Earth, the only known planet to support life, owes much of its habitability to water. Understanding when and how water arrived on Earth is crucial for piecing together the story of life’s origins. 



Scientists have long debated whether water was present from the planet’s formation or if it arrived later through external sources. 



A recent study led by a Rutgers-New Brunswick scientist challenges existing theories, suggesting that water arrived much later than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-cycles-through-plants-with-unexpected-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previously believed</a>.



The findings indicate that Earth received water toward the final stages of its formation. This discovery could reshape scientific understanding of the conditions necessary for life.



By examining isotopes in Earth’s rocks and comparing them with meteorites, researchers have provided new insights into the timing and process of water’s arrival on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-life-s-origins">Timing of life’s origins</h2>



Scientists seek to pinpoint when key <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comets-may-have-delivered-water-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ingredients for life</a> first appeared on Earth. Water, energy, and a mix of organic chemicals known as CHNOPS - carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur - are essential for life to emerge. 



Determining when these components arrived can offer clues about the timing of life’s formation.



Katherine Bermingham is an associate professor in the <a href="https://eps.rutgers.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a> at Rutgers and lead author of the study.



“When water was delivered to the planet is a major unanswered question in planetary science,” said Bermingham. “If we know the answer, we can better constrain when and how life developed.”



Her research suggests that water was not present during the early phases of Earth’s formation, as some theories propose. Instead, the planet acquired it much later through a process known as late accretion, when additional material from space continued to shape Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-the-building-blocks-of-planets">Examining the building blocks of planets</h2>



Bermingham specializes in cosmogeochemistry, a field that examines the chemical composition of planetary materials to understand their origins. 



By analyzing Earth rocks and extraterrestrial materials such as meteorites, she investigates how rocky planets, including Earth, formed and evolved.



In this study, Bermingham’s team used thermal ionization mass spectrometry, a precise method for measuring isotopic compositions. 



They developed a new analytical approach to examine isotopes of molybdenum, an element found in both Earth’s crust and meteorites.



Isotopes are variations of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, which gives them slightly different atomic masses while maintaining identical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical properties</a>.



“The molybdenum isotopic composition of Earth rocks provides us with a special window into events occurring around the time of Earth’s final core formation, when the last 10% to 20% of material was being assembled by the planet. This period is thought to coincide with the Moon’s formation,” explained Bermingham.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-meteorites-and-earth-rocks">Comparing meteorites and Earth rocks</h2>



To track Earth’s early chemical history, the team examined meteorite samples from the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution. Scientists classify meteorites into two main groups based on their place of origin in the solar system.



The first group, known as “CC” meteorites, likely formed in the outer solar system, where conditions were wetter. The second group, “NC” meteorites, originated in the inner solar system, where conditions were much drier. 



This study focused on meteorites from the NC group to compare their chemical composition with Earth rocks.



The researchers analyzed molybdenum isotopes in rocks from Greenland, South Africa, Canada, the United States, and Japan. 



These rocks date back to the time of the Moon’s formation and are believed to contain elements added to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-other-planets-collected-first-water-from-unexpected-source-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> during this period.



By comparing the isotopic signatures of meteorites and Earth rocks, the team sought to determine whether the Moon-forming event delivered a significant amount of water to Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-water-may-have-arrived-late">Earth’s water may have arrived late</h2>



“Once we gathered the different samples and measured their isotopic compositions, we compared the meteorites’ signatures with the rock signatures to see if there was a similarity or a difference,” Bermingham said. “And from there, we drew inferences.”



The analysis revealed that the molybdenum composition of Earth rocks closely matched that of NC meteorites, which originated in the drier inner solar system. 



This finding suggests that Earth’s building blocks primarily came from a region of the solar system where water was scarce.



This contradicts a popular theory that a significant amount of Earth’s water arrived during the Moon-forming event. 



Instead, the study indicates that water was delivered in smaller amounts long after the Moon formed, during the later stages of planetary development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-source-of-earth-s-water">Rethinking the source of Earth’s water</h2>



“We have to figure out from where in our solar system Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-discovery-earths-building-blocks-contained-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks</a> - the dust and the gas - came and around when that happened,” Bermingham said. “That’s the information needed to understand when the stage was set for life to begin.”



If most of Earth’s original material came from the drier inner solar system, then the Moon-forming event was likely not a major contributor of water. Instead, water must have arrived in smaller portions later. 



This conclusion challenges the idea that a single event provided Earth with the majority of its water. 



The study supports the view that water accumulated gradually over time, arriving through a combination of asteroid impacts and other processes occurring well after the planet had taken shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-life-s-early-conditions">Questions about life’s early conditions</h2>



“Our results suggest that the Moon-forming event was not a major supplier of water, unlike what has been thought previously,” Bermingham said. “These findings, however, permit a small amount of water to be added after final core formation, during what is called late accretion.”



This discovery raises new questions about how long it took for Earth to become habitable. If water arrived later than previously thought, then life may have taken longer to emerge. 



This could also have implications for understanding other planets, particularly those that scientists consider candidates for life.



By refining the timeline of Earth’s water history, this study contributes to a broader effort to understand planetary evolution. If water arrived late on Earth, then other planets might have followed a similar pattern. 



This could mean that life-supporting conditions take longer to develop than scientists once assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-the-search-for-earth-s-water">What’s next in the search for Earth’s water?</h2>



The study represents a step forward in unraveling Earth’s past, but it also highlights the many unanswered questions about the origins of water and life. 



Future research will likely focus on refining models of planetary accretion, analyzing additional meteorite samples, and exploring other isotopic markers that could provide further insights.



Other Rutgers contributors to the study include Linda Godfrey, an assistant research professor, and Hope Tornebene, a laboratory researcher in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 



The research continues to push the boundaries of planetary science, bringing us closer to understanding how Earth became a world capable of supporting life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016703724005751?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Water arrived on Earth gradually over time, not in one big event

Earth, the only known planet to support life, owes much of its habitability to water. Understanding when and how water arrived on Earth is crucial for piecing together the story of life’s origins. Scientists have long debated whether water was present from the planet’s formation or if it arrived later through external sources. A recent study led by a Rutgers-New Brunswick scientist challenges existing theories, suggesting that water arrived much later than previously believed. The findings indicate that Earth received water toward the final stages of its...

In 2023, researchers made a remarkable discovery in the Barents Sea: the Borealis mud volcano. This underwater geological wonder quickly captured global attention as images of the marine volcano spread across the world.



Now, a collaborative effort between scientists from <a href="https://en.uit.no" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UiT</a> and REV Ocean has reported findings that highlight the ecological significance of this unique formation. 



According to the research, Borealis serves as a natural haven for numerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a>, and plays a vital role in the biodiversity of the Barents Sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-surface-of-a-mud-volcano">Stable surface of a mud volcano </h2>



The crater floor of Borealis presents a range of environments, with some areas appearing unwelcoming to life. However, the carbonate crusts - mineral formations that are thousands of years old - offer a stable surface for various organisms.



Anemones, serpulids, demosponges, and sparse octocoral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a> have all found a home on these structures. Important for maintaining biodiversity, these carbonates also provide both shelter and feeding opportunities that support local fish populations.



"Sampling and imagery reveal that Borealis supports unique habitats adapted to low-oxygen conditions near methane seeps," noted the researchers.



"Additionally, the irregularly shaped carbonate structures serve as a natural shelter from bottom trawling and a substratum for sessile fauna and may&nbsp;function as nursery grounds for threatened fish species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sanctuary-for-marine-life">A sanctuary for marine life</h2>



During their observations, the researchers noted large groups of commercially valuable fish species gathering around the jagged carbonate formations. These included saithe, spotted wolffish, cod, four-bearded rockling, and redfish (Sebastes spp.).



"The redfish, for instance, is red listed, and we don’t know the consequences if it would disappear," noted Professor Giuliana Panieri, the lead author of the study.



"Borealis is an oasis where different species can thrive and flourish. Thus, preserving ecosystems such as the Borealis&nbsp;mud volcano is essential for maintaining biodiversity and understanding the interactions between geology, geochemistry, and biology in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-have-spillover-benefits-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine environments</a>." 



Panieri also highlighted the broader implications of this work, particularly in light of ongoing oil and gas extraction activities and the emerging deep-sea mining industry in the Arctic. 



