The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. 



These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands.



Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude.



This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic neighborhood</a> can still surprise us with unexpected details about how matter arranges itself across unimaginable distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-distribution">Galaxy clusters distribution</h2>



Hans Böhringer from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) coordinated the effort in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Physics (<a href="https://www.mpp.mpg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPP</a>) and teams in Spain and South Africa. 



Their work relied on the ROSAT X-ray satellite’s survey, which singled out clusters of galaxies by detecting the energetic radiation these huge clusters emit. 



These data allowed the researchers to build a three-dimensional map of our cosmic vicinity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_3D-model_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“If you look at the distribution of the galaxy clusters in the sky in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light-years, you immediately notice a huge structure that stretches from high northern latitudes to almost the southern end of the sky,” explains Böhringer.



By tracing each cluster’s position in space, his team pinpointed how matter spreads out in swirling patterns of galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quipu-superstructure">The Quipu superstructure</h2>



The researchers named this discovery “Quipu,” taking inspiration from the knotted string recording system once used by the Incas. 



Observed as a long strand with smaller threads branching off, the Quipu superstructure contains 68 galaxy clusters with a combined mass of about 2.4 × 10^17 solar masses. 



Its size of roughly 1.4 billion light-years makes Quipu the largest superstructure ever accurately measured, surpassing the Sloan Great Wall’s 1.1 billion light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/quipo_superstructure_illustration_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1960536"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



“This breaks the size record of all reliably measured cosmic structures,” note the researchers who compared the finding with other known formations. 



“The Quipu superstructure, end to end, is slightly longer than the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/SDSS-3D-Universe-Map-Credit-Sloan-Digital-Sky-Survey-Team-NASA-NSF-DOE_fig2_357328983" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>,” says J. Richard Gott III at Princeton University, who helped discover the Sloan Great Wall. “Congratulations to them for finding it.” 



The name also reflects a connection to Chile, where many distance measurements took place, and where ancient quipus are showcased in Santiago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-cosmological-principle">Quipu and cosmological principle</h2>



Across extremely large distances, matter is believed to spread out nearly evenly. At smaller scales of about a billion light-years, it collects in superclusters and leaves behind voids. 



This balance underpins the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a>, which suggests that if we look far enough, the universe should appear uniform in every direction. 



Some experts argue these huge arrangements question that principle’s validity, with past findings triggering debates. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/great-sloan-wall_superstructure_SDSS_credit-MIT_1s.webp" alt="Sloan Great Wall of galaxies. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE." class="wp-image-1960531"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sloan Great Wall of galaxies is 1.1 billion light years long. SDSS 3D Universe Map Credit: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Team, NASA, NSF, DOE.</figcaption></figure>



“Making observations in too small a part of the universe, which has been done earlier on, can be misleading,” says Böhringer. 



Another point comes from an ambiguous definition of the principle. “There is not yet one definition of the cosmological principle that every cosmologist agrees on,” says Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a> in the UK. 



Meanwhile, Seshadri Nadathur at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> notes that “some of those galaxies may drift apart from each other instead of collapsing in on themselves, in which case, according to some interpretations, it’s not really a bound structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-measurements-and-consequences">Cosmic measurements and consequences</h2>



Quipu’s existence highlights how vast formations can shape calculations of cosmic expansion rates and the properties of primordial radiation left over from the early universe. 



Astronomers pay close attention to features like superclusters because they alter light paths and influence how we determine important parameters such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unknown-factors-are-accelerating-the-expansion-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble constant</a>. 



Small discrepancies can add up when researchers aim for precise numbers in modern cosmological studies.



“Even if these are only corrections of a few percent, they become increasingly important as the accuracy of cosmological observations increases,” emphasizes Gayoung Chon from the Max Planck Institute for Physics. 



This structure offers a reminder that the cosmos presents patterns on many scales. Those patterns appear to affect how we interpret data on the universe’s origin and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> in our vicinity and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-incas">Quipu and the Incas</h2>



The Incas once managed vast territories using quipus, a system of knotted strings that helped track resources and information. 



Each knot arrangement acted like a code, revealing essential data in a form that required no written script.



Quipu’s naming borrowed that image of intertwined threads. 



Researchers see it as a nod to humanity’s long history of gathering knowledge, whether through knotted strings or advanced telescopes that trace the distribution of galaxies across cosmic depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery underscores how ongoing surveys might uncover more structures. 



Scientists are keen to see if similar patterns exist in parts of the sky that remain less charted, which could either confirm current theories or reveal new gaps in our understanding.



Future maps will rely on technology to gather clearer data from remote regions. 



These efforts reflect a human wish to capture our place in the universe, searching for the patterns that connect everything from particles to vast congregations of galaxies.



-----



Featured image: The open cluster Westerlund 1 is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Largest structure ever found in the universe is 1.4 billion light years long

The Universe contains many types of massive formations that shape our understanding of how stars and galaxies group together. Astronomers have long studied these sprawling patterns, which give valuable clues about where matter gathers and where it remains thinly spread. These features define how cosmic evolution unfolds and guide current theories of how the universe expands. Recently, a team of experts announced a giant find. This collection of galaxy clusters surpasses previous giants by orders of magnitude. This study adds fresh insights by demonstrating that our cosmic...

Some animals are known to cooperate with others of their own kind in a form of helping behavior. But every now and then, individuals from totally different species also form partnerships in order to improve their chances of survival.



This unexpected behavior requires that individuals understand the purpose of working together, and can see the advantages, despite having no means to communicate across the interspecies barrier. 



Researchers have documented many examples of cooperation between species, including <a href="https://planetforward.org/story/cleaner-wrasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cleaner wrasse</a> that remove parasites from bigger fish, and ants that protect aphids in exchange for honeydew. 



Experts have also observed <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3119009/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drongo</a> birds warning groups of <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/meerkat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meerkats</a> when danger approaches, and honeyguide birds in Africa that direct honey badgers to bee hives where food can be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-animals-form-partnerships">Why animals form partnerships</h2>



In a recent study, researchers set out to investigate how these alliances might expand our idea of <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00012-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225000120%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognition</a>.&nbsp;They also wanted to identify the mental skills that help animals communicate across species lines.



The study was led by biologist Eduardo Sampaio from the <a href="https://www.exc.uni-konstanz.de/collective-behaviour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cluster of Excellence, Collective Behaviour</a> at the University of Konstanz in Germany.



Unexpected partnerships often hinge on each participant’s specific advantage. One partner might detect predators faster, while the other can defend against attackers.



Scientists have noticed that such teamwork can evolve when both sides see a payoff that outweighs any potential costs. It is not mere convenience; it can mean the difference between going hungry or finding plenty to eat.



Large predators sometimes ignore smaller animals they would normally chase away, if those smaller creatures bring a clear benefit. This delicate truce can break if one side starts taking advantage of the other too often, showing that trust must be maintained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-cooperate-with-reef-fish">Octopuses cooperate with reef fish</h2>



In a paper published in the journal Current Biology, Sampaio and his colleagues described how octopuses cooperate with reef fish in order to hunt. Each species uses distinct signals, but they appear to understand these cues well enough to coordinate an attack and share the rewards.



“Partnerships like these challenge traditional views of intelligence and cooperation in the animal kingdom,” said Sampaio. His observations suggest that these animals grasp the benefits of working in sync, even though they usually operate alone.



Octopuses are typically solo hunters, but when a fish locates and points out hidden prey, the octopus helps flush it out. Any fish that tries to steal more than its fair share risks being swatted away.



Such behavior indicates that coordination between different species may rival the complexity of interactions seen among members of the same group. Researchers are eager to see what this reveals about flexibility in learning and decision-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-in-the-animal-kingdom">Cooperation in the animal kingdom </h2>



For octopuses to cooperate with different species, they must learn to interpret signals that do not match their usual social cues. This might stretch their problem-solving abilities, and push them to develop sharper instincts for sharing information.



“From an evolutionary perspective, social complexity, problem solving and communication do not only arise within one's own group, but can also be shaped by the need to collaborate across species boundaries,” explained Sampaio. 



