Five million years ago, one of the most spectacular events in Earth's history unfolded as a massive flood refilled the Mediterranean Sea. This wasn't a typical flood - it was a colossal surge of water that transformed a vast salt desert into the blue waters we know today.



The Zanclean Megaflood, a massive influx of water, ended the Messinian Salinity Crisis, a period during which the Mediterranean Sea had largely evaporated, leaving behind vast salt flats. 



This transformative flood, occurring between 5.97 and 5.33 million years ago, refilled the basin in a dramatic and rapid event, challenging long-held scientific theories.



An international team of researchers, including scientists from the University of Southampton, has now identified a series of geological features in Southeast Sicily that point to the reality of this megaflood. 



The findings offer the most detailed and convincing evidence yet of one of the largest floods in Earth's history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-end-of-the-messinian-salinity-crisis">End of the Messinian Salinity Crisis</h2>



Before the Zanclean Megaflood, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mediterranean-nearly-lost-all-of-its-water-6-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a> was unrecognizable compared to today. During the Messinian Salinity Crisis, the Mediterranean Sea became isolated from the Atlantic Ocean. 



Without a constant influx of water, it began to evaporate under the intense heat, leaving behind thick salt deposits and transforming the region into an arid wasteland. The loss of water reshaped the entire landscape, creating vast salt plains and deep canyons.



For years, scientists believed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-whales-epic-voyage-exposes-perils-of-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a> refilled gradually over approximately 10,000 years. This view suggested that small, sustained breaches in natural barriers allowed water to trickle back into the basin, slowly restoring the sea. 



However, in 2009, researchers discovered an erosion channel stretching from the Gulf of Cadiz to the Alboran Sea. This discovery suggested that the refilling was not a slow process but rather a single, massive flood event lasting between two and sixteen years.



The latest research, published in the journal&nbsp;Communications Earth &amp; Environment, provides further confirmation that the refilling of the Mediterranean was anything but gradual. Instead, it was a catastrophic event of unimaginable scale, reshaping the Mediterranean landscape in a matter of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-flood-in-the-mediterranean">Massive flood in the Mediterranean</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The Zanclean megaflood was an awe-inspiring natural phenomenon, with discharge rates and flow velocities dwarfing any other known floods in Earth’s history. Our research provides the most compelling evidence yet of this extraordinary event,” noted Dr. Aaron Micallef, lead author of the study and a researcher at the <a href="https://www.mbari.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a>.
</blockquote>



To understand just how enormous this flood was, researchers estimate that it had a discharge rate of between 68 and 100 Sverdrups (Sv), with one Sv equal to one million cubic meters of water per second. 



By comparison, the combined discharge of all modern rivers on Earth is approximately one Sverdrup. This means the Zanclean Megaflood involved an amount of water far exceeding anything seen in recorded history.



The force of this flood was enough to carve deep channels, erode solid rock formations, and transport vast amounts of sediment across the region. Scientists now believe that this event fundamentally altered the geography of the Mediterranean, leaving behind geological scars that persist to this day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flood-clues-beneath-the-mediterranean">Flood clues beneath the Mediterranean</h2>



To uncover the full impact of the Zanclean Megaflood, researchers examined over 300 streamlined ridges across the Sicily Sill, a submerged land bridge that once divided the Mediterranean’s western and eastern basins. These ridges provide clear evidence of large-scale, turbulent water flow.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"The morphology of these ridges is compatible with erosion by large-scale, turbulent water flow with a predominantly north easterly direction. They reveal the immense power of the Zanclean Megaflood and how it reshaped the landscape, leaving lasting imprints on the geological record," explained study co-author Professor Paul Carling of the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a>.
</blockquote>



By studying these ridges, scientists found that they were topped with a layer of rocky debris. This debris consisted of material eroded from the ridge flanks and surrounding regions, indicating it had been deposited suddenly and with immense force. 



Importantly, this sediment layer aligns with the transition from the Messinian to the Zanclean period, providing further confirmation that the flood occurred at this critical juncture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-w-shaped-channel">Role of W-shaped channel</h2>



A crucial piece of evidence came from seismic reflection data, a technique that uses sound waves to create images of subsurface geological formations. This method revealed a previously unknown “W-shaped channel” on the continental shelf east of the Sicily Sill.



This channel, carved deep into the seabed, appears to have played a vital role in directing floodwaters toward the Noto Canyon, a deep underwater valley in the eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a>. 



The shape and location of the channel suggest it functioned like a giant funnel, helping to transport the enormous volume of water into the deeper sections of the sea.



Computer models developed by the research team simulated the likely behavior of the floodwaters. The results showed that as the flood progressed, water flow intensified, reaching speeds of up to 32 meters per second (72 miles per hour). 



This powerful current deepened channels, eroded rock formations, and transported sediment over vast distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-impact-of-the-megaflood">Lasting impact of the megaflood</h2>



Dr. Micallef highlights the significance of these findings, not just for understanding the Mediterranean’s past but for studying large-scale floods on Earth and other planets.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“These findings not only shed light on a critical moment in Earth’s geological history but also demonstrate the persistence of landforms over five million years. It opens the door to further research along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean margins</a>.”
</blockquote>



The research highlights the long-lasting impact of the Zanclean Megaflood. Even millions of years later, its effects remain visible in the Mediterranean’s underwater topography. 



Understanding how such catastrophic floods shape landscapes can provide valuable insights into similar events that may have occurred on Mars or other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-earth-s-history">New chapter in Earth’s history</h2>



The Zanclean Megaflood is now recognized as one of the most significant flooding events in Earth’s history. 



This research, supported by the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a>, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, redefines how scientists understand the Mediterranean’s transformation.



By combining geological surveys, numerical modeling, and seismic imaging, researchers have reconstructed a detailed picture of this catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-of-earths-land-has-became-permanently-drier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event</a>. 



The findings challenge previous assumptions and open new avenues for exploring past megafloods and their role in shaping the planet.



The study is published in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01972-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>&nbsp;and is available online.



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Massive flood refilled the Mediterranean Sea millions of years ago

Five million years ago, one of the most spectacular events in Earth's history unfolded as a massive flood refilled the Mediterranean Sea. This wasn't a typical flood - it was a colossal surge of water that transformed a vast salt desert into the blue waters we know today. The Zanclean Megaflood, a massive influx of water, ended the Messinian Salinity Crisis, a period during which the Mediterranean Sea had largely evaporated, leaving behind vast salt flats. This transformative flood, occurring between 5.97 and 5.33 million years ago,...

Despite the presence of numerous deadly creatures, Australia reigns supreme in terms of life expectancy among the anglophone nations for the past 30 years.



Other elite English-speaking nations saw significant improvements in their respective life expectancies, with Ireland leading the pack. 



However, America, unfortunately, brings up the rear in this vital health parameter since the early nineties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-achievable-gains-in-life-expectancy">Achievable gains in life expectancy </h2>



A group of social researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a> recently published their findings on this issue. The report, which delves into the comparative study of life expectancy among various countries, becomes an eye opener for America.



"One lesson we Americans can learn about life expectancy from looking at comparable countries is where the frontier of best performance lies,” said Jessica Ho, associate professor of sociology and demography at Penn State and senior author on the paper. 



"Yes, we’re doing badly, but this study shows what can we aim for. We know these gains in life expectancy are actually achievable because other large countries have already done it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-life-expectancy-data">Unraveling the life expectancy data</h2>



Using data from the Human Mortality Database and the World Health Organization Mortality Database spanning from 1990 to 2019, the researchers compared life expectancy across six countries - the United States, Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.



