk-vs-formula-for-babies">Breast milk vs. formula for babies</h2>



Breast milk, nature's own superfood for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-in-an-infant-gut-have-their-unique-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a>, is packed with a unique blend of around 200 prebiotic sugar molecules. 



These sugars aren't just for sweetness; they play a crucial role in preventing disease and nurturing the growth of beneficial gut bacteria in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>.



But here's the catch: replicating this complex cocktail of sugars in commercial infant formula has been a challenge. 



While formula provides essential nutrients, it hasn't been able to match the full nutritional punch of breast milk. This is where the exciting world of plant engineering comes in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-plants-in-baby-formula">Power of plants in baby formula</h2>



Plants are like nature's very own sugar factories. They harness sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce a vast array of sugars, both simple and complex. 



So, a team of brilliant scientists thought, "Why not reprogram these sugar-making machines to produce the same sugars found in human breast milk?"



And that's precisely what they did.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-the-baby-formula-solution">Engineering the baby formula solution</h2>



In a recent study, researchers genetically modified plants to create human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), the special sugars found in breast milk. 



The scientists tweaked the plants' genes to produce the enzymes responsible for creating the specific linkages that make HMOs unique.



The result? Genetically modified Nicotiana benthamiana plants, close relatives of tobacco, started churning out 11 known HMOs along with a variety of other complex sugars similar to those found in breast milk.



"We made all three major groups of human milk oligosaccharides. To my knowledge, no one has ever demonstrated that you could make all three of these groups simultaneously in a single organism," explains Patrick Shih, the study's senior author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boon-for-babies-and-beyond">Boon for babies and beyond</h2>



This breakthrough isn't just about baby formula. The implications are far-reaching. Imagine healthier, more affordable formula for babies worldwide, or nutrient-packed non-dairy plant milk for adults. The possibilities are truly exciting.



Collin Barnum, the study's first author, emphasizes the significance of producing a specific HMO called LNFP1. 



"LNFP1 is a five-monosaccharide-long human milk oligosaccharide that is supposed to be really beneficial, but so far cannot be made at scale using traditional methods of microbial fermentation," Barnum notes.



"We thought that if we could start making these larger, more complex human milk oligosaccharides, we could solve a problem that that industry currently can’t solve."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-plants-to-plates">From plants to plates</h2>



Although engineered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E. coli bacteria</a> have been utilized to produce certain HMOs, the extraction and purification process is complex and costly.



This is due to the bacteria producing not only the desired HMOs but also potentially harmful byproducts. Separating these byproducts from the HMOs requires intricate procedures, increasing production expenses.



In contrast, plant-based production systems offer a potentially more efficient and cost-effective approach. By utilizing plants as biofactories for HMOs, the purification process may be simpler, as plants typically do not generate the same toxic byproducts as bacteria. 



This could streamline the extraction of HMOs, reducing costs associated with purification and making them more accessible for wider use.



"Imagine being able to make all the human milk oligosaccharides in a single plant. Then you could just grind up that plant, extract all the oligosaccharides simultaneously and add that directly into infant formula," notes Shih.



Of course, there are challenges to overcome before this becomes a reality, but the potential benefits are undeniable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-future-ahead-for-nutrition">Sweet future ahead for nutrition</h2>



The science of engineering plants to produce human milk sugars is still in its early stages, but the progress made so far is nothing short of remarkable. 



It's a testament to human ingenuity and our unwavering commitment to providing the best possible start for our little ones.



So, the next time you see a baby formula aisle, remember that the future of infant nutrition might just be growing in a field, not fermenting in a lab. And that's a sweet thought indeed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00996-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Engineered plants make baby formula as healthy as breast milk

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill...

An international team of planetary scientists has recently discovered patches of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> frost atop the Tharsis volcanoes on Mars. These volcanoes are not only the tallest on Mars but in the entire solar system.&nbsp;



This is the first time frost has been observed near Mars' equator, challenging existing views of the planet's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remnants-of-an-ancient-climate-cycle-nbsp">Remnants of an ancient climate cycle&nbsp;</h2>



“We thought it was improbable for frost to form around Mars’ equator, as the mix of sunshine and thin atmosphere keeps temperatures during the day relatively high at both the surface and mountaintop -- unlike what we see on Earth, where you might expect to see frosty peaks,” said lead author Adomas Valantinas, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> who led the work as a PhD student at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>. 