Understanding these ecosystems is critical for sustainable management of the region's resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-insights-from-borealis">Geological insights from Borealis</h2>



In May 2024, aboard the research vessel Kronprins Haakon, scientists revisited the site using the remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Aurora. The investigation confirmed earlier findings and revealed new details about the volcano’s characteristics.



For instance, the surroundings of Borealis are warmed to 11.5 degrees Celsius (53 degrees Fahrenheit), which is significantly higher than the typical seabed temperature of around 4 degrees Celsius (39 degrees Fahrenheit).



The team also discovered sediments containing extinct microscopic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine organisms</a> dating back up to 2.5 million years. 



Additionally, small "mud cones" within the volcanic system were found to emit methane-rich fluids. Extensive carbonate deposits around the volcano suggest that methane has been leaking out for thousands of years.



"The Borealis mud volcano is a unique geological and ecological phenomenon that provides a rare insight into the complex interactions between geological processes and marine ecosystems," said Panieri.



"It is important to preserve these unique habitats, which play a crucial role in maintaining marine biodiversity." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-marine-ecosystems">Protecting marine ecosystems </h2>



Professor Panieri emphasized Norway’s commitment to the 30x30 target, which aims to protect 30% of land and sea by 2030.



This initiative includes safeguarding marine ecosystems, even in the deep sea. Protecting large areas of the deep-sea floor along the Norwegian margin could help create refuges that support the restoration of benthic biological communities.



"The new findings show the power of international cooperation and how such cooperation can contribute to increasing our understanding of the world's oceans," said Panieri.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mud-volcano-shaping-marine-ecosystems">Mud volcano shaping marine ecosystems</h2>



The Borealis mud volcano stands as a remarkable example of how geological features can shape marine ecosystems.



Its unique environment not only supports diverse marine life but also offers insights into the intricate connections between geology and biology. As humanity continues to explore and utilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean resources</a>, protecting such sites becomes increasingly important. 



The research was a collaborative effort involving scientists from multiple institutions, including <a href="https://www.revocean.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">REV Ocean</a>, The Nippon Foundation-Nekton <a href="https://oceancensus.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Census</a>, and the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole </a>Oceanographic Institution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55712-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Underwater mud volcano harbors marine life in the Arctic

In 2023, researchers made a remarkable discovery in the Barents...

The ocean is a vast and mysterious world, teeming with life that often remains hidden from human eyes. Occasionally, however, nature reveals its secrets in breathtaking ways. 



This was recently the case in Carmel Bay off the central coast of California, where hundreds of dolphins were seen leaping and gliding together. 



Drone footage captured across the bay reveals a miles-long cluster of dolphins, forming what experts call a "super pod" of more than 1,500 animals. 



These weren’t just any dolphins - they were Risso’s dolphins, a species known for their stocky bodies, bulbous heads, and preference for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-dolphin-in-the-baltic-sea-is-constantly-talking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smaller groups</a>.



Typically traveling in pods of 10 to 30, their sudden appearance in such large numbers was an unusual and captivating sight, drawing attention from scientists and enthusiasts alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-create-a-super-pod">Dolphins create a super pod</h2>



Captain Evan Brodsky with the <a href="https://montereybaywhalewatch.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monterey Bay Whale Watch</a> was among those fortunate enough to witness the spectacle. He captured the drone footage of the event, which took place on a Friday morning.



"They were on the horizon I feel like as far as I could see," he said. The sheer scale of the gathering was overwhelming, even for someone accustomed to observing marine life.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="7SSuI0ftF5-4296162-12187" type="single"]</div>



Brodsky and his team had set out that day in search of gray whales, but their plans were quickly overshadowed by the unexpected arrival of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fentanyl-discovered-in-dolphins-what-it-means-for-marine-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>. From their 20-foot inflatable boat, they watched mesmerized as the dolphins jumped out of the water with fluid and graceful movements.



These creatures, which can weigh up to 1,100 pounds and grow as long as 13 feet, seemed to be putting on a show, peeking around as they leaped into the air. Their playful behavior added to the spectacle of the dolphin super pod, creating a scene that felt almost otherworldly in its beauty and energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-at-play-a-celebration-of-life">Dolphins at play: A celebration of life</h2>



Colleen Talty, a marine biologist who joined the trip to track the annual migration of gray whales, described the scene as "pretty amazing."



She was particularly struck by the sheer number of dolphins cavorting all around their boat. Some of them swam at the front of the vessel, using the waves created by its movement to propel themselves forward - a behavior known as bow riding.



"They were just having a great time. So they were breaching everywhere... tail slapping, coming right over to the boat. They looked like they were having a big party," said Talty.



The mix of adult and juvenile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-dolphin-breath/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> suggested that several smaller pods had come together, likely traveling south. While such large gatherings have been observed before, they are not common - making this sighting even more remarkable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-the-monterey-coastline">Features of the Monterey coastline</h2>



The Monterey coastline played a significant role in making this encounter possible. Its unique underwater features, including a deep submarine canyon, create conditions that allow dolphins to swim much closer to shore than they might elsewhere along the California coast. 



According to Talty, this makes the area particularly ideal for spotting these marine mammals.



The team initially underestimated the size of the super pod, believing it consisted of only several hundred dolphins. It wasn’t until they launched the drone that the true scale became apparent. 



"Once we put the drone up, I was just blown away. I kept saying, 'Look at my screen. Look at my screen. Look how many there are,'" noted Brodsky. "It just blows my mind every time. It never gets old."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playful-dolphins-in-the-super-pod">Playful dolphins in the super pod </h2>



One of the most memorable moments of the day came when Talty stood at the front of the boat and noticed dolphins turning on their sides to look directly at her. 



These curious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pebanista-yacuruna-giant-dolphin-species-discovered-peru-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> seemed as interested in the humans as the humans were in them. Their playful behavior and apparent curiosity created a sense of connection between the two species - a reminder of the shared bond between all living beings.



As the dolphins continued to interact with the boat, the team made sure to drive carefully, avoiding any sudden movements that might harm the animals. 



"You don't want to make any abrasive maneuvers and potentially injure an animal. That's of course the last thing you ever want to do," Brodsky said. 



Instead, the team cruised alongside the dolphins, savoring the moment. "It was an incredible experience," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-grand-performance">Nature’s grand performance</h2>



This remarkable encounter with a dolphin super pod serves as a powerful reminder of the wonders of the natural world. For those lucky enough to witness such an event, it’s an experience that will stay with them forever.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>’ playful antics and the sheer scale of their gathering highlighted the beauty and complexity of marine life, leaving an indelible mark on everyone present.



Moments like these also emphasize the importance of preserving the ocean and its inhabitants. As human activity continues to impact marine ecosystems, events like the Carmel Bay super pod remind us of what's at stake.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Super pod' of over 1,500 dolphins captured in stunning drone footage

The ocean is a vast and mysterious world, teeming with...

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. 



The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-sightings-on-the-rise">Rat sightings on the rise</h2>



The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat</a> sightings have increased in recent years. 



Based on individual city trends, Washington D.C. led the pack, followed by San Francisco, Toronto, New York City, and Amsterdam. According to the study, the rat reporting trend in Washington D.C. was three times greater than that of Boston. 



Only three cities - New Orleans, Louisville, and Tokyo - experienced significant decreases in rat reports, with New Orleans showing the largest drop. The experts suggest that New Orleans’ strategies could serve as a model for other cities seeking to control rat populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-drivers-of-rat-population-growth">Key drivers of rat population growth </h2>



The research team performed statistical analyses of rat sighting reports and concluded that a little over 40% of the rising trend is due to warming temperatures. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> is primarily a result of burning coal, oil, and natural gas, which leads to milder winters and longer foraging periods for rats. 



Study lead author Jonathan Richardson, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Richmond</a>, explained the mechanism.



“We're seeing these increasing trends in rats in cities that are warming the fastest, probably because this is a small mammal that has physiological challenges in the cold weather months,” said Richardson.&nbsp;



“If we're warming the climate and winter starts a week or two later and spring arrives a week or two earlier, that's one, two, maybe even three or four weeks across the entire year where those rats can be above ground foraging, acquiring more food and maybe squeezing out one or two more reproductive cycles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-higher-population-density">Urbanization and higher population density </h2>



Even a few extra weeks of activity can have a dramatic effect, given that female rats can produce a litter every month. With each litter consisting of eight to 16 pups, this additional time significantly accelerates population growth.



