Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a...

Earlier this year, astronomers watched a burst of high-energy light that kept roaring back for nearly a full day. Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are usually sorted into short and long events, and they generally last from milliseconds to a few minutes.



In a new study, researchers describe a signal named GRB 250702B that fired three distinct times over a few hours, with soft X-rays flaring even earlier. The team also reported evidence that the source lies beyond our galaxy.



Lead researchers Antonio Martin-Carrillo of <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/">University College Dublin</a> (UCD) and Andrew J. Levan of <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en">Radboud University</a> (RU) directed the effort. 



Their teams combined rapid-response alerts from NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/fermi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fermi satellite</a>, China’s Einstein Probe, and follow-up observations with the Very Large Telescope (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>) and the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a>.



Martin-Carrillo called it "unlike any other seen in 50 years of GRB observations. This is 100 to 1,000 times longer than most GRBs. More importantly, gamma-ray bursts never repeat since the event that produces them is catastrophic."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-grb-250702b-so-strange">What makes GRB 250702B so strange</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-pinpoints-location-farthest-gamma-ray-bursts-in-universe/">GRBs</a> don't typically don't happen twice, much less three or more times. Here, Fermi saw three distinct outbursts separated by thousands of seconds, while the Einstein Probe caught earlier<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-x-ray-radiation-that-spews-out-of-black-holes-surroundings/"> X-ray</a> activity that started many hours before.



The timing was not random. The third outburst arrived at roughly an integer multiple of the gap between the first two. This pattern suggests at a repeating process inside the source rather than a single one-off blast.



The overall energy in gamma rays is in the same ballpark as other GRBs at similar distances, yet the pattern of activity is different. 



Standard relations that link a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brightest-gamma-ray-burst-ever-recorded-had-a-rare-energy-peak/">burst’s peak energy</a> to its total output do not align cleanly for each of the three pulses.



The fading afterglow across X-ray, infrared, and radio bands looks normal for a jet from a compact central engine. The near-infrared signal was unusual in one respect: it was extremely red, which suggests heavy dust near the site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-locating-a-cosmic-mystery">Locating a cosmic mystery</h2>



"Before these observations, the general feeling in the community was that this gamma-ray burst must have originated from within our galaxy," said Levan. "The VLT fundamentally changed that paradigm." 



VLT’s HAWK-I camera picked up an extremely red point of light that faded over days.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-spots-a-white-dwarf-created-in-a-violent-star-collision/">Hubble</a> went a step further and resolved a galaxy at the same spot. That finding places the source in an extragalactic system, likely several billion light-years away. The engine must be extremely powerful to be visible at all.



VLT’s X-shooter spectrograph covered visible to infrared wavelengths and saw a very faint, red continuum, consistent with heavy dust. 



While the exact redshift is still being refined, the data point to a relatively nearby cosmic distance compared with many GRBs, which helps explain the sharp view of the host galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-black-hole-link">Potential black hole link</h2>



One explanation for GRB 250702B points to a jetted tidal disruption event, in which a black hole tears apart a passing star and feeds on the debris. 



Astronomers have observed such jets firing erratically in events like Swift J1644+57, described in a paper that modeled how a powerful magnetic field around the black hole could drive on-off behavior.



Another possibility fits the unusual timing. The authors consider a compact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/">white dwarf star</a> passing close to an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-found-suggesting-new-space-objects-called-intermediate-mass-black-holes/">intermediate-mass black hole</a>. 



This class of black holes is heavier than stellar-mass ones but lighter than the giants in galaxy centers, with masses around 100 to 100,000 times that of the Sun.



In this scenario, the star could be partially stripped during each close pass, feeding the jet in bursts spaced according to the star’s orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doesn-t-fit-the-mold">Doesn't fit the mold</h2>



A more familiar GRB engine, a collapsing massive star, is not off the table. 



The problem is explaining how such a collapse would produce multiple widely spaced pulses over many hours rather than one sustained episode lasting seconds to minutes.



Lensing by a foreground galaxy can also repeat a transient by splitting light paths, but the pulse shapes here differ from one another. The color and afterglow behavior also point away from that lensing explanation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/gamma-ray-burst_GRB-250702B_long_repeating_image-sequence_ESO_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/gamma-ray-burst_GRB-250702B_long_repeating_image-sequence_ESO_1s.webp" alt="This sequence of images shows the evolution over several days of the gamma-ray burst GRB 250702B. The first five images shown here were taken with the VLT’s HAWK-I infrared camera. The explosion, marked here with circles, appears to be nested within an elongated galaxy. An image taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (HST) on 15 July, bottom right, confirmed this. The galaxy appears to be seen edge-on, with a dark dust-lane crossing it. Credit: ESO/A. Levan, A. Martin-Carrillo et al./NASA/ESA " class="wp-image-1985820"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This sequence of images shows the evolution over several days of the gamma-ray burst GRB 250702B. The first five images shown here were taken with the VLT’s HAWK-I infrared camera. The explosion, marked here with circles, appears to be nested within an elongated galaxy. An image taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (HST) on 15 July, bottom right, confirmed this. The galaxy appears to be seen edge-on, with a dark dust-lane crossing it. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESO/A. Levan, A. Martin-Carrillo et al./NASA/ESA </figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-patterns-from-grb-250702b">Light patterns from GRB 250702B</h2>



The first detections were in soft X-rays, then came the brightest gamma-ray flash hours later. That order flips the usual script for GRBs, where the strongest gamma rays typically arrive first and fade quickly.