“What we're seeing may be a remnant of an ancient climate cycle on modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, where you had precipitation and maybe even snowfall on these volcanoes in the past.”



The study revealed that this frost is present only for a few hours after sunrise before evaporating in the sunlight. It is incredibly thin, likely about one-hundredth of a millimeter thick, roughly the width of a human hair.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-frost-on-tharsis-volcanoes">Water frost on Tharsis volcanoes</h2>



Despite its thinness, the frost covers a significant area. Researchers estimate that at least 150,000 tons of water cycles between the surface and atmosphere daily during the cold seasons, equivalent to about 60 Olympic-size swimming pools.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_NASA_2big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_NASA_2s.jpg" alt="Water frost found on Mars' volcano Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA" class="wp-image-1936526"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Water frost found on Mars' volcano Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA</figcaption></figure>



The Tharsis region, where the frost was found, contains numerous towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noctis-volcano-buried-glacier-discovered-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a>, some of which are one to two times the height of Earth's Mount Everest. Olympus Mons, for example, is as wide as France.&nbsp;



The frost is located in the calderas of these volcanoes, large hollows at their summits formed during past eruptions. The team suggests that air circulation above these mountains creates a unique microclimate allowing the frost to form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-frost-on-mars">Significance of frost on Mars</h2>



Modeling the formation of these frosts could help scientists uncover more of Mars' secrets, including the distribution and movement of water and the planet's complex atmospheric dynamics. 



This is crucial for future exploration and the search for potential signs of life.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_perspective-view_NASA_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-water-frost_olympus-mons_perspective-view_NASA_2s.jpg" alt="Perspective view of water frost on Mars' Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA" class="wp-image-1936528"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Perspective view of water frost on Mars' Olympus Mons. Credit: ESA/NASA</figcaption></figure>



The frost was detected using high-resolution color images from the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) onboard the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>’s Trace Gas Orbiter.&nbsp;



The findings were validated with observations from the High Resolution Stereo Camera on the ESA’s Mars Express orbiter and the Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery spectrometer on the Trace Gas Orbiter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-signatures-of-frost-on-mars">Tracing the signatures of frost on Mars</h2>



The researchers analyzed over 30,000 images to initially find and then confirm the frost. Valantinas filtered the images based on their location, time of day, and season to isolate spectral signatures indicative of water frost and identify where it formed on Mars' surface.



“This notion of a second genesis, of life beyond Earth, has always fascinated me,” said Valantinas, who began analyzing the images in 2018. 



As he transitions to his role at Brown, Valantinas plans to continue exploring Martian mysteries, pivoting towards astrobiology. 



Working with Brown planetary scientist Jack Mustard, he aims to characterize ancient hydrothermal environments that could have supported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-experiment-life-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life</a>. 



Samples from these environments might be returned to Earth by the NASA-led Mars Sample Return mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-on-mars">Signs of life on Mars</h2>



Signs of life on Mars have been a subject of intense scientific investigation. Researchers have been particularly interested in the presence of water, as it's a crucial ingredient for life.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-water">Liquid water</h3>



Mars rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance have found evidence of ancient riverbeds, lake beds, and mineral deposits that typically form in water, suggesting that Mars once had liquid water on its surface.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-molecules-nbsp">Organic molecules&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, organic molecules, which are the building blocks of life, have been detected in Martian soil samples.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane">Methane</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methane detection</a> has also piqued interest because on Earth, methane is predominantly produced by biological processes. However, methane can also be generated by geological processes, so its presence alone does not confirm life.&nbsp;



The seasonal fluctuations of methane observed by the Curiosity rover suggest that the gas may be produced and destroyed through unknown processes.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions">Future missions</h3>



Despite these promising signs, no definitive evidence of current or past life on Mars has been found yet. Future missions aim to bring back samples to Earth for detailed analysis, which may provide clearer answers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01457-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



Image Credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin



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Huge amount of water frost "unexpectedly" found on Mars' volcanoes

An international team of planetary scientists has recently discovered patches...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-reveal-alarming-effects-of-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gray whales</a> that spend their summers feeding off the Pacific Northwest coast have significantly decreased in body length since around 2000, according to a new study led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> (OSU). This reduction in size could have serious implications for the health and reproductive success of the gray whales and raises concerns about the state of the ecosystem. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-warning-sign-of-population-decline">Early warning sign of population decline</h2>



“This could be an early warning sign that the abundance of this population is starting to decline, or is not healthy,” said co-author K.C. Bierlich, an assistant professor at OSU’s Marine Mammal Institute in Newport. 