In addition to the effects of warming, the study identified increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and higher population densities as major factors. Rats thrive in built environments where food waste is abundant and human activity creates numerous shelters.&nbsp;



The experts note that these conditions allow rats to flourish in areas where people and their refuse provide a constant source of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-nature-s-ultimate-urban-survivors">Rats: Nature’s ultimate urban survivors</h2>



Rats have evolved to be remarkably adaptive in urban settings. New York City rat czar Kathleen Corradi stated during a conference that the rat is the third most successful mammal behind humans and house mice. So it evolved and engineered to live alongside us.&nbsp;



“They followed humans, Homo sapiens, across the continents and are in every single continent except Antarctica. So it's considered a wicked problem.”



Their ability to adapt and survive in close proximity to humans explains why rat populations are expanding even as cities implement various control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-rising-rat-populations">Consequences of rising rat populations</h2>



While rats are undeniably adaptable, their increasing numbers pose serious risks. When rodent populations soar, public health and urban infrastructure can suffer. 



"When rodent populations are high, people get sick, motor vehicles become disabled, mental health declines, fires are started and foods fouled," said Houston rat expert Michael Parsons, who was not involved in the study.



This statement captures the multifaceted impact of rat infestations. High rat populations can lead to increased transmission of diseases, disruption of transportation systems, and other societal challenges. 



People are understandably disturbed by rats, primarily due to an instinctive fear of creatures that can transmit disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-city-rats">Quantifying city rats</h2>



Rats are notoriously difficult to count accurately due to their secretive and elusive nature. The study did not count rats directly; instead, it analyzed rat sighting complaints submitted by city residents. 



Although these reports may not reflect the actual number of rats, they provide valuable insight into trends over time. Richardson emphasized that the long-term consistency of the reporting methods used in the study lends credibility to the observed trends.



Even though Washington D.C. exhibited the highest rate of increase, Richardson clarified that this does not necessarily mean the city has the most rats overall - it simply indicates that the number of rat complaints is rising faster than in other cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-over-poison">Prevention over poison</h2>



The study's findings suggest that traditional methods of rat control, such as poisoning and trapping, may not be sufficient to combat the escalating problem. 



Instead, prevention measures appear to be more effective. In cities like New Orleans, public authorities are taking proactive steps. 



For instance, educational workshops and community campaigns focus on reducing conditions that attract rats, such as improper waste management and excess food availability.



“In New Orleans they make a big effort to get out into neighborhoods and do educational workshops and campaigns to talk to residents about what makes a property less likely to have rats,” Richardson said.



Similarly, New York City has initiated innovative strategies, including replacing street garbage bags with rat-resistant containers and forming an elite volunteer group known as the “NYC rat pack.” 



Early results from these initiatives are promising, although comprehensive data have yet to fully reflect their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-urban-challenge">A complex urban challenge</h2>



While it is possible to better manage rat populations through improved urban planning and public education, complete eradication is unrealistic. 



As <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> conservation scientist Neil Carter pointed out, we can fight them better, but in the end “people need to coexist with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-addresses-the-global-need-for-human-wildlife-coexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in urban environments, even with rats.”



“Zero rats is impossible," noted Richardson. “But I think an expectation that we need to live with the number of rats that we're seeing in many of these cities is also an unhealthy perspective on this problem.”



In conclusion, this study offers a critical, data-driven look at the complex factors driving rat population growth in urban environments. 



As cities continue to warm, expand, and densify, the challenge of managing rat populations will require innovative and sustainable approaches that focus on prevention and public awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads6782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Mary Altaffer



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rat populations are increasing in cities as temperatures rise

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities...

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely eradicated any original organic molecules in ancient remains.&nbsp;



Now, scientists at the University of Liverpool have discovered that some Mesozoic fossils still preserve vestiges of their original organic compounds. 



The findings shed light on how proteins like collagen may survive for millions of years within dinosaur bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-skepticism-to-discovery">From skepticism to discovery</h2>



The research was focused on a well-preserved hip bone from an Edmontosaurus - a duck-billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaur</a> excavated from the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota. 



The fossil, weighing roughly 50 pounds (23 kilograms), is part of the University of Liverpool’s collections. 



The researchers used advanced mass spectrometry and protein sequencing to detect and analyze signs of bone collagen in the sample. 



The results contradict the long-held assumption that any organic material found in fossils must be modern contamination.



“This research shows beyond doubt that organic biomolecules, such as proteins like collagen, appear to be present in some fossils,” said Professor Steve Taylor, chair of the Mass Spectrometry Research Group at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a>.



“Our results have far-reaching implications. Firstly, it refutes the hypothesis that any organics found in fossils must result from contamination.”&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-collagen-survived-the-test-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> remnants offer a rare glimpse into dinosaur biology, opening up new questions about what biochemical information might still be gleaned from well-preserved fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-molecules-survive-fossilization-nbsp">Ancient molecules survive fossilization&nbsp;</h2>



Collagen is the primary structural protein in the bones of living organisms. After millions of years, one would expect it to be replaced by minerals or otherwise degraded.&nbsp;



However, the study demonstrates that not only can collagen molecules survive fossilization but they can also remain detectable if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> is of exceptional quality.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958814"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



The team’s analyses involved a combination of protein sequencing, tandem mass spectrometry, and imaging techniques to characterize the Edmontosaurus bone.&nbsp;



These methods allowed the experts to pinpoint markers of collagen and confirm that the protein fragments were indeed vestiges from the ancient organism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-record-of-dinosaur-physiology-nbsp">Hidden record of dinosaur physiology&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery suggests the value of re-examining historical fossil collections for similarly overlooked molecular structures. 



Fossils previously dismissed as fully mineralized may still contain pockets of original organic material, offering a wealth of new insights.



Taylor emphasized the potential of cross-polarized light microscopy images that have been archived for decades.&nbsp;



“These images may reveal intact patches of bone collagen, potentially offering a ready-made trove of fossil candidates for further protein analysis,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



The potential to reanalyze these images with modern techniques could reveal a hidden record of dinosaur physiology, including growth rates and metabolic traits.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-dinosaur-research">Implications for dinosaur research</h2>



This breakthrough has major implications for paleontology and molecular biology. With access to ancient proteins, scientists can refine dinosaur phylogenies by comparing molecular signatures.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958816"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



Furthermore, experts could uncover the biochemical pathways that enabled the preservation of organic compounds over millions of years.



“The findings inform the intriguing mystery of how these proteins have managed to persist in fossils for so long,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-presence-of-dinosaur-collagen-nbsp">Confirming the presence of dinosaur collagen&nbsp;</h2>



For the investigation, researchers from multiple institutions specialized in different analytic methods.&nbsp;



The Mass Spectrometry Research Group performed in-depth protein sequencing, while other collaborators contributed to high-resolution imaging, additional data verification, and advanced mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



These collective efforts reinforced the conclusion that the collagen was not a result of contamination, but an ancient molecular relic.



In addition, the successful detection of collagen alpha-1 fragments - one of the most fundamental protein forms in bone - came from the Center for Proteome Research at the University of Liverpool.&nbsp;



Experts at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> contributed tandem mass spectrometry capabilities to detect and quantify markers that definitively establish the presence of ancient collagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Even though the study resolves a long-standing debate about the possibility of finding original organic molecules in dinosaur fossils, it also opens new avenues for research.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the conditions under which these molecular remnants can remain stable, scientists might be able to target specific specimens or geological settings where surviving biomolecules are most likely to be found.



There is growing interest in how such data can illuminate dinosaur evolutionary pathways and relationships.&nbsp;



If collagen or other proteins can be consistently identified across a variety of specimens, it may become possible to conduct molecular-level comparisons between species.



Ultimately, these findings prompt reexamination of museum and field collections worldwide, suggesting that the deeper secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient life</a> - once deemed lost - may still lie hidden within the fossil record.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03115#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analytical Chemistry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Collagen discovered in 70 million-year-old dinosaur fossil

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely...

Dinosaurs,In,The,Forest.,This,Is,A,3d,Render,Illustration

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet has captivated scientists and the public alike for generations. Now, an intriguing new study on fossils suggests we might be looking in the wrong places for their earliest ancestors. 