This implies that alliances can occur between individuals from species that have very different brains and lifestyles. By investigating such alliances, scientists gain understanding about how animals adapt their behavior to succeed together, despite the apparent communication barriers.



The findings may change how experts define cooperation in the animal kingdom. Rather than ascribing social complexity to flocks or packs, it may be present whenever individuals from a species treat outsiders as potential allies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The quest to learn more about cross-species teamwork is just beginning. Future studies may focus on whether these interactions develop slowly, through repeated encounters, or whether they depend on innate predispositions to cooperate.



Research teams are also looking at <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/msystems.00884-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interspecies synergy</a> to inspire innovations in robotics and artificial intelligence. By examining how animals navigate tricky partnerships, engineers might design machines that coordinate smoothly even if they do not share the same construction.



Practical applications could pop up in fields like environmental conservation, where understanding these relationships might help preserve critical habitats. Conservationists may tailor strategies around natural alliances to keep ecosystems balanced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-partnerships-and-survival">Animal partnerships and survival</h2>



Scientists believe these surprising connections reveal the adaptability of complex nervous systems under challenging conditions. The discovery about octopuses broadens our awareness of how animals cooperate.



<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/mutualism-examples-of-species-that-work-together.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cross-species partnerships</a> add another layer to our appreciation of how animals survive, evolve, and thrive. They remind us that cooperation can stretch far beyond familiar boundaries whenever mutual gains are on the table.



Plenty of questions remain about how animals initially learn to work together in unpredictable settings. Ongoing research will shine more light on how living creatures solve problems, share resources, and strike deals for mutual benefit.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00012-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225000120%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Unlikely allies: Octopuses cooperate with fish to catch prey

Some animals are known to cooperate with others of their...

Regular exercise may be a crucial factor in maintaining optimal brain health and general well-being, according to a recent study. 



The results suggest that people who engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity have a lower risk of developing dementia, stroke, anxiety, depression, and sleep disorders.



The researchers also found that prolonged sitting increases the likelihood of developing these conditions.



The study was conducted by scientists at <a href="https://www.fudan.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fudan University</a> in Shanghai, China. The team analyzed data from 73,411 participants with an average age of 56 years.



Each participant wore an accelerometer device for seven consecutive days to capture physical activity levels, energy expenditure, and sedentary time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-exercise-affects-brain-health">How exercise affects brain health</h2>



To measure energy expenditure, the scientists utilized metabolic equivalents (METs). Tasks&nbsp;that&nbsp;required&nbsp;three&nbsp;or&nbsp;more METs were defined as moderate to vigorous physical activity.



For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walk-20-minutes-daily-to-boost-your-brain-power/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walking</a> or cleaning equated to three METs, while more rigorous activity such as biking involved approximately six METs, depending on speed.



The findings were straightforward. Individuals who engaged in higher levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity had a 14% to 40% decreased likelihood of developing dementia, stroke, anxiety, depression, or sleep disorders compared to those with lower energy expenditure.



Participants who did not develop any of the diseases had an average daily energy expenditure of 1.22 kilojoules per kilogram, compared to 0.85 for the people who developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-doses-of-exercise-can-greatly-reduce-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>, 0.95 for those who developed sleep disorders, 1.02 for stroke, 1.08 for depression and 1.10 for anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-risk-of-prolonged-sitting">The risk of prolonged sitting</h2>



The results also showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sedentary-behavior-sitting-for-hours-health-risk-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sitting</a> for long periods significantly increased the risk of developing brain diseases.



Among people who were sitting most often, the relative risk was higher by up to 54% when compared to those who sat for the shortest times. This finding supports a growing collection of evidence that sedentary behavior is strongly correlated with adverse health outcomes.



“This research highlights the role of physical activity and sedentary behavior as modifiable factors that may enhance brain health and reduce the incidence of these diseases,” said study author Dr. Jia-Yi Wu.



“It is promising to think that encouraging people to make these lifestyle changes could potentially lessen the burden of these diseases in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-physical-activity">Measuring physical activity </h2>



In contrast to earlier research that depended on self-reported physical activity levels, this study relied on wearable technology to capture direct measurements.



"With our large number of participants and the use of devices that provide objective measurements of activity levels, these results will have implications for assessing risk factors and developing interventions to prevent the development of these diseases," said Dr. Wu.



According to the researchers, one limitation of the study is that 96% of the participants were white, so the results do not necessarily apply to other ethnic groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-for-brain-health">Exercise for brain health</h2>



Previous studies have shown that regular exercise plays a crucial role in brain health by improving blood flow, reducing inflammation, and promoting the release of neurotransmitters that enhance mood and cognitive function. 



Physical activity stimulates the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that supports neuron growth and protects against age-related decline. It has been linked to better memory, faster learning, and a lower risk of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s. 



Exercise also helps regulate stress hormones, reducing anxiety and depression while improving focus and mental resilience. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-lifestyle-changes">Simple lifestyle changes</h2>



Small lifestyle changes can go a long way in boosting physical activity. Simple habits such as taking the stairs rather than the elevator, standing up and stretching every hour, or taking a short walk after meals can decrease sedentary time.



Fun physical activities like dancing, swimming, or gardening can also make movement a natural part of daily life.



Medical experts emphasize that maintaining a consistent exercise routine is more beneficial than focusing on intensity - slow, regular movement supports overall health.



The Fudan University study highlights the need to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a> more and sit less. Although additional research is needed to examine the effects in varied populations, the results are solid evidence for the advantages of an active lifestyle.



The study was funded by grants from the Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 – “Brain Science and Brain-inspired Artificial Intelligence” Major Project. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Exercise reduces the risk of brain diseases by up to 54 percent

Regular exercise may be a crucial factor in maintaining optimal...

Several weathered cliffs in central Utah have revealed something astonishing. Recent work on Cretaceous sedimentary layers hints at a surprisingly large set of dinosaur eggs belonging to predators and plant-eaters alike.



One cache in particular stands out for including fragments from three feathered, bird-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>; two herbivorous types; and a crocodile-like creature that has never been seen outside of Europe.



Dr. Ryan T. Tucker from the <a href="https://www.ufs.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Free State</a> in South Africa helped analyze these fragile fossils to understand which dinosaurs laid them and how they fit into the bigger story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah">Diverse dinosaur eggs found in Utah</h2>



The <a href="https://www.nps.gov/zion/learn/nature/cedarmtn.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cedar Mountain Formation</a> has been a focus of field expeditions for decades. Paleontologists have long suspected that its Cenomanian deposits held key information about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collagen-discovered-in-70-million-year-old-dinosaur-fossil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> life during a time of environmental transition.



This new <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0314689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">find</a> sheds light on six separate types of eggshell, scientifically known as <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0171919" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ootaxa</a>. Each ootaxon has a distinct microstructure, which helps confirm that multiple species laid eggs in the same broad region.



Three sets belonged to oviraptorosaur dinosaurs. Their skeletons often exhibit feathers and beaks that differ sharply from other predatory reptiles.



Another two eggshell types came from ornithopod dinosaurs with beak-like mouths for grazing. No one expected to find so many varieties in one sedimentary window.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-croc-like-presence">Rare croc-like presence</h2>



The sixth type of eggshell belongs to <a href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=451525&amp;is_real_user=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycomorphoolithus kohringi</a>. Until now, evidence of this crocodile-like species had only been found in Europe.



The creature has a structure that matches what paleontologists call <a href="https://a-z-animals.com/animals/crocodylomorph/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodylomorph</a> traits, bridging an important gap in how we see ancient reptiles roaming ancient waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eggs-that-reshape-dinosaur-history">Eggs that reshape dinosaur history</h2>



Paleontologists consider the Cedar Mountain Formation vital because it captures a shift from older dinosaur faunas to younger Cretaceous populations. This stage set the scene for many later groups that rose to prominence.



Compared to skeletons, eggs are often overlooked, yet they can reveal important details about nesting, breeding patterns, and species <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>.



Each shell fragment reflects a reproductive event that once played out on floodplains and near water sources. Scientists gain glimpses into dinosaur family life when they discover these clusters in the same layers.