“And whales are considered ecosystem sentinels, so if the whale population isn’t doing well, that might say a lot about the environment itself.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-coast-feeding-group">Pacific Coast Feeding Group</h2>



The experts focused on the Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG), a small subset of about 200 gray whales from the larger Eastern North Pacific (ENP) population of around 14,500.&nbsp;



Unlike the majority that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrate</a> to the Arctic, this subgroup stays closer to shore along the Oregon coast, feeding in warmer, shallower waters. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-whales-with-worse-body-condition-nbsp">Smaller whales with worse body condition&nbsp;</h2>



Recent OSU studies have shown these whales are smaller and in worse body condition than their ENP counterparts, with the current study revealing a further decline in size over recent decades.



The <a href="https://mmi.oregonstate.edu/gemm-lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Institute’s Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna (GEMM) Lab</a> has been studying this subgroup since 2016, utilizing drones to measure their size. 



Analyzing images from 2016-2022 of 130 individual whales, researchers determined that a gray whale born in 2020 is expected to be 1.65 meters shorter as an adult than one born before 2000. This accounts for a reduction of over 13% of their total length, significant for whales that grow to be 38-41 feet long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-smaller-size-affect-whales">How does smaller size affect whales?</h2>



“In general, size is critical for animals,” said lead author Enrico Pirotta, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a> in Scotland. “It affects their behavior, their physiology, their life history, and it has cascading effects for the animals and for the community they’re a part of.”



Smaller whale calves may struggle with survival post-weaning, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-right-whales-are-getting-shorter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smaller adult whales</a> face reproductive challenges. 



“With them being smaller, there are questions of how effectively these PCFG gray whales can store and allocate energy toward growing and maintaining their health. Importantly, are they able to put enough energy toward reproduction and keep the population growing?” Bierlich said.



Researchers are also concerned about the impact of scarring from boat strikes and fishing gear entanglement, which could be exacerbated by the whales’ smaller size and lower energy reserves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gray-whale-size-and-ocean-cycles">Gray whale size and ocean cycles</h2>



The study also investigated ocean environmental patterns that regulate food availability for these whales, focusing on cycles of “upwelling” and “relaxation” in the ocean. Upwelling brings <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a> to shallower waters, while relaxation periods keep these nutrients in the light-rich areas for plankton growth, which is essential for the whales' prey.



“Without a balance between upwelling and relaxation, the ecosystem may not be able to produce enough prey to support the large size of these gray whales,” said co-author Leigh Torres, the&nbsp; director of the GEMM Lab at OSU.



The decline in whale size coincided with changes in these ocean cycles. “We haven’t looked specifically at how climate change is affecting these patterns, but in general, we know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-the-southern-ocean-are-losing-weight-due-to-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is affecting the oceanography of the Northeast Pacific through changes in wind patterns and water temperature,” Pirotta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



With the knowledge that PCFG gray whales' body size is decreasing, researchers are now probing the potential downstream consequences and contributing factors.&nbsp;



“We’re heading into our ninth field season studying this PCFG subgroup. This is a powerful dataset that allows us to detect changes in body condition each year, so now we’re examining the environmental drivers of those changes,” Bierlich concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17366" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Gray whales in the North Pacific are shrinking in size

Gray whales that spend their summers feeding off the Pacific...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> has reported significant advancements in reducing atmospheric levels of ozone-depleting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/use-of-banned-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-increasing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a>, confirming the success of historic regulations. 