While we've found countless dinosaur fossils in places like Argentina and Zimbabwe, the very first dinosaurs might have emerged from the steamy equatorial regions of ancient Earth - areas that today make up the Amazon rainforest, Congo basin, and Sahara Desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gap-in-the-dinosaur-fossil-record">Gap in the dinosaur fossil record</h2>



The oldest known dinosaur fossils date back around 230 million years and have been found in Argentina, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. 



However, the differences between these fossils indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had already been evolving for millions of years before these specimens emerged. This implies an even earlier origin, but direct fossil evidence of this has yet to be found.



The new study, published in the journal Current Biology, addresses this issue by using advanced modeling techniques to account for gaps in the fossil record.



The researchers analyzed fossils, evolutionary trees, and ancient geography to reconstruct the likely emergence of dinosaurs. 



Instead of assuming that fossils have not been found in certain areas because they never existed there, the study treats those regions as simply missing data.



“Dinosaurs are well studied but we still don’t really know where they came from. The fossil record has such large gaps that it can’t be taken at face value,” noted study lead author Joel Heath from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-dinosaurs-and-their-world">First dinosaurs and their world</h2>



According to the study, the earliest dinosaurs likely appeared in western low-latitude Gondwana, a region that was hot and dry, resembling today’s deserts and savannas. This challenges the previous assumption that dinosaurs first evolved in more temperate environments. 



Despite the study’s findings, no fossils from these early dinosaurs have been discovered in the Amazon or central Africa. 



Heath suggests that this is due to a combination of accessibility issues and a lack of focused research in these regions.



The world of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> was vastly different from the one their descendants would later dominate. During the Late Triassic period, dinosaurs were only a minor part of a diverse ecosystem filled with other reptilian creatures. 



These included the ancestors of crocodiles, known as pseudosuchians, some of which grew up to 10 meters (33 feet) long. 



Another major group in this prehistoric world was pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to develop powered flight. These flying reptiles would eventually evolve into species as large as modern fighter jets.



In contrast to their massive successors like Diplodocus or Tyrannosaurus rex, the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> were much smaller, typically the size of a chicken or a medium-sized dog.



They walked on two legs, making them agile hunters and scavengers, and most were likely omnivorous. Their small size and adaptability may have helped them survive in the challenging environments of early Gondwana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-dinosaurs">The rise of dinosaurs</h2>



For millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remained in the shadow of their reptilian cousins. That changed around 201 million years ago, when a series of massive volcanic eruptions led to the end-Triassic mass extinction. 



This catastrophe wiped out many of the dominant reptile species, creating an ecological vacuum that the surviving dinosaurs quickly filled. 



With their competitors gone, dinosaurs began to spread and diversify, eventually becoming the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.



The modeling study suggests that dinosaurs and other reptiles may have first evolved in low-latitude Gondwana before spreading outward. 



They expanded southward into what is now Argentina and Zimbabwe, and northward into Laurasia, the northern supercontinent that would later split into Europe, Asia, and North America. 



This idea is supported by fossil evidence showing that some of the dinosaurs’ closest relatives, including early crocodile-like reptiles, were found in northern Laurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-dinosaur-evolution">Missing link in dinosaur evolution</h2>



One of the study’s key findings concerns the evolutionary relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dinosaurs</a> and their close relatives. There is ongoing debate about how different groups of dinosaurs evolved from their reptilian ancestors. 



To address this, the researchers tested their model against three different evolutionary trees. The strongest support for a Gondwanan origin came from a model that classified silesaurids, traditionally seen as distant cousins of dinosaurs, as direct ancestors of ornithischians.



This finding is significant because ornithischians - one of the three major dinosaur groups, which later included the stegosaurs and Triceratops species - are mysteriously absent from the fossil record in the earliest years of dinosaur history.



If silesaurids were indeed their ancestors, this would help fill a major gap in the evolutionary tree and provide a clearer picture of how dinosaurs diversified over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-climate-adaptation">Dinosaurs and climate adaptation</h2>



The study also sheds light on how dinosaurs adapted to different climates over millions of years. “Our results suggest early dinosaurs may have been well adapted to hot and arid environments,” noted Professor Philip Mannion, a senior author of the study.



This is particularly evident in sauropods, the group that includes massive plant-eaters like Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. These dinosaurs appear to have retained their preference for warm climates, remaining in lower latitudes throughout their existence.



On the other hand, theropods - the group that includes T. rex and modern birds - and ornithischians seem to have developed the ability to generate their own body heat.



This adaptation allowed them to expand into colder regions, including the polar regions, by the time of the Jurassic period. This shift in climate tolerance may have contributed to their long-term evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dinosaur-fossils">Future research on dinosaur fossils</h2>



Despite the study’s compelling findings, direct fossil evidence of the earliest dinosaurs in the Amazon, Congo, or Sahara remains absent. 



Future expeditions to these regions may uncover this elusive evidence that could redefine our understanding of dinosaur origins.



If dinosaurs did originate in equatorial Gondwana, as the study suggests, their earliest ancestors may still lie buried beneath the dense rainforests of the Amazon or the shifting sands of the Sahara. 



These areas remain some of the least-explored fossil sites on Earth, meaning that the missing chapters of dinosaur evolution may still be waiting to be revealed.



As paleontologists continue to refine their understanding of early dinosaur evolution, this study highlights the importance of exploring new frontiers in fossil research. 



The true story of dinosaur origins is still being written, and future discoveries in these regions could change everything we thought we knew about the dawn of the dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01722-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Where did dinosaurs come from? Scientists think they figured it out

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet...

The ocean is home to some of the most fascinating creatures on Earth, and among them, sea turtles hold a special place. These ancient creatures have navigated the world’s waters for millions of years, surviving mass extinctions and dramatic environmental shifts.



Yet, in recent decades, the survival of sea turtles has been tested like never before, highlighting the critical need for conservation efforts. 



Climate change, habitat destruction, and human activities have posed significant threats to their existence.



A joint study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.deakin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deakin University</a> and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>) sheds light on the conservation progress and ongoing struggles of sea turtle populations worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-success-of-sea-turtles">Conservation success of sea turtles</h2>



"Sea turtles are a beacon of marine conservation success, with many nesting populations showing remarkable recoveries," said Graeme Hays, a Deakin Distinguished Professor and Chair in Marine Science.



The researchers found that while the recovery is promising, it is far from complete. The study highlights the delicate balance between human intervention and natural resilience in ensuring the survival of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iconic creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-yield-positive-results">Conservation efforts yield positive results</h2>



The resurgence of sea turtle populations is closely tied to specific conservation strategies. For instance, reducing artificial lighting on beaches has helped prevent hatchlings from becoming disoriented. 



Additionally, the adoption of turtle-safe fishing practices has played a pivotal role in reversing population declines. In some regions, hunting has decreased as awareness about conservation ethics has grown. 



Former poachers, once contributors to the decline, now work as eco-tour guides, offering tourists a chance to witness nesting turtles. This shift reflects changing public attitudes toward these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-impacts-the-size-of-sea-turtle-hatchlings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stabilizing-sea-turtle-populations">Stabilizing sea turtle populations </h2>



Historically, sea turtles were abundant in places like the Caribbean, where they were so numerous that they often collided with ships at night. 



Overhunting drastically reduced their numbers, with estimates suggesting a 95% decline in green sea turtles in the region.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/sea-turtle-threats_comeback-success-story_illustration_credit-NOAA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/sea-turtle-threats_comeback-success-story_illustration_credit-NOAA_1s.webp" alt="Global threats to sea turtles shown here in this graphic illustration. Credit: Nature Reviews Biodiversity (2025)." class="wp-image-1958800"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Global threats to sea turtles shown here in this graphic illustration. Credit: Nature Reviews Biodiversity (2025).</figcaption></figure>



Global declines were driven by market-driven hunting, fishing net entanglement, and habitat loss. Legal protections and conservation initiatives have since helped stabilize and even grow populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-trends-across-species">Promising trends across species</h2>



The scientists analyzed nesting records and other data to assess the state of sea turtle populations worldwide. The findings reveal predominantly positive trends across species and regions.