The unexpected variety of shells in one place helps refine how we envision prehistoric neighborhoods. It moves beyond a single, monolithic group of dinosaurs and offers a more vivid snapshot of the region's diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coexistence-of-multiple-dinosaur-species">Coexistence of multiple dinosaur species </h2>



The discovery of multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur species</a> nesting in the same area raises questions about how they coexisted. Did these different species interact, or were they simply using the same environment at different times? 



<a href="https://tmdinosaurcenter.org/what-is-a-paleontologist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleontologists</a> suspect that some dinosaurs may have shared nesting grounds seasonally, while others might have avoided competition by laying eggs in slightly different conditions.



The presence of both predators and plant-eaters in close proximity also suggests a rich ecosystem with enough resources to support a variety of creatures. 



Fossilized plant remains, soil analysis, and nearby skeletal finds could help researchers understand what this environment looked like 94 million years ago and how different species adapted to it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-eggs-reveal-about-dinosaur-evolution">What eggs reveal about dinosaur evolution</h2>



Eggshells provide more than just evidence of ancient reproduction. Their microscopic structure holds clues about nesting strategies, eggshell thickness, and even incubation methods. 



Some species laid rigid, thick-shelled eggs, while others had thinner, more fragile eggs that required specific environmental conditions to survive.



Studying eggshells over time also helps scientists trace evolutionary changes. The oviraptorosaur eggs in this discovery add to the growing evidence that some dinosaurs were developing traits similar to modern birds. 



These findings connect distant relatives in the dinosaur family tree and show how behaviors like <a href="https://thomas-hopp.com/pdf/Hopp04-DinoBrooding.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brooding</a> and nest-building may have developed long before birds took flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



With so many distinct eggshells uncovered, teams may now search for specific nest sites that confirm hatching behaviors. Such places might even reveal whether certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> guarded eggs or left them to the sun-warmed environment.



Findings like these draw new attention to Utah’s rock formations, encouraging ongoing excavation and analysis. More fragments or entire eggs could reveal hidden details of dinosaur biology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0314689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



Image Credit: Lindsay Zanno, CC-BY 4.0



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dinosaur eggs found in Utah belong to multiple species

Several weathered cliffs in central Utah have revealed something astonishing....

For a long time, scientists believed that early humans avoided rainforests, considering them difficult places to inhabit. 



Dense vegetation, limited open spaces, and a challenging food supply led researchers to assume that humans only ventured into these environments much later in history. 



However, new findings challenge this idea, showing that humans were living in African rainforests at least 150,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fresh-perspective-on-human-evolution">A fresh perspective on human evolution</h2>



Our species, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-homo-sapiens-living-spaces-organized-similarly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo sapiens</a>, originated in Africa around 300,000 years ago. 



While much research has focused on understanding how early humans adapted to different environments, rainforests have often been overlooked. They were generally seen as barriers to human movement and settlement. 



The new study reveals that early humans not only survived in rainforests but made them home much earlier than previously thought. The researchers discovered evidence of human presence in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-thirds-of-temperate-rainforests-could-be-lost-this-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforests</a> of present-day Côte d'Ivoire dating back 150,000 years.



This finding reshapes our understanding of human evolution, suggesting that our ancestors lived in a range of environments - not just open grasslands and savannas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rediscovering-an-old-site">Rediscovering an old site</h2>



The story of this discovery dates back to the 1980s when Professor Yodé Guédé of l'Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny first investigated the site as part of a joint Ivorian-Soviet mission. 



During the initial excavation, researchers found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> buried deep in the soil, indicating human presence. 



However, at the time, they could not determine the exact age of the tools or the environmental conditions of the site when humans lived there.



More recently, the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/1143811/human-palaeosystems" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Palaeosystems Research Group</a> set out to re-examine the site using modern dating and analysis methods. This work was urgent because mining activity was rapidly destroying the site. 



“Several recent climate models suggested the area could have been a rainforest refuge in the past as well, even during dry periods of forest fragmentation,” explained Professor Eleanor Scerri, senior author of the study.



“We knew the site presented the best possible chance for us to find out how far back into the past rainforest habitation extended.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-dating-techniques">Advanced dating techniques </h2>



Guided by Professor Guédé, the researchers returned to the original excavation site. They used modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/out-of-africa-hominin-migration-timeline-pushed-back-even-further-by-new-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dating techniques</a> to reassess the age of the tools.



“With Professor Guédé’s help, we relocated the original trench and were able to re-investigate it using state of the art methods that were not available thirty to forty years ago,” said Dr. James Blinkhorn from the University of Liverpool.



Using dating techniques like Optically Stimulated Luminescence and Electron-Spin Resonance, the team confirmed that the artifacts were buried roughly 150,000 years ago. 



Before this study, the oldest confirmed evidence of human presence in African rainforests dated back only 18,000 years, while the earliest known rainforest habitation anywhere was from Southeast Asia around 70,000 years ago. 



“This pushes back the oldest known evidence of humans in rainforests by more than double the previously known estimate,” explained study lead author Dr. Eslem Ben Arous, a researcher at the National Centre for Human Evolution Research (CENIEH).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-in-a-dense-rainforest">Early humans in a dense rainforest</h2>



To understand the environment these early humans lived in, the researchers examined sediment samples including pollen, plant remains called phytoliths, and leaf wax isotopes.



The analysis showed that the region was heavily wooded at the time, with pollen and leaf waxes characteristic of humid West African rainforests. 



Additionally, low levels of grass pollen indicated that this was not just a narrow strip of forest - it was a dense rainforest.



“This exciting discovery is the first of a long list as there are other Ivorian sites waiting to be investigated to study the human presence associated with rainforest,” said Professor Guédé.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-understanding-of-early-humans">A new understanding of early humans</h2>



The discovery adds a new dimension to the story of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a>. Instead of living exclusively in open landscapes, early humans were far more adaptable than previously thought. 



“Convergent evidence shows beyond doubt that ecological diversity sits at the heart of our species,” said Professor Scerri. "This reflects a complex history of population subdivision, in which different populations lived in different regions and habitat types." 



"We now need to ask how these early human niche expansions impacted the plants and animals that shared the same niche-space with humans. In other words, how far back does human alteration of pristine natural habitats go?”



The research opens up new possibilities for understanding how early humans shaped and adapted to different environments. 



As scientists explore more sites across West Africa, further surprising discoveries about the locations and lifestyles of our ancestors may soon emerge.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08613-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humans lived in rainforests 80,000 years earlier than we thought

For a long time, scientists believed that early humans avoided...

The vast emptiness of space is anything but empty. It’s filled with unseen forces, shifting planetary alignments, and delicate gravitational dances that shape the movements of celestial bodies. 



For NASA’s Europa Clipper, these invisible forces will be the key to reaching its target - Jupiter’s moon Europa, a world covered in ice but brimming with possibilities.



Scientists have long speculated about Europa’s hidden ocean, buried beneath miles of frozen crust. Could it harbor the right conditions for life? The Europa Clipper <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/europa-clipper/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission</a> is designed to find out. 



But first, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-is-on-a-1-8-billion-mile-journey-to-jupiters-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft</a> must take a carefully planned detour, using Mars as a stepping stone before making its way into the deeper reaches of space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-europa-clipper-s-encounter-with-mars">Europa Clipper's encounter with Mars</h2>



The Europa Clipper will streak past Mars at blistering speeds - 550 miles (884 kilometers) above the planet’s surface. This flyby isn’t just a scenic pit stop. It’s a calculated maneuver, using the Red Planet’s gravity to tweak the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-will-search-for-signs-of-life-on-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft’s trajectory</a> without consuming valuable fuel.



At its closest point, the probe will be traveling 15.2 miles per second. Mars will tug at the spacecraft, reshaping its path and shaving off just a bit of speed. It’s a subtle shift, but an essential one.