Infrared light faded quickly, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-telescope-array-is-joining-the-hunt-for-alien-life/">radio telescopes</a> detected a faint source consistent with a standard jet interacting with surrounding gas. 



Those observations match the afterglow physics well, even if the prompt high-energy behavior does not fit neatly into existing categories.



The host galaxy is not a nuclear site, which weakens ideas that require a supermassive black hole sitting at the center. If the burst is a disruption event, an off-center intermediate-mass black hole is a better match for the position.



The red color likely comes from dust lanes in the host galaxy that absorb blue light. That dust also lines up with the strong X-ray absorption measured from the same line of sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-for-a-supernova">Watching for a supernova</h2>



In jet-driven tidal disruption events, X-ray light can plummet once the jet shuts off, while radio emission can rise for months as the blast wave expands. 



Continued X-ray and radio monitoring will test whether this source follows that playbook.



If a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-true-nature-of-dark-matter-may-be-revealed-in-a-supernova/">supernova</a> is involved, it would glow in the infrared a few weeks after the collapse. Dust makes that search harder, but large, sensitive telescopes can still look for the telltale rise and fall.



Spectroscopy can also help determine the distance and characterize the environment around the source. 



A firm redshift would establish the energy budget and sharpen the comparison to known gamma-ray bursts and disruption events.



"We are still not sure what produced this, but with this research we have made a huge step forward towards understanding this extremely unusual and exciting object," said Martin-Carrillo.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adf8e1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Unusually long and repeating gamma-ray burst, 'unlike any other seen,' baffles astronomers

Earlier this year, astronomers watched a burst of high-energy light...

A new study recorded brain activity from 621,733 neurons in 139 mice as they made decisions, building the first activity map of a mammal’s entire brain at single-cell resolution. 



The team saw where signals for seeing, choosing, moving, and getting feedback show up and how they unfold together.



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09235-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> goes beyond the usual hunt for a single decision center and shows a coordinated, brain-wide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-brains-build-mental-maps-of-the-world/">pattern</a>. It also tests a simple idea about how past experience shapes a new choice without us noticing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-map-of-activity">Brain map of activity</h2>



One of the researchers, <a href="https://neurocenter-unige.ch/research-groups/alexandre-pouget/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alexandre Pouget</a> of the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a>, helped lead an international group that trained mice to turn a small wheel to center a striped target for a reward. When the target was faint or absent, the mice leaned on their recent history to guess.



Across 12 labs, the group inserted 699 probes and sampled 279 brain areas while the same task ran everywhere. 



They used <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature24636" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropixels</a> to record spikes from hundreds of neurons per probe with millisecond precision, which made a fine-grained map possible.



“This is the first time anyone has produced a full, brain-wide map of the activity of single neurons during decision-making,” explained Pouget.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-and-decisions-in-the-brain">Activity and decisions in the brain</h2>



Vision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-map-of-the-brains-mitochondria-may-explain-cognitive-decline/">signals</a> appeared first in classical visual areas, then spread into midbrain and hindbrain regions that also carried choice information.&nbsp;



Earlier <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1787-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> in mice had already hinted that choice, action, and engagement are distributed, not isolated in one cortical spot. The new map strengthens that view with coverage of hundreds of regions and clear timing.



Feedback mattered, too. When trials were correct and reward was delivered, wide swaths of the brain lit up together, reflecting both the liquid reward and the licking movements that came with it.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mouse-brain-map_75-thousand-neurons_decision-making-process_Princeton_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mouse-brain-map_75-thousand-neurons_decision-making-process_Princeton_1s.webp" alt="Visualization of 75,000 neurons (colored dots) active across the brain of an adult mouse across different stages of a decision-making task. Dot size reflects a cell’s average firing rate, such that larger dots indicate more active neurons. The color of each dot represents a different grouping of related brain regions. Data collected as part of the International Brain Laboratory’s effort to create a whole-brain map of behavior. Credit: Dan Birman (University of Washington/Allen Institute)" class="wp-image-1985838"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Visualization of 75,000 neurons (colored dots) active across the brain of an adult mouse across different stages of a decision-making task. Dot size reflects a cell’s average firing rate, such that larger dots indicate more active neurons. The color of each dot represents a different grouping of related brain regions. Data collected as part of the International Brain Laboratory’s effort to create a whole-brain map of behavior. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dan Birman (University of Washington/Allen Institute)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expectations-shape-perception">Expectations shape perception</h2>



A companion <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09226-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> tested how prior expectations, built from recent trials, are encoded. Mice estimated the block’s left-right probabilities and performed better when the stimulus was weak, including zero-contrast trials.