Particularly, the experts found a notable decline in hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which are both harmful to the ozone layer and potent greenhouse gasses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limiting-the-use-of-ozone-depleting-chemicals-nbsp">Limiting the use of ozone-depleting chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



The Montreal Protocol, established in 1987, played a critical role by limiting the production and use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Initially, HCFCs were introduced as replacements for the more harmful chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).&nbsp;



While the global production of CFCs has been banned since 2010, HCFCs are currently being phased out, with a target completion date of 2040.



“The results are very encouraging,” said lead author Luke Western, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Bristol’s School of Chemistry. “They underscore the great importance of establishing and sticking to international protocols.”&nbsp;



“Without the Montreal Protocol, this success would not have been possible, so it’s a resounding endorsement of multilateral commitments to combat stratospheric ozone depletion, with additional benefits in tackling human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humanity-should-brace-for-catastrophic-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopting-ozone-friendly-alternatives-nbsp">Adopting ozone-friendly alternatives&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that the total amount of ozone-depleting chlorine in all HCFCs peaked in 2021. This peak also marked the highest contribution of HCFCs to climate change, occurring five years earlier than predicted. Although the decrease in HCFC emissions between 2021 and 2023 was less than 1%, it indicates a positive trend.



“Their production is currently being phased out globally, with a completion date slated for 2040. In turn, these HCFCs are being replaced by non-ozone-depleting hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds. By enforcing strict controls and promoting the adoption of ozone-friendly alternatives, the protocol has successfully curbed the release and levels of HCFCs into the atmosphere,” Western explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-planet-for-future-generations">Protecting the planet for future generations </h2>



The study relied on high-precision measurements from globally distributed atmospheric observatories, using data from the <a href="https://agage.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment</a> (AGAGE) and the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration</a> (NOAA). 



“We use highly sensitive measurement techniques and thorough protocols to ensure the reliability of these observations,” said co-author Martin Vollmer, an atmospheric scientist at the <a href="https://www.empa.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology</a> (EMPA).



“This study highlights the critical need to be vigilant and proactive in our environmental monitoring, ensuring other controlled ozone-depleting and greenhouse gases follow a similar trend which will help to protect the planet for future generations,” said Isaac Vimont, a research fellow at NOAA.



Overall, the findings offer a hopeful outlook on the effectiveness of global protocols in reducing harmful emissions and addressing both ozone depletion and climate change. Continued vigilance and adherence to these protocols are necessary to ensure the full recovery of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-particles-erode-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone layer</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-ozone-depletion">What is ozone depletion?</h2>



Ozone depletion refers to the gradual thinning of the Earth's ozone layer in the stratosphere. This phenomenon is primarily caused by the release of ozone-depleting chemicals containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industrial and consumer products. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors">Contributing factors</h3>



The most significant contributors are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other related substances.&nbsp;



When these chemicals are released into the atmosphere, they eventually reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cfcs-are-not-the-only-culprit-bushfire-smoke-may-also-destroy-ozone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratosphere</a>, where ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms. 



These atoms then react with ozone (O3) molecules, causing the ozone to break apart into oxygen molecules (O2) and single oxygen atoms, thus depleting the ozone layer.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-ozone-depletion">Impacts of ozone depletion</h3>



The depletion of the ozone layer has significant environmental and health impacts.&nbsp;



A thinner ozone layer allows more harmful UV-B radiation to reach the Earth's surface, which can lead to an increase in skin cancers, cataracts, and other health issues.&nbsp;



It also affects ecosystems, particularly marine life, as increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV radiation</a> can harm phytoplankton, the base of the marine food web.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02038-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Decline in ozone-depleting chemicals is an encouraging trend 

A new study led by the University of Bristol has...

A yellow haze of sulfur dioxide, a surprising discovery in the atmosphere of the exoplanet GJ 3470 b, has captivated astronomers and may hold crucial clues to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets are formed</a>. 



This gas dwarf exoplanet, half the size of Neptune and ten times the mass of Earth, orbits a star 96 light-years away in the constellation Cancer.



GJ 3470 b is a peculiar world. According to the researchers, the planet’s orbit around its star takes it nearly over the star’s poles. In other words, GJ 3470 b is orbiting at a 90-degree angle to the expected path of planets in the system.&nbsp;



Furthermore, it's unusually close to its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>, leading to the loss of a significant portion of its atmosphere – approximately 40% since its formation. 