By the time Europa Clipper exits Mars’ gravitational pull, it will still be racing through space - now at 14 miles per second - positioned perfectly for the next phase of its journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-to-jupiter">The road to Jupiter</h2>



Reaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-mission-set-to-search-for-life-on-jupiters-ocean-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> isn’t just about raw speed. It’s about precision. The Mars flyby is only the first of two gravity assists. 



The second one, scheduled for December 2026, will bring Europa Clipper back past Earth. This final planetary slingshot will give it the momentum needed to reach the gas giant.



Without these assists, the journey would be much harder. The spacecraft would need massive amounts of propellant - making it heavier, costlier, and slower. Instead, it’s taking the scenic route, letting planetary gravity do the heavy lifting.



If all goes according to plan, the probe will enter Jupiter’s orbit in April 2030, ready to begin its primary mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-art-of-space-navigation">The art of space navigation</h2>



“We come in very fast, and the gravity from Mars acts on the spacecraft to bend its path,” said Brett Smith, a mission systems engineer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>) in Southern California. 



“Meanwhile, we’re exchanging a small amount of energy with the planet, so we leave on a path that will bring us back past Earth.”



Launched on October 14, 2024, aboard a SpaceX <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/falcon-heavy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Falcon Heavy</a> rocket, Europa Clipper has a long way to go. Jupiter orbits the Sun five times farther than Earth does. Direct travel isn’t practical, which is why NASA mission planners have designed this multi-step route.



The idea of using gravity assists isn’t new. In the late 1970s, the Voyager probes took advantage of a rare planetary alignment, using Jupiter and Saturn’s gravity to slingshot toward interstellar space. The method has since become a standard trick in deep-space navigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-game-of-cosmic-billiards">A game of cosmic billiards</h2>



“It’s like a game of billiards around the solar system, flying by a couple of planets at just the right angle and timing to build up the energy we need to get to Jupiter and Europa,” said JPL’s Ben Bradley, Europa Clipper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-europa-clipper-launches-to-find-out-if-life-exists-alien-ocean-of-jupiters-moon-europa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission</a> planner. 



“Everything has to line up - the geometry of the solar system has to be just right to pull it off.”



A mission like this requires years of planning. The team at JPL deliberately aimed the spacecraft’s initial trajectory to leave some wiggle room. If anything had gone wrong after launch, they would have had space - literally and figuratively - to adjust.



Now, as Europa Clipper nears Mars, engineers have already conducted three trajectory correction maneuvers (TCMs) to refine its path. These course adjustments took place in November, January, and February. 



The next one, scheduled for mid-March, will ensure the spacecraft remains on track. Over the course of the mission, controllers may need to perform hundreds of these micro-adjustments to keep everything aligned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-instruments-during-the-flyby">Testing instruments during the flyby</h2>



While the Mars flyby is primarily about navigation, it presents an exciting bonus opportunity: a chance to test some of the spacecraft’s instruments.



A day before reaching Mars, the mission team will calibrate the onboard thermal imager. Scientists expect to generate a multicolored image of the planet in the coming months as they process the collected data. Even more crucially, Europa Clipper’s radar system will undergo its first full test during the flyby.



This radar, designed to penetrate Europa’s ice shell, is one of the mission’s most important tools. Its massive antennas emit long wavelengths that couldn’t be fully tested on Earth before launch. 



Now, for the first time in space, the system will operate as a whole - giving scientists an early glimpse of how well it performs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-europa-s-secrets">Unlocking Europa’s secrets</h2>



Europa Clipper’s real mission begins once it reaches Jupiter. The probe is equipped to investigate Europa’s frozen crust, map its subsurface ocean, and study the interactions between its icy shell and the water beneath.



Does Europa have the right chemistry to support life? Could there be signs of microbial organisms hidden beneath its surface? These are the questions scientists hope to answer.



The Europa Clipper project is the result of years of collaboration. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory oversees the mission, working alongside the <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory</a>. 



The spacecraft’s design comes from a team effort, with contributions from NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/marshall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marshall Space Flight Center</a>, and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/langley/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Langley Research Center</a>.



From the moment it launched to the day it reaches Europa, the mission is a testament to human ingenuity. A journey spanning billions of miles, propelled by gravity and fueled by curiosity, continues onward - to Jupiter’s frozen moon.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Europa Clipper gets a boost from Mars on its way to Jupiter

The vast emptiness of space is anything but empty. It’s...

The bond between a father and daughter shapes emotional well-being and lifelong connections. While love and support have always played a role, modern relationships between fathers and daughters are evolving. 



Connection isn’t always built through grand gestures; sometimes, it’s found in the simplest of movements.



For years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fathers</a> were expected to provide rather than engage, to stand as sturdy figures rather than sit down and listen. But times are changing.



A study from the University of Essex reveals something powerful: physical activity, even just talking about it, can bring fathers and daughters closer. A swim, a bike ride, or a casual game of catch - these are not just exercises, they are bridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengthening-father-daughter-bonds">Strengthening father-daughter bonds</h2>



Dr. John Day of the University of Essex interviewed 14 women born between 1950 and 1994, uncovering how father-daughter relationships evolved over the decades. His findings highlight how shared movement promotes emotional connection.



“My research shows daughters have always sought for a way to grow closer to their dads, while this has only recently become more of a focus for fathers," noted Dr. Day, an expert in the <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/departments/health-and-social-care" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Health and Social Care</a>.



"From a father's perspective, physical activity can simultaneously function as a method of upholding a masculine identity while performing one-to-one parenting, so they feel much more comfortable in this environment.”



The takeaway? Fathers aren’t just finding new ways to bond with their daughters - they’re stepping into a role they might not have known they were missing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-providers-to-engaged-fathers">From providers to engaged fathers</h2>



Generations tell different stories. Women born in the 1950s described their fathers as providers, present but not always involved. They worked hard and ensured financial stability, but emotional closeness was rare. A father’s love was often implied rather than spoken.



Fast forward to daughters raised in the 1980s and 1990s, and the narrative shifts. Society began embracing the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parenting-may-help-keep-the-brain-younger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fathers</a> could be more than just figures in the background. 



They could participate, connect, and engage on a deeper level. Many of these women recalled meaningful moments with their dads - morning jogs, weekend bike rides, or just tossing a ball back and forth.



These weren’t just childhood memories. They were building blocks of trust, comfort, and understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-closeness-between-fathers-and-daughters">Emotional closeness between fathers and daughters</h2>



Exercise does something that words alone cannot. It removes pressure, allowing conversations to flow naturally. Walking side by side means no forced eye contact - just an open space for thoughts to surface, uninterrupted.



Swimming together means moving at the same rhythm, finding an unspoken sync. Even cycling, with its breathless bursts of effort, creates shared experiences that linger.



But not every daughter welcomed competition. Some women in the study admitted that when their fathers turned casual activities into challenges, they pulled away. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-paternity-leave-changes-parenting-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connection</a> was in the togetherness, not the scoreboard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-society-s-role-in-the-shift">Society’s role in the shift</h2>



Fathers didn’t change in isolation. Society changed with them. The modern father isn’t just expected to provide; he’s expected to be present - emotionally, mentally, physically. 



In the UK, public health campaigns push for physical activity, not just as a means to stay fit, but as a lifestyle - a value to pass down.



“Key factors associated with fatherhood that have enabled this transformation are the increased prominence of involved fatherhood ideals and physical activity becoming a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-treat-their-children-differently-but-do-they-have-a-favorite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parenting</a> and health-related practice that fathers feel comfortable performing and talking about," explained Dr. Day.



"Crucial to this is the UK context, where intimate interdependence is indicative of sought-after relationships and a public health context where physical activity participation is championed to reduce non-communicable disease.”



Fathers today aren’t just showing up for their sons and daughters. They’re engaging, participating, and making an effort to be part of their daughters’ lives in ways that previous generations often didn’t.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-forward-together">Moving forward together</h2>



The study makes one thing clear: movement strengthens bonds between fathers and daughters. And as fatherhood continues to evolve, physical activity will likely remain a cornerstone of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-who-use-humor-have-better-relationships-with-their-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connections</a>.