A 2017 analysis of 299 annual abundance time series showed that population increases were three times more frequent than decreases. By 2024, this trend had strengthened, with increases occurring six times more often than declines.



Four out of five regional green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leatherback-sea-turtles-where-the-worlds-largest-turtles-go-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle populations</a> are growing, and loggerhead nesting sites have shown significant improvements. On Sal Island in Cape Verde, for example, loggerhead nests surged from approximately 500 in 2008 to 35,000 in 2020. 



While data on species like hawksbill, olive ridley, Kemp's ridley, and flatback turtles is limited, most available records indicate growth. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> remain protected under U.S. and international endangered species regulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-adaptive-responses">Climate change and adaptive responses</h2>



Rising temperatures pose a significant threat to sea turtles, particularly by skewing sex ratios toward females. However, emerging research offers hope.



Loggerhead turtles in the Mediterranean, for instance, have been observed shifting their nesting sites to cooler areas. This behavioral adaptation could help maintain balanced sex ratios and reduce the impacts of climate change. 



"When harmful human activities are curtailed, species can recover and thrive," noted Dr. Jeffrey Seminoff, an expert at the NOAA Fisheries' <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/about/southwest-fisheries-science-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Science Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-priorities-for-sea-turtle-conservation">Priorities for sea turtle conservation</h2>



Looking ahead, the experts have outlined key priorities to ensure the continued recovery of sea turtles.



These priorities include promoting resilience to climate change, reducing bycatch and illegal hunting, understanding the impacts of pollution, and ensuring sufficient foraging habitats like seagrass meadows.



"This success story demonstrates that humanity has the ability to reverse biodiversity loss when we commit to concerted conservation efforts," noted Professor Hays.



The conservation of sea turtles serves as a powerful reminder of what can be achieved through dedication and collaboration. 



As conservationists continue their work, the hope is that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-threatens-turtle-breeding-grounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient mariners</a> will continue to thrive, inspiring future generations to value and protect the natural world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44358-024-00011-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Biodiversity</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea turtles show signs of recovery, but conservation issues remain

The ocean is home to some of the most fascinating...

The manner in which black black holes grow, feed, and sustain themselves has perplexed astronomers for decades. These cosmic giants exert immense gravitational pull, consuming matter that drifts too close. 



However, a lingering question has remained: can black holes actively contribute to their own feeding process?



A recent study provides compelling evidence that they can. The research was based on data from NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a> and the Very Large Telescope (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>).



Massive black holes appear to influence their surroundings in ways that encourage gas to cool and flow back toward them. This self-sustaining cycle ensures a continuous supply of material, enabling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> to keep growing.



The research was focused on galaxy clusters, which contain the largest galaxies in the universe. At the centers of these clusters reside enormous black holes with masses ranging from millions to tens of billions of times that of the sun.



These giants unleash powerful jets as they consume gas, affecting the cosmic environment in ways previously not fully understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-trigger-their-own-feeding">Black holes trigger their own feeding</h2>



Scientists analyzed seven galaxy clusters to study how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-draco-1es-1927-654-just-awoke-is-spewing-material-at-incredible-speeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> interact with surrounding gas. 



Among the most striking discoveries was that black hole outbursts do not simply push matter away but also contribute to cooling nearby gas. 



This cooling allows gas to condense into filaments, which then flow back toward the black hole, replenishing it.



Two galaxy clusters, the Perseus Cluster and the Centaurus Cluster, provided striking visual evidence of this process.



Chandra’s X-ray data revealed hot gas filaments in blue, while the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>’s optical data highlighted cooler filaments in red. 



This contrast demonstrated a direct relationship between hot gas cooling and the formation of structures that help fuel black holes.



The findings challenge the traditional view that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-universe-remains-predictable-insights-from-quantum-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> only consume matter passively. Instead, they appear to shape their own environment, ensuring that they always have a source of fuel. 



This revelation deepens our understanding of how these cosmic powerhouses maintain their activity over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-turbulence">The role of turbulence</h2>



According to the proposed model, outbursts from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-supermassive-black-holes-are-hidden-by-gas-and-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> trigger turbulence in the surrounding gas. This turbulence leads to the cooling and condensation of gas into narrow filaments, feeding the black hole. 



The filaments provide a direct pathway for matter to flow back into the black hole’s gravitational grasp. Once this gas reaches the black hole’s center, it fuels an intense outburst, releasing powerful jets and energy waves.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/filaments.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/black-holes_perseus-cluster_centaurus-cluster_comparison_x-rays_nasa_1s.webp" alt="Perseus Cluster: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/V. Olivares et al.; Optical/IR: DSS; H-alpha: CFHT/SITELLE; Centaurus Cluster: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/V. Olivaresi et al.; Optical/IR: NASA/ESA/STScI; H-alpha: ESO/VLT/MUSE; Image Processing: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk" class="wp-image-1958794"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Perseus Cluster: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/V. Olivares et al.; Optical/IR: DSS; H-alpha: CFHT/SITELLE; Centaurus Cluster: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/V. Olivaresi et al.; Optical/IR: NASA/ESA/STScI; H-alpha: ESO/VLT/MUSE; Image Processing: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk</figcaption></figure>



This energy expulsion paradoxically causes further cooling in the surrounding hot gas, perpetuating the cycle. The process unfolds in an ongoing loop, with each outburst setting the stage for the next feeding phase.



The astronomers predicted that a strong relationship should exist between the brightness of hot and warm gas filaments in galaxy clusters. This study was the first to confirm this connection. 



In areas where hot gas appeared brighter, the warm gas filaments also showed increased brightness, validating the model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-star-formation">Implications for star formation</h2>



Beyond fueling black holes, these gas filaments have another crucial role: they contribute to star formation. 



As gas cools and condenses, some of it does not fall into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/directly-detecting-dark-matter-primordial-black-holes-simple-as-monitoring-mars-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> but instead forms new stars. This discovery highlights the interconnected nature of black hole activity and galactic evolution.



Using a novel technique, the research team was able to isolate the hot filaments detected in Chandra’s X-ray data from other structures. 



This step was crucial in confirming that the observed patterns were indeed linked to black hole outbursts rather than unrelated cosmic processes.



One of the most surprising aspects of the study was an unexpected similarity between these filaments and features found in jellyfish galaxies. These galaxies lose gas as they move through space, leaving behind long trailing tails.



The resemblance suggests that similar processes may be at play in vastly different cosmic environments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-cycle-of-black-holes">Feeding cycle of black holes</h2>



The study brought together an international team of experts specializing in optical and X-ray astronomy, as well as computer simulations. The research was led by Valeria Olivares from the <a href="https://www.usach.cl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Santiago de Chile</a>.



The team relied on advanced observational tools, particularly the <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/develop/instruments/muse.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MUSE</a> (Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer) instrument on the VLT. 



This instrument enabled the researchers to construct 3D views of these distant cosmic structures, providing an unprecedented level of detail.



As astronomers continue to explore the nature of black holes and their interactions, studies like this push the boundaries of knowledge.



The ability of black holes to influence their environment in such a self-sustaining manner opens new avenues for understanding galaxy formation and the broader structure of the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02473-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.&nbsp;



Featured Image: Centaurus galaxy cluster captured by Chandra X-ray Telescope. Credit: NASA



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Black holes seen 'cooking' their own food in fascinating discovery

The manner in which black black holes grow, feed, and...

Refrigeration is entering a new era with an innovative cooling technology that is gaining attention for its efficiency and environmental benefits.



The new technology, based on thermogalvanic cells, leverages the power of reversible electrochemical reactions to create a cooling effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-energy-to-cool-to-our-lives">Cleaner energy to cool to our lives</h2>



The cooling system stands out for its potential to reduce operational costs while offering superior scalability. This makes it adaptable for a wide range of applications - from wearable cooling devices to large-scale industrial systems.



The study was led by researchers at the <a href="https://english.hust.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huazhong University of Science and Technology</a> in Wuhan, China. Senior author Jiangjiang Duan emphasized the rising importance of thermogalvanic technology.



Duan noted that this technology has far-reaching implications in the realm of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tech-uses-chicken-feathers-to-generate-clean-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean electricity</a> production and low-power cooling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-design-strategy">A new design strategy </h2>



Thermogalvanic cells reap the benefits of heat produced by reversible electrochemical reactions to generate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-harvest-electricity-from-wood-soaking-in-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrical power</a>.