This unique orbit and substantial atmospheric loss suggest a turbulent past, potentially involving gravitational interactions with another planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-planets-are-made">How planets are made</h2>



Exoplanets, which are planets located beyond our solar system, provide astronomers with invaluable opportunities to investigate the diverse mechanisms through which planets form and evolve.



By studying the light emitted from a star as it passes through an exoplanet's atmosphere during transit events, scientists can obtain a spectrum - a unique fingerprint of the light's intensity at different wavelengths.



The spectrum contains absorption or emission lines corresponding to specific elements and molecules present in the exoplanet's atmosphere.



Through careful analysis of these spectral features, astronomers can identify the chemical composition of the atmosphere, including the presence of gases like water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and even exotic compounds like sulfur dioxide.



These analyses offer crucial insights into the physical and chemical processes that govern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-finds-largest-amount-of-carbon-ever-seen-in-a-planet-forming-disk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a> and atmospheric evolution, ultimately contributing to our understanding of the diversity of worlds that exist beyond our solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-dioxide-on-a-small-exoplanet">Sulfur dioxide on a small exoplanet</h2>



GJ 3470 b is the lightest and coldest exoplanet found to harbor sulfur dioxide. The presence of this compound suggests active chemical reactions in the planet's atmosphere, likely triggered by radiation from its nearby star. 



"We didn't think we'd see sulfur dioxide on planets this small, and it's exciting to see this new molecule in a place we didn't expect, since it gives us a new way to figure out how these planets formed," said Professor Thomas Beatty of the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>.



"Discovering sulfur dioxide in a planet as small as GJ 3470 b gives us one more important item on the planet formation ingredient list."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-window-into-planet-formation">New window into planet formation </h2>



Professor Beatty compared the process of understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-of-water-vapor-may-be-involved-in-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a> to unraveling a cake recipe. "Laid out on our table, we have all the ingredients that go into a cake, and we have a finished cake. Now, can we figure out the recipe - the steps that turned the raw materials into the end product - by measuring what's in the cake?"



GJ 3470 b's unusual orbit and atmospheric loss offer clues to the "recipe" for its formation. 



The planet's migration history and mass loss are significant factors that astronomers don't typically know about other exoplanets. 



These unique characteristics provide a new window into the complex processes involved in planet formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-exoplanet-research">Future of exoplanet research</h2>



The study of GJ 3470 b is just one piece of the puzzle in understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-butterfly-iras-23077-discovery-flips-planet-formation-understanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets are formed</a>. 



With further analysis of its atmospheric composition and collaboration with experts in proto-planetary disks and migration dynamics, astronomers hope to gain a deeper understanding of how planets like GJ 3470 b came to be.



The <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> and other advanced telescopes will continue to play a crucial role in this research, allowing astronomers to probe the atmospheres of exoplanets in unprecedented detail. 



The discovery of sulfur dioxide on GJ 3470 b has opened a new chapter in the study of planet formation. This surprising finding, coupled with the planet's unique characteristics, provides valuable clues to the complex processes that give rise to planets.



As we learn more about the diverse range of exoplanets, we will gain a clearer picture of the intricate processes and ingredients like sulfur dioxide that shape worlds throughout the universe.



The research was presented at the&nbsp;<a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">244th meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a>&nbsp;and will soon be published in Astrophysical Journal Letters.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Sulfur-exoplanet.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Image Credit: University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>



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Essential ingredient in the "recipe of life" found in exoplanet formation

A yellow haze of sulfur dioxide, a surprising discovery in...

In the vast cosmic ballet, where stars are born, live, and die, an intriguing chapter unfolds in the fading embers of white dwarfs. These stellar remnants, having exhausted their nuclear fuel, may hold a surprising secret: the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-could-reside-in-dyson-spheres-across-1000-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life-bearing planets</a>. 



But how could planets survive the tumultuous death throes of their parent star, and what makes them such promising targets in the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-levels-on-distant-planets-reveal-presence-of-alien-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-dwarfs">White dwarfs</h2>



White dwarfs are the remnants of stars that have exhausted their nuclear fuel. When stars like our sun run out of hydrogen to fuse into helium, they undergo a series of transformations. 