The team meticulously analyzed data based on gender, age, and cause of death, including a variety of areas such as cancers, drug and alcohol related deaths, and fatalities from firearms and motor vehicle accidents.



Their effort also included examining the life expectancy within each country, revealing the geographical inequalities associated with it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australia-leads-and-america-trails">Australia leads and America trails</h2>



The analysis showed Australians leading with the highest life expectancy at birth over the study period. Compared to Americans, Australian women were found to live nearly 4 more years, while Australian men averaged 5 more years.



Americans, however, had the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-expectancy-drop-men-in-the-u-s-die-six-years-before-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowest life expectancy</a>, with women living an average of almost 81.5 years and men an average of nearly 76.5 years in 2019.



Geographical inequalities in life expectancy also seemed to be the worst in the United States. 



The study reported the highest life expectancy rates for women and men in California and Hawaii, while the southeastern states reflected the lowest life expectancy for both genders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-driving-shorter-american-lifespans">What is driving shorter American lifespans?</h2>



"One of the main drivers of why American longevity is so much shorter than in other high-income countries is our younger people die at higher rates from largely preventable causes of death, like drug overdose, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-small-electric-vehicles-safe-rising-accident-rates-say-no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">car accidents</a>, and homicide,” stated Ho, who is also affiliated to the Social Science Research Institute at Penn State. 



Furthermore, in the age range of 45-64, high mortality rates were noted due to substance abuse and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steep-rise-in-cardiovascular-disease-expected-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular diseases</a>.



Australia serves as a model for the United States, with the country's policies helping them climb to the top of the life expectancy rankings.



By controlling young adult mortality, reducing levels of gun deaths, drug and alcohol use, and improving chronic disease management, Australia significantly outperformed the U.S. in life expectancy.



The researchers suggest that adopting policies such as investing in public transit infrastructure, higher support for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-fentanyl-has-become-disturbing-trend-united-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance abuse</a> treatment programs, and robust public health efforts can help the U.S. not only increase its life expectancy but also decrease geographical disparities related to it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-to-a-healthier-america">A path to a healthier America</h2>



To bridge the gap in life expectancy, America must prioritize a cultural shift towards <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-can-lead-to-longer-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health and wellness</a>. This involves not only addressing immediate health concerns but also fostering a long-term mindset that values preventive care and healthy living.



Communities can play a crucial role by promoting physical activity, nutritious diets, and mental health awareness.



Engaging in local initiatives, like community fitness programs and health education workshops, can empower individuals to take charge of their health. Additionally, creating policies that ensure equitable access to healthcare resources is vital in reducing disparities.



By learning from Australia’s success and implementing these changes, the U.S. can pave the way for a healthier future and ultimately boost its life expectancy.



The study was part of a larger project supported by the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health and had contributions from other researchers, including a doctoral student from the University of Southern California.



The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/14/7/e079365" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMJ Open</a>.



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How Australia outpaces America in life expectancy

Despite the presence of numerous deadly creatures, Australia reigns supreme...

On May 11, stargazers across the southern United States were treated to an unexpected display of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">northern lights</a>, while, at the same time, a GPS-guided tractor in the Midwest failed to hit its target. What connects these seemingly unrelated events? 



According to two newly published studies co-authored by <a href="https://www.vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a>'s Scott England, both incidents were caused by an unusually powerful geomagnetic superstorm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-impacts-of-the-geomagnetic-superstorm">Atmospheric impacts of the geomagnetic superstorm</h2>



“The northern lights are caused by energetic, charged particles hitting our upper atmosphere, which are impacted by numerous factors in space, including the sun,” explained England, an associate professor in the Kevin T. Crofton Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering.&nbsp;



“During solar geomagnetic storms, there’s a lot more of these energetic charged particles in the space around Earth, so we see a brightening of the northern lights, and the region over which you can see them spreads out to include places like the lower 48 states that usually don’t see this display.”



Using NASA's GOLD instrument, England and a team of collaborators from universities and industry tracked the upper atmospheric event on May 11. The research revealed that this geomagnetic storm was the most intense of its kind captured in the past 20 years.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-changes-in-the-upper-atmosphere-nbsp">Major changes in the upper atmosphere&nbsp;</h2>



The findings, now published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2024GL110506" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, were detailed in two studies. 



The first, led by Deepak Karan from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a>, documented unprecedented changes in the distribution of particles in the upper atmosphere caused by the geomagnetic superstorm. 



The second study, led by Virginia Tech alumnus J. Scott Evans, focused on changes in atmospheric composition and temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-a-geomagnetic-superstorm-nbsp">Observations of a geomagnetic superstorm&nbsp;</h2>



Among their observations, England noted witnessing some “delightful swirly patterns” for the first time and a dramatic movement of air away from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aurora</a>, leading to the formation of enormous vortices larger than hurricanes. 



Specific observations included unpredictable shifts of low-energy charged particles from the equator toward the aurora.



The experts identified two types of charged particles: low energy and high energy, the latter posing risks to humans in space and to electronic devices.



The team also noted changes in temperature and pressure likely responsible for the swirling patterns and vortices observed.&nbsp;



Furthermore, there were alterations in the location and spread of low-energy particles, which can negatively impact GPS, satellites, and the electrical grid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-was-this-geomagnetic-storm-different">Was this geomagnetic storm different?</h2>



“As the aurora intensifies, you see more lights, but along with that, there’s more energy entering the atmosphere, so it makes the atmosphere near the poles very hot, which starts to push air away from the poles and towards the equator,” England explained.&nbsp;



“This data poses a lot of questions like, did something really different happen during this geomagnetic storm than has happened previously, or do we just have better instruments to measure the changes?"



These questions have significant implications for the technology that orbits in the upper atmosphere, a region extending from about 60 to 400 miles above Earth’s surface, home to satellites and the International Space Station. This part of the atmosphere is dynamic, with charged particles creating an ionosphere that behaves like a constantly fluctuating electric blanket.&nbsp;



While the upper atmosphere's temperature and composition naturally vary, especially between day and night and across seasons, the influx of energy during geomagnetic storms causes more extreme changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nearing-the-peak-of-the-solar-cycle">Nearing the peak of the solar cycle</h2>



England noted that particles in Earth's atmosphere are influenced by numerous factors, including solar activity.&nbsp;



During a solar geomagnetic storm, an intense burst of radiation from the sun alters the composition and behavior of atmospheric particles. This explains why, in recent months, the northern lights have been visible in locations where they are rarely seen.



“The number of sunspots, flares, and storms changes with an 11-year cycle that we call the solar cycle,” England said. “The number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-blasts-biggest-x-class-solar-flare-nineteen-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a> we are seeing has been increasing gradually for the last couple of years as we move toward the peak of the solar cycle.”



Beyond the visual spectacle of the northern lights, geomagnetic storms can disrupt our technology. GPS and radio signals, which pass through the ionosphere, can be affected by these atmospheric fluctuations, leading to navigation and communication issues.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-superstorm-impact-on-technology">Geomagnetic superstorm impact on technology</h2>



While many factors, from Earth's weather to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-poses-significant-risks-to-railway-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a>, can influence this crucial atmospheric layer, much remains to be learned about the interactions between the upper and lower atmosphere and their broader impacts.



England noted that these storms can also increase electrical currents that flow around the Earth, which can impact technological devices that use very long wires.&nbsp;



“In recent years, there have been impacts to the power grid when too much current was flowing through the wires,” said England. “During the largest geomagnetic storm ever recorded, the Carrington Event in 1859, these currents caused telegraph systems - peak technology at that time -&nbsp; to catch on fire.”