Though earlier studies had hinted at the limited potential of thermogalvanic cells to generate cooling power, Duan and his team overcame this obstacle by tweaking the chemicals used in the technology.



“While previous studies mostly focus on original system design and numerical simulation, we report a rational and universal design strategy of thermogalvanic electrolytes, enabling a record-high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cooling-sector-emissions-could-be-drastically-reduced-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling</a> performance that is potentially available for practical application," explained Duan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-greater-cooling-potential">Unlocking greater cooling potential</h2>



The cooling thermodynamic cells are based on the magic of electrochemical redox reactions involving dissolved iron ions.



In this process, iron ions lose an electron and absorb heat, and in the opposite phase, they gain an electron and release heat. This particular power-play cools the surrounding electrolyte solution, and the rising heat gets extracted.



By simply altering the solutes and solvents used in the electrolyte solution, the team optimized the cooling power of the hydrogalvanic cells.



A unique strategy involved the use of a hydrated iron salt with perchlorate, which favors iron ions to dissolve and dissociate more compared to previously tested iron-containing salts like ferricyanide.



Additionally, the iron salts were dissolved in a solvent containing nitriles instead of pure water. This improved the hydrogalvanic cells' cooling power by 70 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-leap-in-refrigeration-technology">A leap in refrigeration technology</h2>



The revised system cooled the surrounding electrolyte by 1.42 K - a significant stride compared to the mere 0.1 K cooling capacity of previous thermogalvanic systems.



Duan and his team will continue to refine their system's design while exploring possibilities for commercial applications.



"Though our advanced electrolyte is commercially viable, further efforts in the system-level design, scalability, and stability are required to promote the practical application of this technology," said Duan.



"In the future, we aim to continuously improve the thermogalvanic cooling performance by exploring novel mechanisms and advanced materials."



"We are also attempting to develop diverse refrigerator prototypes towards potential application scenarios and are seeking to collaborate with innovation companies to promote commercialization of thermogalvanic technologies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-refrigeration">The future of refrigeration</h2>



While thermogalvanic refrigeration has demonstrated remarkable efficiency in controlled experiments, its transition into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-energy-how-everyday-objects-could-power-your-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">everyday use</a> is now the next frontier. 



Researchers are actively exploring how this technology can be integrated into existing refrigeration systems to make them more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly.



One promising application is in wearable cooling devices, which could revolutionize personal comfort in extreme climates or high-performance settings. 



Industries that rely on precise temperature control, such as pharmaceuticals and food storage, could also benefit from this innovative approach. 



Unlike traditional refrigeration units that require large compressors and harmful refrigerants, thermogalvanic cells offer a compact and sustainable alternative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Beyond consumer and industrial applications, this technological breakthrough could also play a crucial role in addressing global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epa-awards-20-billion-in-grants-for-clean-energy-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a> challenges.



As climate change drives up temperatures worldwide, cooling demands are increasing, placing strain on energy grids. 



By offering a low-power alternative, thermogalvanic refrigeration could reduce reliance on energy-intensive cooling methods and help curb greenhouse gas emissions.



With ongoing research into material improvements and system scalability, thermogalvanic refrigeration may soon become a practical and widely adopted solution. 



As the technology advances, collaborations between scientists and industry leaders will be key to bringing this next-generation cooling method from the lab to daily life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(25)00003-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2542435125000030%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule</a>.



Image Credit: Credit: Yilin Zeng



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Refrigeration will finally get an upgrade with cleaner energy

Refrigeration is entering a new era with an innovative cooling...

Did you know that if you can wiggle your ears, you're exhibiting signs of a past ability that profoundly assisted our distant ancestors in sharpening their sense of hearing?



These muscles, called auricular muscles, alter the shape of the pinna (the ear's shell). They are considered vestigial, which means that they have become basically useless to humans over the course of evolution. 



However, a recent study reveals that even in their limited capacity, auricular muscles spring into action when we are in the middle of sonic chaos, trying to focus on one sound amidst many.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ear-wiggling-muscles">Ear-wiggling muscles</h2>



A team at <a href="https://www.uni-saarland.de/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saarland University</a> has taken a closer look at our seemingly insignificant ear-wiggling muscles.



"There are three large muscles which connect the auricle to the skull and scalp and are important for ear wiggling. These muscles, particularly the superior auricular muscle, exhibit increased activity during effortful listening tasks," noted Andreas Schröer, the study's lead scientist.



"This suggests that these muscles are engaged not merely as a reflex but potentially as part of an attentional effort mechanism, especially in challenging auditory environments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-isn-t-as-simple-as-it-seems">Listening isn't as simple as it seems</h2>



How do you measure how hard someone is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-music-makes-medication-more-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">listening</a>? It's not as straightforward as it seems. 



While self-reported measures exist, the key to unraveling this mystery lies in the tool called electromyography, which measures electrical activity in a muscle. 



Researchers have previously found that the largest auricular muscles - the posterior and superior ones - show increased activity during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-connects-people-emotionally-and-physically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attentive listening</a>.



"The exact reason these became vestigial is difficult to tell, as our ancestors lost this ability about 25 million years ago," explained Schröer.



"One possible explanation could be that the evolutionary pressure to move the ears ceased because we became much more proficient with our visual and vocal systems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-our-oldest-ear-muscles">One of our oldest ear muscles</h2>



To investigate the functions of these particular muscles, the researchers assembled a group of 20 study participants with normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hearing-loss-linked-to-a-greater-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hearing</a>.



The participants were subjected to a series of trials where they listened to an audiobook while simultaneously being exposed to distracting podcast sounds. 



Conducting trials with varying levels of difficulty, the researchers tracked the electrical activity in the participants' auricular muscles. Though the trials were designed to be challenging, they were feasible.



After all, if the task was too difficult, participants might give up, and no muscular effort would register on the electromyography readings. 



The researchers focused on the participants' subjective perceptions of effort, their estimated frequency of losing track of the audiobook, and their understanding of the audiobook content.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-responses-of-ear-muscles">Distinct responses of ear muscles </h2>



The experts discovered distinct responses from the two auricular muscles. The posterior auricular muscle reacted to changes in direction, while the superior auricular muscle responded to the difficulty level of the task.



Participant's self-reported measures and accuracy in answering questions about the audiobook reflected the task's difficulty level and correlated with the superior auricular muscles' activity.



"The ear movements that could be generated by the signals we have recorded are so minuscule that there is probably no perceivable benefit," explained Schröer. 



"However, the auricle itself does contribute to our ability to localize sounds. So, our auriculomotor system probably tries its best after being vestigial for 25 million years, but does not achieve much."



This new insight into our auricular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-ultra-processed-foods-makes-your-muscles-weaker-and-more-fragile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscles</a> and their potential role in determining listening effort is a stepping stone towards understanding more about auditory processes.



"Investigating the possible effects of muscle strain itself or the ear’s miniscule movements on the transmission of sound is something we want to do in the future. The effect of these factors in people with hearing impairments would also be interesting to investigate," Schröer concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unused-ear-muscles">Unused ear muscles </h2>



If these muscles no longer serve their original purpose, why haven’t they disappeared entirely? 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a> doesn’t always eliminate unused traits. Instead, they may become repurposed or remain in a diminished state if they pose no significant disadvantage.



While many mammals, including cats and dogs, rely on ear movement to pinpoint sounds, humans have developed other mechanisms - like head-turning and binaural hearing - to achieve similar auditory awareness.



However, the research suggests that these vestigial muscles may not be entirely obsolete. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Even though their movements are nearly imperceptible, the activation of auricular muscles during effortful listening implies they might still make a subtle contribution to sound localization or auditory attention.



Scientists are eager to explore whether these small muscle activations have any measurable impact on hearing precision or cognitive effort, particularly in individuals with hearing impairments.



Future studies may investigate whether targeted training or stimulation of auricular muscles could enhance auditory focus, especially in noisy environments. 



Additionally, researchers plan to examine how these muscles function across different age groups and whether their activity diminishes with age, similar to other motor functions.



As technology advances, more refined techniques may help unlock the hidden potential of these long-overlooked muscles, revealing whether they are truly remnants of the past or contribute to our auditory experience.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2024.1462507/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Neuroscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Useless' ear muscles may actually serve a purpose

Did you know that if you can wiggle your ears,...