The beauty of it is that there’s no wrong way to do it. A jog before dinner, a weekend hike, or a slow stroll through the city streets - it’s all about presence.



Fathers who take the time to move with their daughters aren’t just helping them stay active. They are creating a space where words come easier, emotions feel safer, and love is expressed in a language older than words.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bristoluniversitypressdigital.com/view/journals/frs/aop/article-10.1332-20467435Y2024D000000052/article-10.1332-20467435Y2024D000000052.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Families, Relationships and Societies</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fathers and daughters connect deeply through physical activity

The bond between a father and daughter shapes emotional well-being...

In the vast, unseen world beneath our feet, an ancient network of fungi moves carbon and nutrients across underground highways.



Mycorrhizal fungi form intricate partnerships with plants, exchanging resources in ways that help regulate Earth’s ecosystems and atmosphere.



Despite their vital role, much about the complex underground fungi trade has remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-fungal-networks">Mystery of fungal networks </h2>



Scientists have long known about this relationship but, until now, they didn’t fully understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-engage-in-more-conversations-after-rainfall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> construct these expansive and highly efficient supply chains.



New research, published in the journal Nature, reveals the sophisticated strategies fungi use to transport resources underground.



By tracking half a million fungal highways and the movement of nutrients within them, a team of scientists has mapped out how these brainless organisms make trade decisions, build routes, and manage traffic flow. 



The findings offer insights into how natural systems have solved logistical problems that humans are only beginning to tackle with artificial intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-in-carbon-storage">Critical role in carbon storage</h2>



Mycorrhizal fungi play a crucial role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-practices-boost-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>, drawing an estimated 13 billion tons of CO2 into the soil each year. This is equivalent to about a third of global energy-related emissions.



More than 80% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-fungi-communicate-using-a-silent-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> species rely on these fungi to exchange carbon for essential nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen. 



Despite their massive impact on the planet, little was known about how fungi coordinate this trade without a central brain or nervous system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-adaptation-of-fungal-networks">Dynamic adaptation of fungal networks </h2>



Using a custom-built imaging robot, a team of 28 international researchers discovered that fungi construct a lace-like mycelial network that moves carbon outward from plant roots in a wave-like pattern. 



These networks adapt dynamically, controlling the speed and width of their resource highways to optimize efficiency.



Special exploratory branches that act as microscopic "pathfinders," reach into new territory, seemingly prioritizing future trade opportunities over immediate short-term gains.



“We’ve been mapping the decentralized decision-making processes of mycorrhizal fungal networks, exposing a hyper-efficient blueprint for an underground supply chain,” said evolutionary biologist Dr. Toby Kiers of Amsterdam’s Vrije Universiteit.



“Humans increasingly rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neuromorphic-computing-where-ai-meets-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> algorithms to build supply chains that are efficient and resilient. Yet mycorrhizal fungi have been solving these problems for more than 450 million years."



"This is the kind of research that keeps you up at night because these fungi are such important underground circulatory systems for nutrients and carbon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-fungal-secrets-with-robots">Unlocking fungal secrets with robots</h2>



To uncover these hidden fungal behaviors, the team developed an imaging robot that ran continuously in Amsterdam, and allowed them to track how fungi reshaped their trade routes over time and space. This condensed what would have taken a century of human observations into just three years.



“We discovered that these fungi are constantly adapting their trade routes, adding loops to shorten paths so they could efficiently deliver nutrients to plant roots,” said Dr. Thomas Shimizu, an expert at the physics institute AMOLF in Amsterdam.



Like a navigation app tracking real-time congestion, the team measured resource flow across the fungal highways. By analyzing over 100,000 particle flows, they observed how fungi regulated traffic to ensure efficient delivery. 



“By using our robot instead of a human being, we cut the lab time from a century to around three years,” Shimizu added.



According to British mycologist Dr. Merlin Sheldrake, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robotics</a> is making it possible to study fungal behavior in unprecedented detail, and at an unprecedented scale.



“These techniques open the door to future work to understand the ways that these living, sensing, networks regulate ecosystem function and the Earth’s nutrient cycles," said Dr. Sheldrake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The findings come at a critical time. As CO2 levels in the atmosphere continue to rise, scientists are eager to understand how fungal networks influence carbon storage underground.



Dr. Kiers, who is also the executive director of the Society for the Protection of Underground Networks (SPUN), emphasized the importance of this work.



“Because these fungal networks are key entry points of carbon into global soils, we can now explore what triggers fungi to increase carbon flows underground," said Dr. Kiers.



Just like human supply chains, the efficiency of fungal networks depends on how well they transport resources to the right place at the right time, with minimal waste.



“Understanding how these fungal networks adjust internal flows and resource trading to build supply chains in response to environmental stimuli will be an important direction for future research,” said Dr. Howard Stone, professor of mechanical and aserospace engineering at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The research team is already pushing forward with the next phase of their work. They are developing a new robot that will increase data collection tenfold, allowing them to study how fungal networks respond to environmental changes, including disruptions and rising temperatures.



The question now is whether human-designed supply chains can learn from these ancient fungal strategies. For over 450 million years, fungi have been solving logistical challenges that modern industries still struggle with. 



As technology advances, nature may yet hold the key to making our own systems more efficient, resilient, and sustainable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08614-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Underground fungal networks are nature's hyper-efficient architects

In the vast, unseen world beneath our feet, an ancient...

The world of wearable technology continues to evolve, bringing new possibilities for health monitoring. What started with step counting and heart rate tracking has now expanded to life-saving features. One of the most significant advancements is the ability of smartwatches to detect cardiac arrest. 



A recent study led by Google Research has demonstrated that a machine learning algorithm can identify sudden pulse loss with remarkable accuracy.



The system, designed to recognize cardiac arrest events, can automatically call emergency services when it detects pulselessness. This feature could be life-changing, especially for individuals who experience cardiac arrest without anyone around to help. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-detect-if-your-brain-is-aging-too-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early detection</a> and quick medical intervention are key to survival, making this innovation a potential game-changer in emergency response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-unwitnessed-cardiac-arrest">Challenge of unwitnessed cardiac arrest</h2>



"Wearable technology has the potential to revolutionize emergency response," noted <a href="https://www.google.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Google</a> Research Team.



Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is a major cause of sudden death worldwide. In many cases, survival depends on immediate recognition and rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-system-spots-dangerous-disease-variants-before-they-spread/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medical response</a>. 



Unfortunately, a significant number of these incidents occur without witnesses, making timely intervention nearly impossible. Studies show that 50–75% of OHCA cases happen with no one around to call for help.



This delay in emergency response greatly reduces the chances of survival. Without CPR or defibrillation within minutes, brain damage can occur, and the likelihood of recovery diminishes rapidly. 



Researchers aimed to solve this problem by creating a system that allows smartwatches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-ai-enhancing-patient-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detect</a> pulselessness automatically. By doing so, they hope to improve survival rates for those who suffer cardiac arrest when no one is there to assist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartwatches-detect-cardiac-arrest">Smartwatches detect cardiac arrest</h2>



To develop a reliable system, researchers trained an algorithm using photoplethysmography (PPG) and motion data. The study involved extensive testing across six distinct groups, ensuring the algorithm worked in both controlled and real-world environments.



The first phase of testing took place in a clinical setting. In an electrophysiology lab, 100 patients undergoing defibrillator testing experienced induced ventricular fibrillation. 



This allowed researchers to gather data on pulseless states. Another 99 participants experienced pulselessness through a tourniquet-induced arterial occlusion model, further refining the algorithm’s ability to detect a loss of pulse.



In addition to clinical trials, the researchers needed to evaluate how the system would perform in everyday life. 



To accomplish this, they collected data from 948 users who wore the smartwatch under normal conditions without experiencing cardiac arrest. This helped the team measure false alarms and refine the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algorithm’s accuracy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-in-real-world-conditions">Testing in real-world conditions</h2>



Once the initial data was collected, further testing was needed to assess the system’s reliability in different scenarios. To determine how often false positives occurred, 220 participants wore the smartwatch in their daily routines. 



This group helped establish how frequently the algorithm might mistakenly detect a loss of pulse when no real emergency was happening.