Scientists believe that a storm similar to the 1859 Carrington Event could cause catastrophic disruptions if it occurred today, potentially leading to an “internet apocalypse” that could knock large numbers of people and businesses offline.&nbsp;



While the May 11 storm did not cause such drastic consequences, with the peak of the solar cycle expected to arrive in July 2025, we are still about a year away from fully understanding the potential effects.



“One reason we study geomagnetic storms is to try and build models to predict their impacts. Based on the solar cycle, we’d expect the conditions we’re seeing this year to be around for about the next two years,” England concluded.



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Geomagnetic superstorm caused major changes in the atmosphere

On May 11, stargazers across the southern United States were...

Seed,Pods,On,A,Black,Bean,Tree,(castanospermum,Australe),Plant

Who ever thought that bean-sized fossils could unravel a tale of ancient plant migration? Well, hold onto your hats. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a> have cracked an evolutionary puzzle regarding Southeast Asian and Australian rainforests using, you guessed it, giant fossil seeds!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mysterious-beans">Unveiling the mysterious beans</h2>



These aren't just any seeds. These are ancient fossils about the size of a lime, among the largest seeds ever found in the fossil record. 



The scientists discovered that these fossils belonged to an extinct legume genus closely related to the modern Castanospermum, or black bean tree, which is only found today in the coastal rainforests of northern Australia and neighboring islands. 



"Although some of the characteristics of these fossils are common across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-legumes-and-their-symbiotic-bacteria-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legumes</a>, there is no fossil or living legume group besides Castanospermum that has a combination of features closely matching the fossils," said Edward Spagnuolo, a doctoral student in the Department of Geosciences at Penn State and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discoveries-in-plant-migration">Discoveries in plant migration</h2>



The trail of discovery began in Indonesian Borneo, where the team, including Peter Wilf, professor of geosciences at Penn State, unearthed fossils dating back 34 to 40 million years ago to the Eocene epoch. 



These fossils imply that the predecessors of the black bean tree traveled from Asia to Australia during the tectonic-plate collision, which facilitated the exchange of plant and animal species between the continents. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/plant-migration_giant-bean-fossils_jantungspermum-gunnellii_credit-edward-spagnuolo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/plant-migration_giant-bean-fossils_jantungspermum-gunnellii_credit-edward-spagnuolo_1s.webp" alt="Giant bean fossils of the newly described extinct legume Jantungspermum gunnellii were found in Indonesian Borneo. Credit: Provided by Edward Spagnuolo" class="wp-image-1941774"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Giant bean fossils of the newly described extinct legume Jantungspermum gunnellii were found in Indonesian Borneo. Credit: Provided by Edward Spagnuolo</figcaption></figure>



"These fossil seeds suggest that the ancient relatives of Castanospermum migrated into Australia from Southeast Asia during the tectonic collision event and later went extinct in Asia," Spagnuolo added.



This groundbreaking revelation offers the first macrofossil evidence of a plant lineage moving from Asia to Australia after the Asia-Australia tectonic interaction. 



Additionally, these seeds are the oldest definite fossil legumes from the Malay Archipelago and the first fossil record of plants related to the black bean tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-the-challenges-of-fossil-collection">Overcoming the challenges of fossil collection</h2>



Digging up fossils in this part of the world is no mean feat. "It’s really hard to collect fossils in this part of the world," said Spagnuolo. 



"Most surface rocks are destroyed by the heavy tropical rainfall or covered by vegetation, agriculture, and buildings, so there are few places to look for fossils other than mine and quarry exposures." 



Yet, the team found a unique partner in Indonesian paleontologists at Institut Teknologi Bandung in Java, who made this work feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treasure-trove-of-discoveries">Treasure trove of discoveries</h2>



An international research team collected the fossils in 2014 from the seams of a coal mine in South Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. 



Their collection includes three large beans, pollen samples, about 40 leaves, and other fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>, including bird tracks, marine invertebrate traces, and fossil turtle remains. 



Securing a spot among the largest in the fossil record, these seeds would have grown in a pod reaching up to 3 feet long and housing up to five seeds.



Following fieldwork, the fossils were loaned to Penn State University, where through CT scan imaging and taxonomy analysis, Spagnuolo and Wilf found that they most closely resembled modern Castanospermum, which has no previous fossil representatives. 



The seeds were named Jantungspermum gunnellii, honoring the late Gregg Gunnell, a vertebrate paleontologist formerly of the Duke University Lemur Center.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legume-story-and-plant-migration">Legume story and plant migration</h2>



Legumes are a diverse family of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a>, with about 20,000 species alive today, including many large tropical trees. 



However, despite their abundance in modern ecosystems, these seeds are the only confirmed legume fossils from before the Neogene period, 2.6 million to 23 million years ago, in the Southeast Asian wet tropics. 



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropics</a> are the most diverse biome on Earth," said Wilf. "We know very little from the fossil record about how tropical ecosystems evolved, especially in Asia, even as extinction risks are rising quickly, and we lose vast areas every year to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>."



These findings plug a critical gap in the fossil record, confirming the presence of legumes in Southeast Asia. 



"Our work highlights the neglected paleobotanical potential of this region and the need for more fossil sampling in the Malay Archipelago," Spagnuolo emphasized.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/730538" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Plant Sciences</a>.



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Ancient seeds reveal plant migration path from Asia to Australia

Who ever thought that bean-sized fossils could unravel a tale...

Have you ever considered how your brain employs reasoning to draw connections between seemingly unrelated objects or concepts? Our cognitive abilities empower us to make these connections in often non-obvious ways.



For example, we can relate inclement weather to commuting delays, understanding that heavy rain or snow can lead to slower traffic and extended travel times.



Likewise, we recognize how environmental factors, such as temperature and habitat shifts, impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species evolution over time</a>, resulting in adaptations crucial for survival.



This distinctive reasoning pattern, known as analogical thinking, enables us to infer relationships that significantly enhance our decision-making processes.



It allows us to navigate complex scenarios with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impressive adaptability</a>, whether we are adjusting our plans in response to unpredictable weather or contemplating the broader implications of climate change on biodiversity.



By refining this skill, we can boost our problem-solving capabilities and deepen our understanding of the world around us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-our-neurons">Secrets of our neurons</h2>



A landmark study has offered enlightening data and insights that outline the neuronal workings of inferential reasoning. 



"We are beginning to understand how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-is-constantly-working-to-learn-from-our-mistakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain learns</a> and how we extract knowledge from what we experience," said Ueli Rutishauser, PhD, a co-corresponding author on the study and a professor of neuroscience, neurosurgery, and biomedical science at <a href="https://www.cedars-sinai.org/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cedars-Sinai Medical Center</a>.



The study, conducted as part of a multi-institutional consortium funded by the National Institutes of Health’s <a href="https://braininitiative.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BRAIN Initiative</a>, used electrical recordings from more than 3,000 neurons in 17 volunteers with epilepsy who were undergoing invasive monitoring in the hospital to locate the sources of their seizures.



Stefano Fusi, PhD, a principal investigator at <a href="https://zuckermaninstitute.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia's Zuckerman Institute</a> and the study’s other co-corresponding author, noted that this unique dataset allowed researchers to monitor how the brain’s cells represent a learning process critical for inferential reasoning.



"These individuals gave us the precious opportunity to learn something new about how all of our brains work," added Dr. Rutishauser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inferential-reasoning-in-brain">Inferential reasoning in brain</h2>



These breakthroughs aren't just for the scientific community but mirror our day-to-day inferences. The researchers challenged the participants with a simple inferential reasoning task.