Xxl,Size,Physical,World,Map,Illustration.,Primary,Source,,Elements,Of

Geologists have long viewed North America and Europe as separate continents, yet new studies suggest there might be more complexity beneath the surface of Earth's oceans. 



Ongoing research has revealed hints of buried land that stretches from Greenland through Iceland to the Faroe Islands.



At the center of this conversation is the concept that these tectonic plates could still be pulling apart in unexpected ways. Some experts say this updated view could affect how we classify continents in the future.



One of the researchers behind these developments is Dr Jordan Phethean, a lecturer in Earth Science at the <a href="https://www.derby.ac.uk/">University of</a><a href="https://www.derby.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> </a><a href="https://www.derby.ac.uk/">Derby</a>. 



He worked alongside a global team, including collaborators from Switzerland, Italy, and the USA, to study what lies beneath Iceland’s volcanic layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iceland-s-geology-and-africa-s-rift-zones">Iceland's geology and Africa’s rift zones</h2>



Researchers found similarities between an area in Africa known as the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/77566/east-african-rift-valley-kenya" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Afra region</a> and the formation of Iceland. 



By examining how rifting occurs in both places, they identified a newly defined feature called a Rifted Oceanic Magmatic Plateau, or ROMP.



Their work suggests the North American and Eurasian plates have not finished splitting, despite previous estimates that this separation happened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-forces-discovered-cause-earths-continents-to-rise-great-escarpment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tens of millions of years ago</a>. According to recent evidence, the process is still underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disputing-earth-s-continents">Disputing Earth's continents</h2>



Many geologists once believed the North American and Eurasian plates fully ruptured about 52 million years ago. 



They now see ongoing tension that, if confirmed, could merge North America and Europe into a single large body.



“They are, in fact, still stretching and in the process of breaking apart,” Dr Phethean explained. This reinterpretation challenges our standard teaching of how the continents evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragments-below-iceland">Fragments below Iceland</h2>



Experts suspect that Iceland might hold fragments of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunken-worlds-discovered-under-the-pacific-ocean-in-earths-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">submerged continental crust</a> beneath thick, volcanic rock, which suggests that the region’s geologic story is more complex than a simple hot plume scenario.



This idea is seen as an unusual parallel with the Afra region of East Africa, where active rifting also exposes deeper layers.



“I like to think of this concept as the Earth Science equivalent of finding the Lost City of Atlantis,” said Dr Phethean. 



Experts believe that these hidden fragments could connect past tectonic events with modern geophysical observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-micro-continent-emerges">A new micro-continent emerges</h2>



Another striking revelation is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X24001023">proto-microcontinent</a> discovered between Canada and Greenland. It is about 250 miles long and sits below the <a href="https://visibleearth.nasa.gov/images/58325/baffin-bay-and-davis-strait">Davis Strait</a>, an important waterway linking the Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay.



This block likely formed around 60 million years ago, and sheds light on how shifting plates shape smaller fragments of land over millions of years. 



Investigators used gravity data from space satellites, along with seismic methods, to reveal its boundaries.



“Rifting and microcontinent formation are ongoing phenomena,” Dr Phethean noted. This perspective offers clues on how our planet’s features change through geologic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-earth-s-continent-boundaries">Pushing Earth's continent boundaries</h2>



Scientists plan to run <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/geodynamics">geodynamic</a> computer simulations to understand how these areas evolved over time. They hope to capture the complex interplay of magma, stretching plates, and buried crust to see if similar events have happened elsewhere.



These models could give us a better look at how rifting can create new microcontinents or modify existing landmasses. They also might help clarify why volcanic regions in Iceland and the Afra zone follow a related pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Revising how we view continents and their structures can influence natural resource exploration, especially for minerals and fossil fuels that form where plates shift. 



Some industries already use knowledge of ancient rifts to guide drilling and surveying projects.



Better awareness of these features also strengthens our understanding of earthquake and volcanic hazards. 



Regions experiencing active rifting may face ground deformation or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/continent-sized-islands-llsvp-found-inside-earth-are-100-times-taller-than-mount-everest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other geologic risks</a> that call for careful monitoring.



Plate movements never truly stop. Even when the timeline stretches over tens of millions of years, the Earth is shifting far beneath our feet in ways that might surprise us.



Tracing hidden land under the ocean challenges our textbook definitions of continents. This reclassification debate may intensify if further data confirms unbroken connections between large tectonic blocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-solutions">Eco-friendly solutions</h2>



Understanding the deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crust</a> could also open doors to cleaner energy resources like geothermal power. Iceland has long been a leader in tapping underground heat for electricity, and new geologic data could encourage similar methods in other places.



Researchers and students at the University of Derby are exploring these possibilities. They see a link between geoscience progress and the push for sustainable solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-continents-and-academics">Earth's continents and academics</h2>



Training new scientists is essential for advancing our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-building-triggered-a-mass-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's changing structure</a>.



Young researchers and recent graduates often introduce fresh ideas that lead to new discoveries in how continents shift, how tectonic plates move, and how we can manage Earth's natural resources better.



As more people become interested in studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geological changes</a>, universities and research institutions that offer specialized programs in these fields may see more students enrolling.



Those who gain hands-on experience, such as working in the field or using computer models to simulate Earth’s processes, have a better chance of making important discoveries in the future.



This research highlights the need to keep an open mind about how Earth's structure works. While the ground beneath us feels solid and unchanging, the deeper layers of the planet are always moving. 



Understanding these shifts helps us prepare for the future and make better decisions about natural resources, disasters, and environmental sustainability.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X24001023">Gondwana Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth only has six continents, not seven, according to a recent study

Geologists have long viewed North America and Europe as separate...

We all have heard the saying, "Listen to your gut." A growing collection of research shows that our guts have more to say than we ever imagined. They might even be speaking to our brains in ways that influence the progression of Alzheimer's-type illnesses.



A team of Italian and French scientists is on the trail of new insights into Alzheimer’s disease. Their research sheds new light on this devastating neurodegenerative condition that affects millions worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-language-of-the-gut-and-brain">Mysterious language of the gut and brain</h2>



Alzheimer's disease is characterized by alterations in the brain including synaptic loss, chronic inflammation, and neuronal cell death.



Recent discoveries have shown that our gut and brain communicate via neurons in both organs. If this intricate communication system misfires, it often leads to psychiatric and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-impairs-the-brain-potentially-causing-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological disorders</a>, like Alzheimer’s.



In the midst of this, gut microbiota - the microorganisms residing in our intestinal tract - play a crucial role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harmful-gut-bacteria-and-alzheimer-s-disease">Harmful gut bacteria and Alzheimer’s disease</h2>



“There are already many studies that support that changes in the gut composition can contribute to Alzheimer’s onset and progression,” said Alessia Cedola,&nbsp;a researcher at the <a href="https://www.cnr.it/en/institute/054/institute-of-nanotechnology-nanotec" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Nanotechnology</a>.



This is where "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dysbiosis</a>" enters the picture. It is an imbalance in the composition and function of microbial communities in the gut.



The loss of gut microbial diversity often leads to the prevalence of dangerous bacteria that produce toxic metabolites, promoting inflammation and potentially causing the break down of gut-brain barriers. But what exactly happens when gut dysbiosis occurs?



"The main hypothesis is that changes trigger the escape of bad bacteria from the gut, entering the circulation, reaching the brain, and triggering Alzheimer’s, but evidence is still poor," explained Cedola.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-changes-in-alzheimer-s">Gut changes in Alzheimer’s</h2>



To address this, the scientists pioneered the use of nano- and micro X-ray phase-contrast tomography (XPCT). They found this tool to be incredibly beneficial in studying structural and morphological alterations in the gut, sans any tissue manipulation.



The team conducted experiments at ESRF, the European Synchrotron in Grenoble, France. Peter Cloetens was the leading scientist on the project.



"Thanks to this technique we can image soft biological tissues with excellent sensitivity in 3D, with minimal sample preparation and without contrast agents," said Cloetens.



The data revealed changes in cell abundance and organization and structural alterations in different tissues of mice with Alzheimer's.



Specifically, the team found significant alterations in the gut's villi and crypts, cellular transformations, and many other vital factors.