To further validate the system, 135 participants underwent testing in both free-living conditions and controlled settings. These individuals experienced real-world activity while also being exposed to controlled pulseless events through the tourniquet-induced arterial occlusion method. This allowed researchers to compare results across different environments.



A unique part of the study involved professional stunt performers. Twenty-one trained stunt persons simulated out-of-hospital cardiac arrest collapses, helping researchers understand how well the algorithm could detect pulse loss during sudden, high-motion events. 



Since real-world collapses involve unpredictable movements, this test was essential to ensuring the smartwatch could still detect cardiac arrest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-artificial-intelligence-changing-health-diet-fitness-exercise-approach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamic situations</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-cardiac-arrest-with-99-99-accuracy">Detecting cardiac arrest with 99.99% accuracy</h2>



The study produced promising results, showing that the smartwatch algorithm could accurately detect pulselessness while keeping false alarms to a minimum. 



The researchers found no significant differences between PPG signals from ventricular fibrillation and those from arterial occlusion-induced pulselessness.



The system achieved a 72% sensitivity rate for motionless pulseless events, meaning it correctly identified cardiac arrest in nearly three out of four cases. Sensitivity for simulated collapses was slightly lower at 53%, reflecting the challenge of detecting pulselessness during high-motion scenarios. 



However, the algorithm’s specificity reached an impressive 99.99%, meaning it generated very few false alarms. The study estimated one false emergency call per 21.67 user-years, a promising figure for real-world application.



When detecting a loss of pulse, the system identified pulselessness within 57 seconds. It then waited an additional 20 seconds to check for user response before initiating an emergency call. 



This short response time could make a critical difference in survival rates, ensuring help arrives as quickly as possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-wearable-emergency-detection">Future of wearable emergency detection</h2>



Smartwatches equipped with cardiac arrest detection have the potential to save countless lives. 



For individuals who suffer cardiac arrest alone, this technology could be the difference between life and death. By ensuring immediate medical response, smartwatches may soon become essential tools in emergency healthcare.



Despite its high specificity, reducing false positive rates remains a crucial next step. While the algorithm performed well in controlled settings, real-world scenarios can be unpredictable. The researchers acknowledge that more refinements are necessary to enhance accuracy in everyday conditions.



One challenge lies in distinguishing between true pulseless events and temporary pulse irregularities caused by movement, stress, or sensor issues. Continuous data collection from smartwatch users may help improve the algorithm, allowing it to adapt to different conditions more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartwatch-based-health-monitoring">Smartwatch-based health monitoring</h2>



As wearable technology advances, the line between fitness tracking and life-saving medical devices continues to blur. Smartwatches are no longer just tools for step counting and heart rate monitoring - they are evolving into critical health companions.



The ability to detect cardiac arrest autonomously represents a major leap forward in healthcare innovation.



By combining machine learning with real-time health data, researchers are pushing the boundaries of what wearable devices can achieve. The goal is not just to monitor health but to actively respond to life-threatening emergencies. 



With further refinements and broader adoption, smartwatch-based emergency detection could become a standard feature, offering peace of mind to millions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08810-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Smartwatches can now detect cardiac arrest

The world of wearable technology continues to evolve, bringing new...

Deep in the Golden State, a new manzanita shrub species has been discovered, but its survival already teeters on the brink - threatened by the relentless spread of urbanization.



The manzanita, a shining symbol of California's diverse flora, is known for its twisted branches and the incredible resilience it shows in the face of wildfire challenges.



With more than 60 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-native-wildflowers-can-be-restored-by-raking-dead-grass/">species native</a> to the state, this group of shrubs and small trees plays a crucial role in local ecosystems, providing food and shelter for wildlife.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nipomo-mesa-s-native-treasure">Nipomo Mesa's native treasure</h2>



Researchers have now identified a new species of manzanita to add to the iconic collection. Discovered along the central coast, it has been named Arctostaphylos nipumu to recognize the Nipomo Mesa, where it was found, and to honor its Indigenous heritage.



Amy Litt, a plant biologist at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Riverside</a>, expressed her surprise at finding a new species in a highly urbanized district.



"We weren’t expecting to find a new species in such a developed area. But as we examined the plants, we realized the Nipomo Mesa plants were quite distinct. We were subsequently able to show that they not only look different but are genetically unique," noted Litt.



This manzanita species sports a distinct, shaggy grey bark, which differentiates it from the emblematic red bark found on most of its Californian relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-manzanitas">Unique adaptations of manzanitas</h2>



Manzanita species are not just visually striking but also ecologically specialized, with remarkable adaptations that help them thrive in California’s harsh, fire-prone climate.



Their waxy, evergreen leaves minimize water loss, while deep roots tap into underground moisture reserves, which allows them to endure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megadroughts-are-becoming-more-frequent-and-severe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prolonged droughts</a>.



Unlike most chaparral plants, manzanitas don’t resprout following a fire. Instead, their hard-shelled seeds require intense heat or smoke exposure to break dormancy and germinate, ensuring their regeneration in fire-swept landscapes.



Beyond their resilience, manzanitas serve as ecological keystones, offering nectar-rich flowers to pollinators like bees and hummingbirds, while their nutrient-dense berries sustain a variety of other birds and mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-significance-of-manzanitas">Ecological significance of manzanitas</h2>



Manzanitas contribute to the biodiversity of California and play a crucial part in native ecosystems as sources of food and habitat for wildlife.



The historical value of manzanitas is entrenched in Indigenous tribal culture. Their berries are a source of food, their leaves are harvested for medicine, and their wood provides material for tools and firewood.



The recently discovered A. nipumu is no exception, and adds to the rich and iconic floral legacy of the state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-manzanita-will-fight-for-survival">New manzanita will fight for survival</h2>



However, the survival of this manzanita species is already under threat due to the impending urban development unleashed by the Dana Reserve Project. 



This recently approved housing development could potentially destroy much of the habitat where this species is located - threatening half of this plant's fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-light-to-identify-plant-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



Researchers, including plant geneticist and study co-author Bill Waycott, have alerted local officials to the potential ecological repercussions of the development plans. 



The discovery of A. nipumu has prompted environmental organizations such as the California Native Plant Society to emphasize the ecological significance of the Nipomo Mesa.



These concerns are further amplified by the fact that, like many manzanitas, A. nipumu relies on fire for seed germination. However, its inability to<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-wildflowers-that-thrive-after-fire-are-facing-new-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> resprout after wildfires</a> due to the lack of a protective burl makes it especially vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-restoration-and-genetic-diversity">Habitat restoration and genetic diversity</h2>



Tito Abbo, co-author of the study and graduate student in the Litt lab, pointed out the difficulties associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-wildlife-habitats-may-prevent-the-next-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoring habitats</a>.



Abbo explained that the reintroduction of native species is often facilitated using nursery stock that does not have the same genetic diversity as the wild relatives. Such plants are more vulnerable to disease and environmental stress.



“When you propagate from just a few individuals, you have a limited pool of genetic diversity and potentially less variation in natural plant defenses,” explained Abbo.



With the looming threat of urban expansion, unique habitats like the Nipomo Mesa are faced with destruction. Once their habitats are lost, they are near impossible to restore fully.



The future of A. nipumu remains uncertain, but its official recognition marks a crucial first step, paving the way for essential discussions and efforts toward its preservation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/article/139172/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PhytoKeys</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Urban growth threatens newly discovered manzanita species

Deep in the Golden State, a new manzanita shrub species...

The narwhal (Monodon monoceros), a whale native to the Arctic, is famous for its long, spiral tusk. This tusk, actually an extended tooth, can grow up to 10 feet and is most common in males. Throughout history, it has inspired legends of unicorns and fascinated scientists. 



Researchers believe the tusk plays a role in mate selection, but its full purpose remains uncertain. The elusive nature of narwhals makes studying their tusk behavior challenging, as few have witnessed their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities in the wild</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-narwhals-use-their-tusks">How narwhals use their tusks</h2>



Until recently, much about narwhal behavior remained a mystery. Their social interactions, reproductive habits, and adaptability to environmental changes were largely unknown. 