Initially, the participants responded based on their previously understood associations, but they quickly learned to adapt to the new rules. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brains-bend-time-to-adapt-to-lifes-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural adaptability</a> reflects the rationale we apply in navigating different environments—for instance, knowing which side of the road to check first when crossing in New York or London.



"If you live both in New York and in London, and you fly to the UK, you know that you have to look right when you want to cross a road," explained Dr. Fusi. 



"Even if you visit places you have never been to in the UK, like the countryside in Wales, you infer that the new rules still apply there."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-shape-to-brain-activity-and-reasoning">Giving shape to brain activity and reasoning</h2>



The next question is, how can these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-imaging-method-will-unravel-mysteries-of-neural-processes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural processes</a> be physically interpreted? 



In a groundbreaking approach, scientists transformed the electrical brain activity of volunteers into geometric representations using complex mathematical tools. 



These resulted in high-dimensional shapes that were visually unparalleled. The transformation revealed astonishing differences between situations when the subjects successfully made inferences versus those when they were unsuccessful. 



"In certain neuronal populations during learning, we saw transitions from disordered representations to these beautiful geometric structures that were correlated with the ability to reason inferentially," Dr. Fusi observed.



The researchers observed these geometric structures primarily in the hippocampus, a brain area traditionally associated with spatial location. 



This discovery shows that the hippocampus also plays a crucial role in functions like inference-making and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zombie-neurons-shed-new-light-on-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>. 



"This work elucidates a neural basis for conceptual knowledge, which is essential for reasoning, making inferences, planning, and even regulating emotions," said Daniel Salzman, MD, PhD, a coauthor of the study and a principal investigator at the Zuckerman Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-verbal-instruction">Power of verbal instruction</h2>



Yet another compelling discovery was the impact of verbal instruction on neural representations. "Verbal instruction is how we build knowledge about things that we have never actually experienced," added Dr. Rutishauser. 



It was observed that participants who learned associations via verbal instruction structured neural representations in the hippocampus similar to those who learned through hands-on experience. 



This observation underlines the power of verbal instruction in forming structured neural representations similar to experiential learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-valuable-volunteers-and-collaborators">The role of valuable volunteers and collaborators</h2>



Credit is due to the brave volunteers, patients suffering from drug-resistant epilepsy. Their willingness to partake in this research allowed invaluable insights into brain functionality. 



The data collected was utilized to locate each participant's seizure source, ultimately aiding in further treatment planning.



"This study provides new insights into how our brains allow us to learn and carry out tasks flexibly and in response to changing conditions and experiences," said Dr. Merav Sabri, program director for The BRAIN Initiative. 



The study also highlights the critical contributions from collaborators like Dr. Taufik Valiante at the University of Toronto's <a href="https://www.uhn.ca/Research/Research_Institutes/Krembil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Krembil Research Institute</a> and Division of Neurosurgery, as well as graduate student Hristos Courellis and postdoctoral researcher Juri Minxha, PhD, at Cedar-Sinai Medical Center and the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07799-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How our brains connect unrelated concepts through reasoning

Have you ever considered how your brain employs reasoning to...

Let's spend a few minutes time traveling back to the Devonian period, where we unravel the mysteries hidden within the lungfish genome -- the world's largest animal genome, and a treasure trove of information about one of evolution's most pivotal transitions. 



Picture yourself at the edge of a shallow sea, sometime between 420 and 360 million years ago. Here, an extraordinary event unfolded: a lobe-finned fish, propelled by its robust pectoral fins, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fish-from-tiktaaliks-time-chose-life-in-the-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hauled itself from the water onto dry land</a>.



This remarkable creature, equipped with lungs capable of extracting oxygen from air, marked a turning point in Earth's biological history. 



It likely represents the first venture of a vertebrate onto land - a momentous step that paved the way for the diverse array of terrestrial vertebrates we see today, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals like ourselves.



But what gave these lobe-finned fishes their unique ability to conquer the challenges of a terrestrial environment? The answer lies hidden within their genetic code, waiting to be deciphered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-legacy-of-our-ancestral-cousins">Genetic legacy of our ancestral cousins</h2>



In an endeavor to solve this longstanding mystery, scientists have analyzed the genetic material of the closest existing relatives of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-newest-oldest-forest-recently-discovered-is-full-of-calamophyton-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Devonian</a> ancestor.



These relatives are the lungfish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-provide-a-deeper-insight-into-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">only three lineages</a> of which survive today: one in Africa, one in South America, and one in Australia.



These ancient "living fossils" bear an uncanny resemblance to their ancestors, providing a glimpse into evolutionary history. 



To decode the lungfish genomes, knowledge of their complete sequences is critical, as DNA is made up of nucleobases and the order of these nucleobases carries the essential genetic information. 



Even though it was known that lungfish genomes were enormous, the precise scale and what could be inferred from them weren't clear until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-lungfish-genome">Deciphering lungfish genome</h2>



Decoding the genomes of lungfish posed significant challenges, both technically and bioinformatically. 



However, an international team of researchers, led by biologist Dr. Axel Meyer from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> and biochemist Dr. Manfred Schartl from Würzburg, managed to completely sequence the genome of the South American lungfish and a member of the African lineage.



Dr. Meyer highlighted the nature of their findings. He noted that the South American lungfish species possesses an extraordinary genome.



"With over 90 gigabases (in other words, 90 billion bases), the DNA of the South American species is the largest of all animal genomes," he explained. This genetic blueprint is more than double the size of the previous record holder, the Australian lungfish. 



Dr. Meyer went on to emphasize the sheer scale of this discovery, pointing out that "18 of the 19 chromosomes of the South American lungfish are each individually larger than the entire human genome." 



To put this into perspective, he reminded us that the human genome contains nearly 3 billion bases, underscoring the immense complexity of the lungfish's genetic material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanticipated-lungfish-genome-expansion">Unanticipated lungfish genome expansion</h2>



The expansive size of the lungfish genome is attributed to autonomous transposons, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-life-the-secret-language-of-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> sequences that reproduce and change their location within the genome, leading to genome expansion. 



Although common in other organisms, the researchers found that the expansion rate of the South American lungfish genome is the fastest on record. 



Dr. Meyer stated, "Every 10 million years in the past, its genome has grown by the size of the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complete-sequencing-of-the-human-genome-reveals-new-findings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human genome</a>. And it continues to grow. We have found evidence that the transposons responsible are still active." 



The team uncovered the underlying cause for the extraordinary expansion of this genome. Their research revealed that the massive growth is primarily attributed to a significantly reduced presence of piRNA. 



This particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type of RNA</a> typically plays a crucial role in a molecular process that suppresses transposons. 



However, with the scarcity of piRNA in this species, the usual silencing mechanism appears to be compromised, potentially allowing for unchecked genome expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-amidst-an-explosion-of-transposons">Stability amidst an explosion of transposons</h2>



Despite the vast surplus of transposons and the contribution they make to genome growth, the researchers observed no correlation between the enormous transposon surplus and genome instability. 



In fact, the lungfish genome was surprisingly stable, and the gene arrangement remarkably conservative, allowing the researchers to reconstruct the ancestral tetrapod's original chromosome framework from the lungfish species that are still alive today.



This new research also enabled the scientists to understand the genetic basis of the differences between the existing lineages. 



For instance, the Australian lungfish still possesses the limb-like fins which once allowed its relatives to tread on land. 



These fins, similar in structure to our arms, evolved back into filamentous fins over the last 100 million years or so in the other existing lungfish species from Africa and South America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diving-deeper">Diving deeper</h2>



To further investigate this evolution, the team conducted additional experiments. "In our research, we also used experiments with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR-Cas</a> transgenic mice to show that this simplification of the fins is attributable to a change in what is known as the Shh-signaling pathway," Dr. Meyer explained. This pathway plays a crucial role in embryonic development.