These factors, when functioning properly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carrots-may-help-manage-diabetes-by-improving-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintain gut health</a>, support digestion, and protect the intestinal lining from damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-detection-of-alzheimer-s">Early detection of Alzheimer's </h2>



Cedola believes that this technique might be pivotal in the early detection and prognosis of Alzheimer's disease. 



By gaining a deeper understanding of these processes, the team hopes to identify therapeutic targets and develop innovative treatments for this devastating disease.



In collaboration with their colleagues Francesca Palermo and Claudia Balducci, the team plans to further exploit the capabilities of XPCT. 



The goal is to investigate the enteric nervous system and its role in Alzheimer's disease. The research highlights the importance of biomedical studies at the ESRF.



“The ESRF will undoubtedly continue to play a crucial role in our research, and we look forward to many more exciting discoveries in the years to come,” noted Cedola.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-gut-s-role-in-alzheimer-s-prevention">The gut's role in Alzheimer’s prevention</h2>



As researchers uncover more about the gut’s role in neurodegenerative diseases, the question arises - can gut-targeted therapies help prevent or slow down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s progression</a>?



Scientists are increasingly exploring interventions such as probiotics, prebiotics, and dietary modifications aimed at restoring microbial balance.



Some research even suggests that a healthy gut microbiome can decrease systemic inflammation, which is the hallmark of Alzheimer’s pathology. 



Furthermore, FMTs have been recently emerging as promising for reversing dysbiosis-related cognitive decline, but more research needs to be conducted to establish its effectiveness.



In the future, Cedola and her team believe that their high-tech imaging might be used to track how such interventions affect the gut structure, thereby influencing the health of the brain. Future treatments may not begin in the brain, but in the microbial world of the gut.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr8511" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Targeting the gut might be key in preventing Alzheimer’s disease

We all have heard the saying, "Listen to your gut."...

The heart of our Milky Way galaxy is much more active than most people would realize. In fact, astronomers discovered two gigantic "bubbles" extending above and below the galactic center, roughly 50,000 light years in each direction.



Each one stretches tens of thousands of light-years above and below the galactic center, yet they stay hidden from casual stargazers because they glow mainly in gamma rays and X-rays. 



These mysterious formations appear to have emerged from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-chimney-venting-found-heart-milky-way-galaxy-sagittarius-a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a> at the center of the galaxy, Sagittarius A*. 



Researchers pieced together evidence that points to an enormous outburst several million years ago, releasing colossal amounts of energy in a short time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fermi-and-erosita-bubbles">"Fermi" and "eRosita" bubbles</h2>



These enormous structures are called the <a href="https://fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fermi</a> and <a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/eROSITA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eRosita</a> bubbles, named for the telescopes that found them independently in 2010 and 2020. 



Since then, researchers have published well over a hundred peer-reviewed papers that specifically investigate the nature, origins, and implications of the Fermi Bubbles. 



One study in particular explores how these bubbles arose and pinpoints the event that may have created them. 



It suggests that a powerful jet of material began erupting from the Milky Way’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-speed-baby-stars-swarm-around-milky-ways-supermassive-sagittarius-a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central black hole</a>, Sagittarius A*, about 2.6 million years ago, continuing for roughly 100,000 years. 



Mateusz Ruszkowski from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> worked on this investigation alongside partners at <a href="https://nthu-en.site.nthu.edu.tw/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Tsing Hua University</a> in Taiwan and the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a>.



“Our findings are important in the sense that we need to understand how black holes interact with the galaxies that they are inside, because this interaction allows these black holes to grow in a controlled fashion as opposed to grow uncontrollably,” said U-M astronomer Mateusz Ruszkowski, a co-author of the study. 



“If you believe in the model of these Fermi or eRosita bubbles as being driven by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-formed-through-a-merger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a>, you can start answering these profound questions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-bubbles-and-black-hole-jets">Galaxy bubbles and black hole jets</h2>



The research indicates that a black hole outflow can blow away surrounding gas and inflate these bubbles rather than letting the black hole grow without limits. 



This idea contrasts with an older hypothesis that connected the bubbles to supernova-driven starbursts. 



The new results back the black hole scenario instead, helped by observations of a microwave haze and other emissions near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-magnetic-fields-may-be-key-features-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy’s center</a>.



“We not only can rule out the starburst model, but we can also fine tune the parameters that are needed to produce the same images, or something very similar to what’s in the sky, within that supermassive black hole model,” Ruszkowski said. 



“We can better constrain certain things, such as how much energy was pumped in, what’s inside these bubbles and how long was the energy injected in order to produce these bubbles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-rays-and-expanding-gas">Cosmic rays and expanding gas</h2>



The eRosita and Fermi bubbles each shine in different wavelengths, but they appear related to the same violent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flares-shed-light-on-the-milky-ways-supermassive-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">release of energy</a>. 



A shock wave triggered by the Fermi bubbles likely expanded the eRosita bubbles to nearly twice their size. 



The expanding cosmic rays can be traced, giving astronomers another way to explore what is happening at the core of our galaxy.



“Our simulation is unique in that it takes into account the interaction between the cosmic rays and gas within the Milky Way," Yang explained. 



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hess-observatory-detects-highest-energy-cosmic-rays-ever-observed-origin-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic rays</a>, injected with the jets of the black hole, expand and form the Fermi bubbles that shine in gamma rays."



The same explosion pushes gas away from the Galactic center and forms a shock wave that is observed as the eRosita bubbles. 



Observing the eRosita bubbles allowed them to more accurately constrain the duration of the black hole activity, and better understand the past history of the Milky Way galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-galaxy-bubble-timeline">Creating a galaxy bubble timeline</h2>



Multiple lines of evidence hint that the bubble-producing event in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> galaxy lasted a mere fraction of the timescale once proposed by the starburst explanation.



Researchers involved in this work point out that the starburst model usually implies a longer energy injection period, which would produce different bubble sizes and shapes.



“On the other hand, our active black hole model accurately predicts the relative sizes of the eRosita x-ray bubbles and the Fermi gamma ray bubbles, provided the energy injection time is about one percent of that, or one tenth of a million years,” Zweibel noted.



Injecting energy over 10 million years would produce bubbles with a completely different appearance. It’s the opportunity to compare the x-ray and gamma ray bubbles from each telescope which provides the crucial previously missing piece.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-of-the-galaxy-bubbles">Composition of the galaxy bubbles</h2>



The discovery of these towering structures close to home allows astronomers to collect more detailed data than they could from faraway galaxies. 



These bubbles also highlight the link between cosmic events and everyday life. The processes involved in creating these bubbles influence how galaxies grow and evolve, which affects the formation of the stars and planets we depend on.



The study’s authors performed simulations that incorporate hydrodynamics, gravity, and cosmic ray physics. 



Matching these simulations to real observations helps astronomers understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jets-are-like-million-light-year-long-jedi-lightsabers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy involved</a> and the composition of the bubbles. 



The momentum driving and blowing up these massive Fermi and eRosita bubbles comes from kinetic, thermal, and cosmic ray energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-bubbles-and-the-milky-way-galaxy">Space bubbles and the Milky Way galaxy</h2>



To sum it all up, these galaxy bubbles, which seem to be making some type of giant space sandwich out of the Milky Way, likely formed when the supermassive black hole at the center, Sagittarius A*, hurled out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/porphyrion-largest-black-hole-jets-ever-seen-is-23-million-light-years-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy and hot gas</a>. 



Instead of running wild, the black hole pushed material away and created these balloon-like shapes that glow in different types of light - gamma rays and X-rays. 



Researchers studied these bubbles by modeling how energy flows through the galaxy, giving them clues about how the outflow grew so large and how it shaped the area around our galactic core.



The results suggest that this wasn't caused by exploding stars but rather by a focused burst of energy, or jets, from the black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter-0">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Now, I totally get it - two giant bubbles hovering above and below our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> galaxy, each over 50,000 light-years long, seems almost impossible to comprehend. 



But by learning about these massive bubbles and the energy from the black hole that created them, Sagittarius A*, we learn how galaxies grow, how stars and planets form, and how the universe impacts the environment around us. 



That knowledge helps scientists see the “big picture” of where we come from and where we might be headed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Two enormous "bubbles" discovered towering above and below our Milky Way galaxy

The heart of our Milky Way galaxy is much more...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...