Initially, they expand into red giants, shedding their outer layers. The core that remains collapses into a very small, dense object about the size of Earth but with a mass comparable to the sun. This is a white dwarf.



White dwarfs no longer undergo fusion reactions and instead, slowly cool over billions of years. Despite their small size, they are incredibly dense, with one teaspoon of white dwarf material weighing tons. They emit a faint, steady light due to residual thermal energy but do not generate new energy. 



These characteristics make white dwarfs intriguing objects for studying the potential for life on surrounding exoplanets, as their stable luminosity and small size provide a clear backdrop for observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-death-and-rebirth">Death and rebirth</h2>



As a star like our Sun nears the end of its life, it undergoes a dramatic transformation. It swells into a red giant, engulfing any close-orbiting planets. Then, it expels its outer layers, leaving behind a dense, white-hot core –- the white dwarf.



Juliette Becker, an astronomy professor at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>, likens this process to a fiery trial by ordeal. 



"There are two pulses," she says, "during which the star grows to 100 times its normal radius. While it does that -- we can call this part Destruction Phase No. 1 -- it will engulf any planets that are within that radius," notes Becker.



Even if a planet escapes this initial onslaught, it faces another danger: the star's dramatic increase in brightness. 



"The fact that the star gets so much brighter means that all planets in the system, even ones that used to be cold in the outer solar system, will suddenly have their surface temperatures increase drastically," Becker explains. 



This intense heat could vaporize any existing oceans, leaving the planet barren and lifeless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-refuge-in-the-outer-reaches">Finding refuge in the outer reaches</h2>



So, how could a water-rich planet possibly survive this cosmic inferno? The key, according to Becker's research, lies in distance. 



A planet orbiting at least 5 to 6 astronomical units (AU) away from its dying star -- about the distance of Jupiter from our Sun -- might just stand a chance.



At this distance, the planet could potentially retain enough water to support life, even after enduring the star's expansion and intense radiation. 



But there's a catch: as the white dwarf cools and shrinks, the habitable zone -- the region where liquid water can exist -- moves inward. 



This means the planet, once safely distant, would now be too far from the star to maintain a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-alien-life-searching-for-color-purple-not-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life-friendly environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tidal-migration">Tidal migration</h2>



Enter tidal migration, a phenomenon that could potentially save the day. "A planet's orbit changing is pretty normal," Becker says. 



"In tidal migration, some dynamical instability between planets in the system puts one of them into a high-eccentricity orbit, like a comet, where it swings in really close to the central body in the system and then far out again."



Over time, these wild orbits can settle down, bringing the planet closer to the white dwarf and potentially placing it within the new habitable zone. 



"If you put all these models together," Becker concludes, "what you see is that it is a perilous journey for the planet and difficult for oceans to survive this process, but it is possible."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-life-on-white-dwarfs">Search for life on white dwarfs</h2>



Why are white dwarfs such appealing targets in the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-telescopes-can-directly-detect-signs-of-alien-life-in-exoplanet-atmospheres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>? For one, their small size and dim light make it easier to detect and study the atmospheres of orbiting planets. 



"White dwarfs are so small and so featureless, that if a terrestrial planet transited in front of them, you could actually do a much better job of characterizing its atmosphere," Becker explains.



This means that if we were to find a planet orbiting a white dwarf, we could potentially determine its atmospheric composition with greater accuracy than ever before. 



This, in turn, could reveal telltale signs of life, such as the presence of oxygen, methane, or other biosignatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



While the prospect of finding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life on planets</a> orbiting white dwarfs is exciting, there's still much work to be done. 



Becker and her colleagues are developing theoretical models to better understand the complex dynamics of these systems and identify the most promising targets for future observations.



As telescopes become more powerful, we may soon be able to peer into the atmospheres of these distant worlds and answer one of humanity's most profound questions: Are we alone in the universe? The ashes of dead stars may yet hold the spark of life, waiting to be discovered.



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Watery planets orbiting white dwarfs hold the key to finding alien life

In the vast cosmic ballet, where stars are born, live,...

When soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-microbes-survive-the-desert-by-sleeping-through-the-dry-spells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> such as bacteria digest plant matter, it can either be used to build their bodies or be respired as carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere.