"During the embryonic development of mice, for example, the Shh-signalling pathway controls the number and development of the fingers, among other things," added Dr. Meyer. 



These findings provide additional evidence of the evolutionary link between the ray fins of bony fish and the fingers of land vertebrates.



With the entire genome sequences of all current lungfish families now available, future comparative genomic studies will provide deeper insights into the lobe-finned ancestors of land vertebrates - potentially cracking the code of how vertebrates transitioned onto land.



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Lungfish genome discovery explains how fish first walked onto land

Let's spend a few minutes time traveling back to the...

Sunflowers, often thought to be stationary and unchanging, hide a surprising world of intricate motion beneath their surface.



Though these subtle movements are too slow for the naked eye to detect, time-lapse footage reveals a fascinating and complex dance as the sunflower seedling emerges and sprouts from the soil.



Instead of simply growing straight upward, the seedling’s crown spins in graceful circles, twists like a tightly coiled corkscrew, and wiggles energetically as it embarks on its dynamic growth journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secret-motions-of-sunflowers">Secret motions of sunflowers </h2>



The seemingly chaotic motion of sunflower seedlings, known as “circumnutations,” was at the heart of a study co-led by experts from the United States and Israel.



Driven by curiosity, research teams based at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> and Tel Aviv University embarked on an in-depth investigation to uncover the purpose and significance of these subtle plant movements.



By combining meticulous greenhouse experiments with advanced computer simulations, the researchers discovered that sunflowers strategically leverage circumnutations as an effective means to search for and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflowers-use-multiple-light-response-systems-to-track-the-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maximize their exposure to sunlight</a> in their surroundings.



“A lot of people don't really consider the motion of plants because, as humans, we're usually looking at plants at the wrong frame rate," noted study co-author Orit Peleg.



The discovery opens up possibilities for farmers to devise new cultivation strategies for various crops, leading to more efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/developing-climate-smart-agricultural-practices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming practices</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-intriguing-concept-of-plant-mobility">The intriguing concept of plant mobility </h2>



"Our team does a lot of work on social interactions in insect swarms and other groups of animals. But this research is particularly exciting because we’re seeing similar dynamics in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-why-plants-have-a-burst-of-activity-at-dawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. They’re rooted to the ground," said lead author Chantal Nguyen, postdoctoral researcher at BioFrontiers.



Unlike animals, plants don't usually shift location yet they manage to move by growing in different directions over time.



This intriguing plant phenomenon had long captured the attention of none other than Charles Darwin, who became fascinated by it in the 1860s. 



Despite suffering from health issues that limited his mobility, Darwin dedicated himself to observing and recording the daily movements of various plants, including cucumber plants and other species. 



While he found this research both captivating and amusing, he struggled to explain the mysterious twisting of tendrils that he observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-sunflower-plant-wiggles">Subtle sunflower plant wiggles</h2>



This very enigma later caught the interest of Yasmine Meroz, a physicist by training, who was inspired to investigate whether these subtle plant wiggles might actually be the driving force behind patterns in plant growth.



“For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woody-vines-strangle-trees-and-takeover-forests-as-temperatures-get-hotter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climbing plants</a>, it’s obvious that it’s about searching for supports to twine on," said Meroz, "But for other plants, it’s not clear why it’s worth it.”



In a carefully designed experimental setup, five one-week-old sunflower seedlings were planted in rows, with their movements meticulously mapped over the course of a week - echoing the methodical approach Darwin had employed in his own observations.



To delve deeper into the underlying patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflowers-use-an-internal-clock-to-bloom-at-optimal-times/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunflower growth</a>, a sophisticated computer program developed by Nguyen and Peleg was utilized to analyze the seedlings' behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-order-in-the-chaos-of-sunflowers">Order in the chaos of sunflowers</h2>



The digital simulations revealed that when the sunflowers didn’t wiggle at all, they would gradually lean away from each other in a uniform, straight line. 



However, when the seedlings moved with an optimum level of randomness, they formed an intricate zig-zag pattern, which allowed each plant to maximize its access to sunlight, showcasing the strategic advantage of these seemingly chaotic movements.



"When you add a little bit of noise into the system, it allows the plant to explore its surroundings and settle into those configurations that allow each plant to find maximum light exposure," explained Nguyen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-hidden-dynamics-of-plant-growth">Exploring the hidden dynamics of plant growth</h2>



Through this study, plants are finally gaining recognition for their dynamic nature. The experts plan to conduct future experiments observing how sunflowers grow in more intricate arrangements.



The researchers hope to heighten awareness of these subtle plant movements, which may lead to a new appreciation of our stationary green friends. 



“If we all lived at the same timescales as plants, you could walk down the street and see them moving,” said Meroz. “Maybe we’d all have plants as pets.”



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Why do sunflowers spin and wiggle as they grow?

Sunflowers, often thought to be stationary and unchanging, hide a...

A new study has provided evidence that engaging in arts and crafts could significantly improve our well-being. Since such artistic activities are relatively affordable and accessible to many people, promoting the general public’s access to them could offer a major boost to public <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>.



“Crafting and other artistic activities showed a meaningful effect in predicting people’s sense that their life is worthwhile,” explained lead author Helen Keyes, a scientist at <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anglia Ruskin University</a>. 



“Indeed, the impact of crafting was bigger than the impact of being in employment. Not only does crafting give us a sense of achievement, it is also a meaningful route to self-expression. This is not always the case with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-protects-against-work-stress-burnout/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">employment</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-arts-and-public-well-being">The arts and public well-being </h2>



The experts initiated this study inspired by the urgent need to increase public mental health after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-helps-reduce-mental-health-impacts-of-the-covid-19-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Covid-19</a> pandemic. In the wake of the pandemic, any measures which could improve well-being and lower loneliness in the general population would have significant benefits. 



Since previous studies have already shown that specific crafts may be therapeutic for individuals with mental health issues, promoting general accessibility to artistic activities could contribute significantly to public mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers used a sample of 7,182 participants from the annual Taking Part survey conducted by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-culture-media-and-sport" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK’s Department for Culture, Media, and Sport</a>. This survey evaluates public engagement with cultural, digital and sporting activities. 



Such a broad sample allowed the investigators to assess the impact of creative arts in general rather than specific crafts, a method allowing them to evaluate how effective arts-based interventions could be beyond a controlled clinical setting.



The research team controlled for several sociodemographic variables that could affect well-being, including gender, age, health, employment status, and level of deprivation. For example, poor health, unemployment, and increased levels of deprivation have previously been associated with lower levels of well-being.



Participants were asked to rate their feelings of happiness, life satisfaction, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anxiety-logical-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a>, and to provide their option of whether life is worthwhile. Moreover, they were also questioned on how often they felt lonely. 



Finally, when asked about their involvement in creative activities, 37.4% of the respondents confirmed that they had taken part in at least one arts or crafts activity over the last year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-creative-arts-on-well-being">Impact of creative arts on well-being </h2>



The analysis revealed that participants who engaged in arts and crafts had increased levels of happiness and life satisfaction, along with a stronger sense that their lives were worthwhile. This boost to their sense that life is worthwhile was as significant as that resulting from being in employment.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, taking part in arts and crafts activities failed to predict levels of loneliness, most likely because some crafts can be solitary. Further research is needed to analyze the social aspects of arts and crafts.