However, a recent study by <a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a>’s Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute and Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans has provided new insights. The research was conducted in collaboration with Inuit communities in Nunavut.



Using drones, the team captured 17 distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-discovery-large-sharks-are-hunting-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>, revealing how narwhals interact with their environment.



For the first time, scientists observed narwhals using their tusks to influence the behavior of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus). 



The footage showed narwhals delivering precise strikes with their tusks, stunning and possibly killing fish. These findings offer a rare glimpse into their foraging strategies and interactions with prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playful-and-social-narwhals">Playful and social narwhals</h2>



The study also documented evidence of play among narwhals. Researchers observed what appeared to be exploratory-object play, suggesting these whales engage in activities beyond survival needs.



Some behaviors indicated social learning, where narwhals may teach or influence one another. Individual personality differences among narwhals also became apparent, further demonstrating their complexity.



The study also captured the first recorded interactions between narwhals, fish, and birds. In one case, glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus) attempted to steal food from narwhals, showcasing a rare instance of kleptoparasitism.



These interactions reveal the intricate relationships between species in the Arctic ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-narwhal-tusking">Closer look at narwhal tusking</h2>



Study senior author Dr. Greg O’Corry-Crowe is a research professor at FAU Harbor Branch and a National Geographic Explorer.



"Narwhals are known for their ‘tusking’ behavior, where two or more of them simultaneously raise their tusks almost vertically out of the water, crossing them in what may be a ritualistic behavior to assess a potential opponent’s qualities or to display those qualities to potential mates,” said Dr. O'Corry-Crowe.



“But now we know that narwhal tusks have other uses, some quite unexpected, including foraging, exploration and play.”



The study revealed that narwhals exhibit remarkable dexterity with their tusks. They can track moving prey with precision, adjusting their strikes to manipulate the fish. 



The tip of the tusk appeared particularly effective in stimulating responses from fish, allowing narwhals to interact directly with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cooperative-hunting-does-not-require-complex-thinking-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-narwhal-behavior">Climate change and narwhal behavior</h2>



“I have been studying narwhal for over a decade and have always marveled at their tusks,” said study co-author Dr. Cortney Watt, a research scientist at Fisheries and Oceans Canada.



“To observe them using their tusks for foraging and play is remarkable. This unique study where we set up a remote field camp and spent time filming narwhal with drones is yielding many interesting insights and is providing a bird’s eye view of their behavior that we have never seen before.”



These discoveries highlight how climate change may influence narwhal behavior. As Arctic conditions shift, new interspecies encounters may become more common, forcing animals to adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-learning-and-adaptation">Social learning and adaptation</h2>



“Our observations provide clear evidence of narwhals chasing fish and using their tusks to interact directly with the fish and to influence the fish’s behavior,” said Dr. O’Corry-Crowe.



“Some of the interactions we saw appeared competitive in nature with one whale blocking or trying to block another whale’s access to the same target fish, while others may have been more subtle, possibly communicative and even affiliative. None appeared overtly aggressive.”



Narwhals appear to learn from one another, suggesting that social behaviors could accelerate adaptation to environmental changes. This adaptability will be crucial as Arctic ice patterns shift and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-actually-boosts-their-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey availability</a> fluctuates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-non-invasive-research">Importance of non-invasive research</h2>



“To understand how narwhals are being affected by and adapting to the changing Arctic, field studies using innovative, non-invasive tools like drones are essential to observe them in their natural environment without disturbing them,” said Dr. O’Corry-Crowe.



“Drones provide a unique, real-time view of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>, helping scientists gather crucial data on how narwhals are responding to shifts in ice patterns, prey availability and other environmental changes. Such studies are key to understanding the impact of global warming on these elusive animals.”



This research was supported by <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/index-eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisheries and Oceans Canada</a>, FAU Harbor Branch, the National Geographic Society, the World Wildlife Fund Canada, the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board, and Natural Resources Canada’s Polar Continental Shelf Program.



The findings offer a new perspective on narwhals, showcasing their intelligence, adaptability, and intricate tusk-related social structures. As climate change reshapes the Arctic, ongoing research will be vital in understanding and protecting these remarkable whales.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1518605/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



Image Credit: O'Corry-Crowe, FAU/Watt, DFO



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Narwhals use their tusks in completely unexpected ways

The narwhal (Monodon monoceros), a whale native to the Arctic,...

Galaxies stretch across the universe like cosmic islands, scattered in a vast ocean of darkness. Some drift alone, untouched for eons. Others collide, tangle, and reshape. The Milky Way and Andromeda belong to the latter category - two immense spiral galaxies, locked in a slow but inevitable embrace.



For centuries, Andromeda has intrigued astronomers. To the naked eye, it’s nothing more than a faint smudge in the night sky. But behind that ghostly glow lies a story of upheaval, of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-the-violent-history-of-our-closest-cosmic-neighbor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">merging galaxies</a> and shattered structures. 



It’s a history written in the stars, and thanks to the Hubble Space Telescope, scientists are finally reading it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-andromeda-has-a-chaotic-history">Andromeda has a chaotic history</h2>



Imagine two massive aircraft carriers sailing through space, each trailed by a flotilla of smaller vessels. Those ships? Dwarf galaxies - tiny by cosmic standards, yet crucial in understanding the bigger picture.



The Milky Way has about 70 of these smaller companions, steadily orbiting like planets around a star. Andromeda? Nearly three times as many. The sheer difference hints at something unusual. 



While the Milky Way has led a relatively undisturbed life, Andromeda’s past is anything but peaceful. It’s been a battlefield, a place of repeated collisions - some minor, others catastrophic.



This contrast is what makes Andromeda’s satellite system such a fascinating subject of study. By piecing together its past, astronomers can glimpse the future of our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-captures-a-stunning-stellar-nursery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-andromeda-s-satellites">Mapping Andromeda’s satellites</h2>



To unravel Andromeda’s chaotic history, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> embarked on an ambitious mission. Over 1,000 orbits of observation, countless hours of analysis. 



The goal was to map every single satellite galaxy in Andromeda’s vast system - three-dimensional coordinates, star formation rates, movement patterns, all of it.



The results paint a strikingly different picture from what we see in the Milky Way. Unlike our home galaxy, which has remained relatively stable, Andromeda seems to have been shaped by a major merger with another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large galaxy</a> billions of years ago.



That event likely explains its sheer number of dwarf galaxies, along with their chaotic arrangement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-milky-way-s-satellites">Studying the Milky Way’s satellites</h2>



Andromeda’s satellites are relatively easy to observe from the outside. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-years-ago-edwin-hubble-proved-the-milky-way-is-not-the-only-galaxy-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>’s? Not so much.



We live inside our galaxy, which means we can’t step back and take a full picture. It’s like trying to read a book while standing in the middle of a page. Other massive galaxies - such as M81, nearly 12 million light-years away - are too far for us to examine in detail. That makes Andromeda the perfect test case.



Astronomers can use it as a kind of cosmic mirror, comparing its satellites to the ones hidden within our own galaxy. By doing so, they hope to uncover patterns that explain how galaxies grow, merge, and evolve.



"We see that the duration for which the satellites can continue forming new stars really depends on how massive they are and on how close they are to the Andromeda galaxy," noted lead author Alessandro Savino of the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a> at Berkeley.



"It is a clear indication of how small-galaxy growth is disturbed by the influence of a massive galaxy like Andromeda."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-a-galactic-collision">Evidence of a galactic collision</h2>



The deeper scientists looked, the stranger Andromeda’s system appeared. Unlike the Milky Way, which has a relatively symmetrical arrangement of satellite galaxies, Andromeda’s satellites seem scattered - almost like debris from an explosion.



"Everything scattered in the Andromeda system is very asymmetric and perturbed. It does appear that something significant happened not too long ago," noted Daniel Weisz of the UC Berkeley, the study's principal investigator.



That “something” may have been a galactic merger, where Andromeda absorbed another large galaxy, disrupting its satellite system in the process. 