Understanding these pathways is crucial for predicting the impact of soil bacteria on climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-and-co2">Soil bacteria and CO2</h2>



Soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> play a crucial role in the carbon cycle by breaking down plant matter, a process that significantly influences the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere. 



When plants die, their remains - including leaves, stems, and roots - decompose and become part of the soil. Bacteria in the soil digest this plant material, utilizing it to build their cells or respiring it as CO2.



This microbial respiration is a major source of CO2 emissions from soil, contributing to atmospheric carbon levels. The type of plant matter influences how much CO2 is released. 



For instance, lignin, a complex compound found in woody plant parts, results in higher CO2 emissions when decomposed by bacteria compared to cellulose, which is found in softer plant tissues like leaves and stems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-contribution-to-atmospheric-co2">Soil bacteria contribution to atmospheric CO2 </h2>



A Northwestern University-led research team has, for the first time, tracked how plant waste moves through soil bacteria’s metabolism to contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-ancient-plants-affect-atmospheric-co2-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric CO2</a>.



They found that microbes respire three times more CO2 from lignin carbons (non-sugar aromatic units) compared to cellulose carbons (glucose sugar units).



These findings provide valuable insights into soil carbon cycling and could improve predictions of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil carbon</a> will affect climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-soil-carbon-and-soil-bacteria">Role of soil carbon and soil bacteria</h2>



"The carbon pool stored in soil is about ten times the amount in the atmosphere," said Ludmilla Aristilde, who led the study. "What happens to this reservoir will significantly impact the planet. As temperatures rise, more organic matter will become available in soil, affecting CO2 emissions from microbial activities."



Aristilde, an expert in environmental processes, is an associate professor at Northwestern University's <a href="https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McCormick School of Engineering</a>. The study includes collaborators from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-pathways-different-outcomes">Different pathways, different outcomes</h2>



The goal of this ongoing research is to understand how soil stores or releases carbon. In the past, researchers tracked how individual compounds from plant matter move through soil bacteria.



Aristilde’s team used a mixture of these compounds, mimicking the natural environment. They tagged individual carbon atoms with isotope labels to track their movement through a bacterium’s metabolism.



“Isotope labeling allowed us to track carbon atoms specific to each compound type inside the cell,” Aristilde explained. “By tracking the carbon routes, we captured their paths in the metabolism. Not all pathways are created equally in terms of producing CO2.”



Sugar carbons in cellulose travel through glycolytic and pentose-phosphate pathways, leading to reactions that convert digested matter into DNA and proteins. 



However, aromatic, non-sugar carbons from lignin travel through the tricarboxylic acid cycle, which exists in all forms of life.



“The tricarboxylic acid cycle exists in plants, microbes, animals, and humans,” said Aristilde. "While this cycle also produces precursors for proteins, it contains several reactions that produce CO2. Most of the CO2 that gets respired from metabolism comes from this pathway.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-findings">Expanding the findings</h2>



After tracking metabolism routes, the team performed quantitative analysis to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> production from different types of plant matter.



Soil bacteria and microbes respired three times as much CO2 from lignin carbons compared to cellulose carbons.



“Even though microbes consume these carbons simultaneously, the amount of CO2 generated from each carbon type is disproportionate,” Aristilde said. “That’s because the carbon is processed via two different metabolic pathways.”



In their initial experiments, the researchers used Pseudomonas putida, a common soil bacterium with versatile metabolism. They then studied data from previous experiments and found the same relationship in other soil bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-soil-bacteria-and-co2">A new perspective on soil bacteria and CO2</h2>



“We propose a new metabolism-guided perspective for understanding how different carbon structures accessible to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-soil-microbes-could-revolutionize-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil microbes</a> are processed,” said Aristilde. “This will be key in helping us predict what will happen with the soil carbon cycle in a changing climate.”



The study marks a significant step in understanding soil carbon dynamics and their broader implications for climate change.



The insights could pave the way for more accurate climate models and better-informed environmental policies, highlighting the crucial role of soil bacteria in our rapidly changing world.



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How soil bacteria contribute to atmospheric CO2

When soil microbes such as bacteria digest plant matter, it...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...