“Engaging in these activities is linked with a greater sense that life is worthwhile, increased life satisfaction and happiness,” said Keyes.&nbsp;



“The well-being effects were present even after we accounted for things like employment status and level of deprivation. It seems that crafting can contribute positively to your well-being above and beyond these other aspects of your life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-arts-and-crafts-to-improve-well-being">Using arts and crafts to improve well-being </h2>



Although such effects are rather small, their magnitude remains similar to that of various sociodemographic variables, which are much harder to change. Thus, leveraging the positive effects of artistic activities could provide a major opportunity to improve public well-being.



“Governments and national health services might consider funding and promoting crafting, or even socially prescribing these activities for at-risk populations, as part of a promotion and prevention approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wellbeing-is-a-more-effective-focus-area-when-discussing-energy-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-being</a> and mental health,” Keyes explained.



“There is certainly something immensely satisfying about seeing the results of your work appear before your eyes. It feels great to focus on one task and engage your mind creatively.”



However, since this has been a correlational study, further research is necessary to confirm causation.



“We can’t know for certain whether crafting is directly causing this increase in well-being,” said Keyes. “The next step would be to carry out an experimental study where we measure people’s well-being before and after significant periods of crafting.”



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Arts and crafts can greatly improve public well-being

A new study has provided evidence that engaging in arts...

Our lives are defined by change, and with every shift and turn, our memory need to adapt. The brain's responsibility is to keep our memories as flexible as our experiences, enabling us to navigate changes and respond appropriately to new situations. 



Once thought of as a static repository, our brain is now seen as an adaptable scribe, continuously editing our memory manuscript.



This discovery comes to us from the diligent work of Professor Flavio Donato's research group at the Biozentrum, <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>. 



By using mouse models, these scientific sleuths have unveiled how the brain stores memories and how they evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-copies-of-a-memory-in-our-brains">Copies of a memory in our brains</h2>



In the heart of our brains, within a region known as the hippocampus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">each event in our life</a> is archived in triplicate. 



Copies of each memory are disseminated among different groups of neurons, which arise at various stages during embryonic development.



The first to make an appearance are the early-born neurons. Their role? To ensure the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity of a memory.</a> Interestingly, their memory copy lacks strength initially but matures over time, much like fine wine. 



Initially, their memory copy is too weak for the brain to access, but as the days roll on, it gains strength. It's like a soft whisper that gradually morphs into a resounding echo.



The late-born neurons come second. Their memory copy stands strong from the get-go but fades away with time. However, as the copy diminishes, it becomes inaccessible to the brain.



Nestling in between these two extremes, the last group of neurons present an interesting compromise—a memory copy that remains stable over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-memory">Flexibility of memory</h2>



These three memory copies function together, enhancing our brain's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory dynamics</a> and reinforcing its plasticity. 



Their activation and their timing can significantly influence how we remember, modify, and use our memories, which, in effect, controls our behavior.



"The challenge the brain faces with memory is quite impressive. On one hand, it must remember what happened in the past, to help us make sense of the world we live in," Flavio Donato explains.



On the other, it needs to adapt to changes happening all around us, and so must our memories, to help us make appropriate choices for our future." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retrieving-copies-of-a-memory">Retrieving copies of a memory</h2>



The process of memory retrieval is a remarkable interplay of neural pathways and contextual cues. When we attempt to recall an event, our brain navigates through a complex web of synaptic connections that link fragments of the original experience. 



This search is not merely a replay of past events; rather, it involves reconstructing the memory, influenced by current emotional states and environmental factors. 



Recent studies indicate that the mere act of recalling a memory can, in fact, alter its structure—an observation known as reconsolidation. 



As Professor Donato elucidates, "Each time we access a memory, it's as if we are rewriting our own history, allowing space for new interpretations and insights."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-learning">Mental health and learning</h2>



Understanding the dynamics of how memories form, evolve, and are retrieved holds profound implications for mental health and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spacing-effect-spaced-learning-long-term-impact-on-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">educational practices</a>.



In therapeutic settings, harnessing the adaptability of memories can aid in addressing conditions such as PTSD, where painful memories are recontextualized to diminish their emotional hold. 



Similarly, educational strategies can be designed to align with our innate memory processes, enhancing retention and application of knowledge over time. 



As we advance our grasp on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zombie-neurons-shed-new-light-on-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological mechanisms</a>, we unlock new avenues for fostering resilience and curiosity, essential traits in navigating the complexities of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-memory-research">Future of memory research</h2>



The fact that memories can be as dynamic as life itself is nothing short of a fascinating revelation, shedding light on the brain's incredible capacity and potential. 



The researchers of University of Basel hope that understanding what drives memories to be encoded and modified in the brain might eventually aid in reducing the impact of disturbing memories, or even in recovering memories that seem to have been lost forever.



Indeed, the journey of discovery continues. Will we ever fully understand the brain? Maybe. Maybe not. But for now, we can marvel at what we've learned, and eagerly anticipate what the future holds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk0997" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Human brains create three copies of every memory we make

Our lives are defined by change, and with every shift...

Have you ever stopped to taste the water while swimming in a river? Now, imagine being a blind cavefish with an incredible multitude of taste buds scattered all over your head and chin. Makes you wonder what these peculiar creatures are tasting, right? Well, that's precisely what the researchers at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cincinnati</a>&nbsp;have been trying to figure out.



In a recent article published in the Nature journal Communications Biology, these scientists embarked on an intriguing journey to discover when and why these extra taste buds appear in places beyond the confines of the mouth.



The research, supported by the National Science Foundation, delves deeply into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-season-fishing-may-shrink-the-size-of-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of the humble cavefish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tale-of-blind-cavefish">The tale of blind cavefish</h2>



Blind cavefish took evolution in stride, adapting to dark, subterranean life by losing their eyes but gaining a fascinating attribute in return - an abundance of taste buds.



These translucent, pink inhabitants of cave ponds in northeastern Mexico have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-evolution-of-bitter-taste-perception-found-in-sharks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct difference</a> from their silvery relatives residing in surface rivers and streams - those extra taste buds.



While the surface fish showcase massive round eyes that seem to suggest a sense of constant surprise, our star, the cavefish, boasts a faint outline of what used to be eye sockets.



Interestingly, despite the glaring physical disparities, both types of fish are considered the same species.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cavefish-taste-buds">Cavefish taste buds</h2>



“Regression, such as the loss of eyesight and pigmentation, is a well-studied phenomenon, but the biological bases of constructive features are less well understood,” said UC professor and biologist Joshua Gross, the study's senior author.



Gross, an expert in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-summer-fishing-shrinks-atlantic-salmon-size-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>&nbsp;and development of cave-dwelling vertebrates, takes us further into the mystery of the blind cavefish's peculiar gift.&nbsp;



He explains that while some scientists in the 1960s stumbled upon the fact that certain blind cavefish populations had extra taste buds, no extensive studies were conducted to understand the development or genetic processes behind this unique trait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flavor-filled-findings">Flavor-filled findings</h2>



To unveil the truth behind the blind cavefish's plentiful taste buds, Gross and his team studied two separate cavefish populations living in the Pachón and Tinaja caves in northwestern Mexico. The results were surprising and enlightening at the same time.



The team discovered that the cavefish and their surface-dwelling counterparts had a similar number of taste buds from birth until about five months of age. Then things began to change. 



The cavefish started to grow extra taste buds on their heads and chins, a trend that continued well into their adulthood, around the 18-month mark. But why this sudden eruption of taste buds, and what purpose did they serve?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-cavefish-taste">New perspective on cavefish taste</h2>



Gross speculates that this increase coincides with a shift in the cavefish's diet. They stop relying on traditional food sources and start eating, believe it or not, bat guano. However, the most exciting part is that this expansion continues even in caves devoid of bats.