If true, this challenges the assumption that all galaxies evolve in a similar, predictable way. Instead, it suggests that each galaxy’s past shapes it in unique, unpredictable ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-organized-chaos-in-andromeda">Strange, organized chaos in Andromeda</h2>



Perhaps the most baffling discovery is that about half of Andromeda’s satellites seem to be orbiting in the same plane - like dancers in a tightly choreographed routine. That shouldn’t happen.



In theory, these galaxies should be moving in random, independent paths, influenced only by gravity. Yet, somehow, they’re all aligned. Why? It is a mystery.



"That's weird. It was actually a total surprise to find the satellites in that configuration and we still don't fully understand why they appear that way," said Weisz.



It’s discoveries like this that remind us how much of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-views-a-spiral-galaxy-with-stellar-explosions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> remains unknown. Every answer sparks more questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messier-32-ghost-of-a-lost-galaxy">Messier 32: Ghost of a lost galaxy</h2>



Among Andromeda’s many satellites, one stands out - Messier 32 (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/science/explore-the-night-sky/hubble-messier-catalog/messier-32/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">M32</a>). This satellite is small, compact, and almost unassuming. But its history points to something else entirely.



Scientists suspect M32 is the stripped-down core of a much larger galaxy that collided with Andromeda long ago. In the aftermath, gravity tore away its outer layers, leaving behind only the dense, elliptical core we see today.



Though M32 is now mostly composed of older stars, something unusual happened billions of years ago - it experienced a sudden burst of star formation. A last gasp, perhaps, triggered by its violent interaction with Andromeda.



Andromeda’s other satellites also hold surprises. Unlike Milky Way dwarfs, which stopped forming stars long ago, some of those in Andromeda continued to create new stars for much longer than expected.



"Star formation really continued to much later times, which is not at all what you would expect for these dwarf galaxies. This doesn't appear in computer simulations. No one knows what to make of that so far," noted Savino.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-into-andromeda-s-future">Looking into Andromeda’s future</h2>



Hubble’s survey of Andromeda’s satellites isn’t just about the past - it’s about the future. By studying the precise movement of these dwarf galaxies, astronomers can effectively rewind the clock, reconstructing the history of Andromeda’s chaotic evolution.



But this research also has a forward-looking purpose. The Milky Way and Andromeda are on a collision course, set to merge in about 4.5 billion years. What happened to Andromeda’s satellites might hint at what’s in store for our own.



"We do find that there is a lot of diversity that needs to be explained in the Andromeda satellite system. The way things come together matters a lot in understanding this galaxy's history," said Weisz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-unfinished-story-of-andromeda">The unfinished story of Andromeda</h2>



The Hubble Space Telescope, despite being in operation for more than 30 years, continues to shape our understanding of the cosmos. Its images of Andromeda’s satellites have provided groundbreaking insights, but the story isn’t finished.



In the next five years, Hubble - or possibly the James Webb Space Telescope - will revisit these satellites. A second set of observations will allow astronomers to track their movement more precisely, helping them reconstruct Andromeda’s past and, perhaps, its fate.



For now, Andromeda remains a puzzle - one that continues to intrigue, surprise, and challenge everything we thought we knew about how galaxies grow and change.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ada24f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Andromeda galaxy shows signs of violent past collisions

Galaxies stretch across the universe like cosmic islands, scattered in...

Rubidium atoms can behave unpredictably during atomic collisions, when hit by the right color of laser light. They might even eject themselves from carefully controlled traps, surprising researchers who aim to study them in near-zero-temperature conditions.



A recent study has made it possible to control collisions between these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atoms</a> more precisely than ever. The research was led by Professor Cindy Regal from the University of Colorado Boulder and Jose D’Incao from the University of Massachusetts.



The experts joined forces to examine what happens when laser light nudges these tiny particles to collide with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cold-atomic-collisions">Understanding cold atomic collisions</h2>



<a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.013202" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experiments</a> involving ultracold atomic gases have revealed intriguing surprises about how atoms bounce off one another. Researchers often operate at temperatures near to absolute zero, where standard thermal motion is dramatically slowed.



This allows quantum effects to dominate, including special collision behaviors that are sensitive to small energy shifts in atoms.



Regal’s group explored light-assisted collisions, which occur when a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-43959-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser photon</a> briefly creates a <a href="https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/quantum-superposition" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum superposition</a> state in two atoms. In this arrangement, either atom could have absorbed the photon, which leads to unexpected energy release that often kicks both atoms out of their trap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spotlight-on-hyperfine-structure">A spotlight on hyperfine structure</h2>



<a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/13%3A_Fine_and_Hyperfine_Structure/Hyperfine_Structure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hyperfine structure</a> is defined by tiny energy shifts caused by an atom’s <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.957" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear spin</a> coupling with its electron’s angular momentum.



Until recently, those shifts were often overlooked when investigating collision rates. Regal and D’Incao’s team identified that hyperfine structure can be crucial for determining exactly how collisions occur and how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-photons-create-vortex-when-they-collide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a> is released.



“This energy is imparted to the colliding atoms, which can be considered bad as they are large enough to cause atoms to escape from typical traps. But these collisions can also be useful when that energy can be controlled,” said Regal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optical-tweezers-for-precision">Optical tweezers for precision</h2>



The researchers used <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43586-021-00021-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical tweezers</a>, which are tightly focused laser beams that can hold individual atoms in place. 



The experts arranged two rubidium atoms in separate tweezers, then carefully merged them to see how quickly they would collide when a second laser beam was introduced at different frequencies.



By controlling the laser’s frequency relative to atomic transitions, the team could measure how variations in the collisional light influenced the atoms’ escape. This approach offered a level of control that was hard to achieve in larger, cloud-based setups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-collision-rates">Refining collision rates</h2>



“We set the laser at a certain frequency, then varied the duration of the collisional light to see how many atoms remained in the trap, from this, we could determine how quickly the atoms collided and gained enough energy to escape,” explained Steven Pampel, the study’s first author.



Different hyperfine states led to distinct collision rates. Those observations prompted the team to build a refined model that linked these collision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outcomes</a> to the underlying potential energy curves connecting atoms under the influence of laser light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-detect-atomic-collisions">A new way to detect atomic collisions</h2>



Standard imaging systems can complicate data collection in these experiments. Shining light to see if atoms are still trapped might change their energy status and nudge them out prematurely.



In response, Pampel and colleagues developed a way to pinpoint whether one or both atoms had been ejected without disturbing the system. 



This finer detection method ensured the collisions themselves were accurately counted, leading to more dependable results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-uses-of-controlled-atomic-collisions">Future uses of controlled atomic collisions</h2>



D’Incao noted that visualizing the molecular states formed during these collisions helped confirm the impact of hyperfine interactions on collision outcomes.&nbsp;



“Mapping out the potential energy curves for two colliding atoms, in the presence of light and the hyperfine interaction, required more complex analysis than previous works that had only taken into account the atomic fine structure,” explained D’Incao.



Regal’s group hopes that this deeper understanding of small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-fission-what-exactly-happens-when-the-nucleus-of-an-atom-splits-in-two/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy splittings</a> will inspire fresh ways to manipulate atoms in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-021-01357-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical tweezer arrays</a>. Fine-tuning collisions can be useful in quantum computing and other research areas that rely on controlling how atoms move and interact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Researchers in this field believe these light-assisted collisions will continue to be a powerful tool in preparing and shaping trapped <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/neutral-atom" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutral atoms</a> for advanced experiments. 



There is also a growing interest in extending these techniques to other atomic species, potentially leading to better control in <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/~oas/SI/QM/Atkins05.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular quantum science</a>.



The entire set of findings could give scientists new ideas for building next-generation devices that rely on carefully choreographed atom interactions. Better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-accurate-optical-atomic-clock-ever-made-will-redefine-the-meaning-of-a-second/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collision</a> management may pave the way for more reliable measurements and calculations in a range of fundamental studies.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.013202" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny atomic collisions unleash unexpected energy bursts

Rubidium atoms can behave unpredictably during atomic collisions, when hit...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

News coming your way