The abundance of taste buds enhances the cavefish's sense of taste, giving them an adaptive edge in their dark dwellings.&nbsp;



“It remains unclear what is the precise functional and adaptive relevance of this augmented taste system,” noted Professor Gross. This uncertainty paves the path for more exploration. 



The researchers are now set to investigate further, planning to expose the cavefish to a variety of flavors - sweet, sour, and bitter - to better understand this miraculous gift of taste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The tale of the blind cavefish continues to captivate our imagination. Their remarkable evolution and adaptation to an environment that is completely alien to us showcase the incredible resilience of life. 



These unique creatures remind us of nature's wonders and the perplexing mysteries that still await discovery, urging us to explore deeper into the unknown. Each new finding about their behavior and habitat reveals more about the complexity of life on Earth and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-catastrophic-decline-in-migratory-freshwater-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intricate connections</a> that bind all living things.



So, next time you take a dip in a river or simply sip a glass of water, spare a thought for our little blind cavefish and their extraordinary tasting abilities. After all, not everyone need eyes to lead an interesting life, some just need extra taste buds.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-06635-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Blind cavefish lost their eyes, but gained taste buds on their head

Have you ever stopped to taste the water while swimming...

For decades, scientists have been exploring the vast universe and have noticed something interesting about galaxy size. Some galaxies are packed closely together with tons of others, while others seem to float alone in space.



So, what does this mean for the galaxies themselves? A new study sheds light on how a galaxy’s surroundings might directly affect its size, raising questions about how we understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy formation</a> and evolution.



<a href="https://ghosharitra.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Aritra Ghosh</a>, a postdoctoral researcher in astronomy at the University of Washington, led this fascinating research alongside an international team of astrophysicists.



Their findings show that galaxies in denser parts of the universe are usually larger than those that are more isolated. 



This study isn't just about the size differences; it also challenges some of the existing theories on how galaxies form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-data-big-discoveries">Big data, big discoveries</h2>



Understanding the universe takes a ridiculous amount of data. Past studies on galaxy sizes have given us mixed results, mainly because they focused on just a few thousand galaxies.



Dr. Ghosh and his team wanted to change that by using data from the <a href="https://hsc.mtk.nao.ac.jp/ssp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hyper Suprime-Cam Subaru Strategic Program</a>, which was run with the <a href="https://subarutelescope.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subaru Telescope</a> in Hawaii.



This survey snapped high-res images of millions of galaxies, letting the team analyze around 3 million galaxies in incredible detail.



But they didn’t stop at just collecting data. The research team used a machine learning tool called GaMPEN (Galaxy Morphology Posterior Estimation Network), which Dr. Ghosh created during his time at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale</a>.



GaMPEN not only measured the sizes of these galaxies but also factored in uncertainties in those measurements, leading to a more accurate analysis. Thanks to this tech, the team uncovered a clear trend: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies that have more neighbors</a> tend to be larger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-galaxy-size-matters">Why galaxy size matters</h2>



The idea that clustered galaxies are bigger than their isolated ones brings up some fascinating questions.



Were these galaxies always larger since they formed, or did their interactions with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearby galaxies</a> help them grow?



There are plenty of theories, and dark matter -- a mysterious substance making up most of the universe's mass -- might be involved.



Galaxies form within dark matter halos, and the gravitational pull from these halos plays a key role in how galaxies develop.



Dr. Ghosh points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">densely clustered galaxies</a> could merge more efficiently with their neighbors, which might explain their larger size. But he also notes this is just one of many possible explanations.



“Theoretical astrophysicists will need to conduct more extensive studies using simulations to really figure out why galaxies with more neighbors tend to be larger,” Ghosh said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gampen-role-of-machine-learning-in-astronomy">GaMPEN: Role of machine learning in astronomy</h2>



The success of this study relies not just on the huge dataset but also on some clever machine learning. GaMPEN, the tool created by Dr. Ghosh, has been instrumental in accurately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-mcg-07-07-072-perseus-cluster-resembles-star-wars-tie-fighter-captured-hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">measuring galaxy sizes</a> and understanding their surroundings.



Unlike traditional methods, GaMPEN uses statistical models that factor in uncertainties, making it a real game-changer in astronomy.



“Figuring this out isn’t just about surveying a ton of galaxies,” Dr. Ghosh said. “You also need solid statistical analysis, and part of that comes from machine learning tools that can really nail down the uncertainties in our measurements of galaxy properties.”



The impact of this tool goes way beyond this study. GaMPEN is available for free online, and its flexibility means it can be used to analyze other big astronomical surveys in the future.



As astronomy heads into the big data era, especially with new telescopes like the <a href="https://rubinobservatory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vera C. Rubin Observatory</a> in Chile gearing up to gather tons of cosmic data, tools like GaMPEN are going to be essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-size-and-astronomical-research">Galaxy size and astronomical research</h2>



The findings from this study are just the tip of the iceberg. They show how crucial large-scale data and advanced analytical tools are for tackling long-standing debates in astrophysics.



As Dr. Ghosh pointed out, “Very soon, large datasets will be the norm in astronomy. This study is a great example of what you can do with them -- when you have the right tools.”



Looking ahead, the link between galaxy size and environment is likely to be a big focus for future research.



Figuring out why some galaxies grow larger than others based on their surroundings could give us some key insights into the life cycle of galaxies and how dark matter shapes the universe.



The next steps will involve more detailed simulations and perhaps the discovery of new factors that influence galaxy size.



With tools like GaMPEN and the increasing availability of massive datasets, the field of astronomy is poised to make even more groundbreaking discoveries in the coming years.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad596f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Galaxies in clusters are bigger than galaxies flying solo in the universe

For decades, scientists have been exploring the vast universe and...

A new study highlights the urgent need for increased protection of the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica to prevent significant population declines among native wildlife.



A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> has identified 30 new critical areas for conserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-biodiversity-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in these regions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iconic-animals-of-the-southern-ocean-nbsp">Iconic animals of the Southern Ocean&nbsp;</h2>



“Many animals are only found in the Southern Ocean, and they all play an important role in its ecosystem,” said Cassandra Brooks, the study’s senior author and associate professor in the Department of Environmental Studies at CU Boulder.&nbsp;



“While Antarctica and the Southern Ocean feel really far away, they - and the life within them - are critical to the functioning of Earth systems.”



The Southern Ocean is home to a diverse array of wildlife, including iconic species such as Adélie penguins, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seal-numbers-are-much-lower-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weddell seals</a>, and humpback whales. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-threat-of-human-activities-nbsp">The threat of human activities&nbsp;</h2>



The region's isolation and extreme conditions, characterized by freezing temperatures and vast expanses of sea ice, have historically protected its biodiversity from human activities.



“Despite the planet being in the midst of a mass extinction, the Southern Ocean in Antarctica is one of the few places in the world that hasn’t had any known species go extinct,” said Sarah Becker, the paper’s first author and a doctoral student in the Department of Environmental Studies.



However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-in-distress-the-escalating-consequences-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> accelerates, leading to warmer temperatures and melting sea ice, human activities like fishing and tourism are increasingly encroaching on the region. 



These activities not only compete with wildlife for resources but also pose additional threats, such as stress, the introduction of invasive species, and the spread of diseases to which native wildlife has little or no defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-biodiversity-sites-in-the-southern-ocean-nbsp">Key biodiversity sites in the Southern Ocean&nbsp;</h2>



In response to these growing threats, Becker, Brooks, and their research team sought to identify Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in the Southern Ocean - specific sites crucial for the survival of various species.&nbsp;



Using existing tracking data for 13 Antarctic and sub-Antarctic seabirds and seals, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelie-penguins-use-sea-ice-to-migrate-thousands-of-miles-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adélie penguins</a>, sooty albatrosses, and southern elephant seals, the team pinpointed 30 KBAs across the Southern Ocean. These areas are essential for foraging, breeding, and migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-areas-for-specific-species-nbsp">Critical areas for specific species&nbsp;</h2>



Previous large-scale efforts to identify conservation zones in the Southern Ocean often grouped different species into a single dataset to find areas important for multiple species.&nbsp;



While this approach is valuable for conservation planning, it can overlook critical areas needed by specific species during unique life stages or migration patterns. According to Becker, this oversight is highly significant.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emperor-penguins-nbsp">Emperor penguins&nbsp;</h3>



For instance, the team identified two large sites near Amanda Bay in East Antarctica as key foraging grounds for many emperor penguins as they recover after breeding.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gray-headed-albatrosses">Gray-headed albatrosses</h3>



The researchers also discovered several crucial sites near Campbell Island, south of New Zealand, where endangered gray-headed albatrosses forage during their breeding season.&nbsp;



These sites were not flagged as priorities by other large-scale conservation efforts, such as Important Bird Areas or Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas.



“Our study bridges the gap between the broad-scale perspective and the specific needs of individual populations, adding an important layer of detail,” Becker said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The researchers hope that international bodies and governments will take these findings into account when developing conservation strategies and determining areas where human activities like fishing should be restricted.



“By reducing fishing or tourism interactions in these key biodiversity areas, we can potentially give these animals the best chance of adapting and becoming resilient to climate change,” said Brooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southern-ocean-and-climate-change-nbsp">Southern Ocean and climate change&nbsp;</h2>



The Southern Ocean plays a vital role in buffering the impacts of climate change. Its cold waters capture 40% of human-generated carbon dioxide emissions globally and absorb 60-90% of the excess heat caused by climate change.



“Antarctica is far away, but what happens there doesn’t stop there. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-fire-risk-has-grown-exponentially-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildfires</a> here in Colorado are tied to what's happening in the Southern Ocean. By doing more to safeguard the Antarctic, we actually stand to create a more livable world for us all,” said Brooks.



“Given the newly adopted <a href="https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/news/win-ocean-high-seas-treaty-signed-united-nations-2023-09-20_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High Seas Treaty</a>, which will allow for area-based management tools like MPAs (marine protected areas) in international waters, along with the new <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/kunming-montreal-global-biodiversity-framework?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw8fu1BhBsEiwAwDrsjKaHvSUunGJJQpWUO0bWGI1nIieIDDirKuzbLhTvw_d0t1-XTGOrhxoCeBoQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Biodiversity Framework</a>, which includes commitments to protect 30% of the ocean by 2030, KBAs will have an important role to play in identifying key areas for marine conservation across the world's oceans.”



The study authors concluded that, when used in conjunction with complementary tools such as habitat modeling and bioregionalization, key biodiversity areas are a valuable tool to highlight specific needs for species of conservation concern and to guide spatial conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.14345" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Safeguarding Antarctica from human activity: Crucial sites identified

A new study highlights the urgent need for increased protection...

Have you ever wondered why after a long, hard day of learning new things, you still wake up feeling refreshed, ready to take on more? Turns out, the secret lies in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sleep-day-2024-the-quest-for-a-well-rested-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">good night’s sleep</a>. Now, sleep isn't just about recharging your energy; it also plays a crucial role in resetting one of our body's most vital functions: forming memories. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> have complex evidence to back this claim. The team was led by Azahara Oliva, an assistant professor of neurobiology and behavior.



The research team has been studying how our brain handles memory and has made some incredible discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-miraculous-hippocampus">The miraculous hippocampus</h2>



There is a particular region in our brain known as the hippocampus that acts like a memory powerhouse, particularly active when learning or experiencing new things.



While you're sawing logs, these same neurons replay the day's activities, consolidating the memories in a larger area of the brain known as the cortex. 



But here's the catch – the brain has an uncanny ability to soak up a lifetime of learning without having its neuronal resources run out. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-sleep-on-memories">Impact of sleep on memories</h2>



Oliva’s study, “A Hippocampal Circuit Mechanism to Balance Memory Reactivation During Sleep,” unveils that during deep sleep, portions of the hippocampus go quiet, letting the neurons hit the reset button. 



“This mechanism could allow the brain to reuse the same resources, the same neurons, for new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> the next day,” said Oliva.



The hippocampus is divided into three parts - CA1, CA2, and CA3. This brain region plays a vital role in encoding different types of memories.



While CA1 and CA3 are responsible for membrances related to time and space, CA2's role wasn’t quite understood until now. Oliva’s study found that CA2 plays a critical job in silencing and resetting the hippocampus during sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-neurons-and-memories">Sleep, neurons and memories</h2>



To understand this, the researchers implanted electrodes in mice's hippocampi, which allowed the recording of neuronal activity during learning and sleep. 



They observed that during sleep, the neurons in the CA1 and CA3 sectors replay the same neuronal patterns developed during daytime learning. But there's a moment in sleep where all falls silent, and the memory 'resets,' thanks to our CA2 hero.



And the plot thickens - among our neurons, there are two types - pyramidal ones, which are active during functional purposes like learning, and interneurons that have different subtypes.



The researchers found that the brain has parallel circuits regulated by these interneurons: one for memory regulation, another for memory resetting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-stages-in-forming-memories">Sleep stages in forming memories</h2>



Understanding how sleep stages contribute to memory consolidation is crucial to grasping the full picture. 



Sleep is composed of cycles that include non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, each playing distinct yet complementary roles. NREM sleep, particularly the deep stages, is when the brain orchestrates the majority of memory consolidation. 



During this phase, neurons in the hippocampus and cortex communicate intensely, transferring newly acquired information into long-term storage. 



In contrast, REM sleep is associated with emotional regulation and the integration of learned material into our existing knowledge frameworks. This interplay between NREM and REM highlights the importance of not just quantity, but also the quality of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-less-than-seven-hours-high-blood-pressure-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> in shaping memory and learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-learning-and-memory">Implications for learning and memory</h2>



The findings from Oliva's research have profound implications for educational practices and cognitive health. 



Recognizing that a well-timed sleep can refresh our neural resources allows educators and learners alike to strategize their study schedules more effectively. Instead of cramming late into the night, prioritizing adequate sleep after learning could enhance retention and understanding. 



Furthermore, this knowledge could inform approaches to address memory-related issues, such as those experienced by aging populations or individuals suffering from cognitive impairments. 



By leveraging the brain's innate mechanisms for memory resetting and consolidation, we can potentially improve educational outcomes and foster better mental health throughout life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-memory-consolidation">Beyond memory consolidation</h2>



But what does this mean down the line for us? Well, the researchers believe they now have the tools to boost memory by tweaking the mechanisms of memory consolidation. This could be significant when memory function falters, such as in Alzheimer’s disease.



Equally essential, there's evidence to explore ways to erase negative or traumatic memories, which could help treat conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder.



In short, sleep is more valuable than we ever realized. It doesn't just help embed memories but also resets the brain, keeping it functional during our waking hours. "We show that memory is a dynamic process," noted Oliva.



So, next time you hit the hay after a day of heavy learning, remember that your brain is likely repeating, resetting, and preparing to soak up more knowledge the following day. So, let's hail the power of slumber, the unsung hero of continuous learning.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado5708" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Sleep reboots the brain, making room for new memories

Have you ever wondered why after a long, hard day...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...