The authors decoded signals for this subjective prior in 20 percent to 30 percent of recorded regions spanning early sensory areas like the thalamus, motor areas, and higher cortex.&nbsp;



Crucially, prior signals were present even before a new stimulus appeared and were detectable very early after it arrived. 



That result explains how expectations can nudge perception without crossing into conscious awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-data-showed">What the data showed</h2>



Across the project, the team analyzed 75,708 well-isolated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-learns-study-reveals-an-unexpected-twist/">neurons</a> with the highest quality metrics. 



Just before a movement began, about 4 percent of neurons had activity correlated with the direction of the upcoming choice after controlling for stimulus and block.



Movement variables were strong predictors of activity, and reward delivery was one of the largest contributors to explained variance. 



Those patterns tell us that action and outcome signals are broadly shared, while basic sensory signals stay more localized and brief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-brain-activity-map-matters">Why the brain activity map matters</h2>



The map shows that decision-making is not a handoff <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-mapping-research-mouse-neurons-revolutionary-advance/">from sense to thought to action</a>. It looks more like many regions voting together, each carrying partial information that becomes aligned near movement and feedback.



That layout matters for medicine and technology. If priors and choices are distributed, measuring or modulating a single region may miss the story or cause side effects elsewhere.



The data come from head-fixed mice in a specific visual task, so the conclusions are about how mouse brains act under those conditions. 



The authors also note that licking and other movements explain a large share of the variance during reward, which means the hedonic piece is tangled with motor signals.



The map is correlational, not causal. It shows where information is present, not which sites are required for a decision, and it sets up future causal tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-technical-terms">Reading the technical terms</h2>



Neuropixels are high-density silicon electrodes that record spikes from hundreds of neurons along a thin shank. They offer single-spike timing, which is needed to separate fast sensory and motor events.



The thalamus is a relay hub that routes sensory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/">signals</a> to the cortex and receives strong feedback from the cortex. 



Seeing prior signals there tells us that expectations are changing the initial formatting of incoming inputs, not only the later decision layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-brain-activity-in-humans">Mapping brain activity in humans</h2>



The dataset is public, and the analysis code is standardized. That enables other labs to check the findings, try new models, and test questions about learning, attention, and internal states.



A natural next step is to combine this map with targeted perturbations and to follow priors as they update in different contexts. 



If the same network rules hold across tasks, that will sharpen theories of how brains implement probabilistic inference.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/RSBDnDD2Efo
</div></figure>



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09235-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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First-ever brain activity map captures the decision-making process

A new study recorded brain activity from 621,733 neurons in...

Plastic may not always float where we expect it. The ocean’s surface might look clean in some places, but far beneath the waves, a different story is unfolding. 



In the southeastern Mediterranean, the deep seafloor is turning into a massive storage ground for plastic packaging, especially bags. A new study shows how this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-retailers-are-replacing-plastic-bags-with-eco-friendly-paper-bags/">waste</a> ends up thousands of feet below the surface, and the answer isn’t as simple as trash just “sinking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-in-the-deep-sea">Plastic in the deep sea</h2>



Plastic debris has entered every corner of the ocean, but previously, most of the research has concentrated on floating plastic or beach trash. That changed with this latest study, which took a closer look at what is occurring on the ocean floor. 



Scientists discovered that the Levant Basin - a deep section of the eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/two-continents-meet-along-the-mediterranean-coastline/">Mediterranean</a> off the coasts of Israel, Egypt, and Turkey - is among the world's most contaminated deep-sea areas.



“We used trawls to survey the seafloor and we mainly found plastic bags and packaging that dominate the debris,” said Xing-Yu Li from the <a href="https://www.haifa.ac.il/?lang=en">University of Haifa</a>, the study’s lead author.



This raised a question: how does something so light - something meant to float - end up nearly a mile underwater?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-forensic-approach-to-trash">A forensic approach to trash</h2>



To answer that, the team decided to treat each plastic item like a crime scene. Every piece of debris was carefully examined using a method called multi-marker analysis. 



This approach looks at everything about the plastic - size, shape, color, material, surface features, and even what kinds of things are stuck to it, like tar or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-organisms-may-adapt-to-climate-change-but-with-hidden-costs/">marine organisms</a>.



“In the multi-marker approach anything that is found on a piece of plastic is an evidence,” said Xing-yu. “We extracted as many evidence as possible from every piece of waste, more than many previous studies, to build a fuller, more detailed view of the bottom waste.”



Instead of just counting how much trash was found, this method helped researchers understand how it got there, why it sank, and where it might have come from.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-plastic-doesn-t-sink">Why some plastic doesn’t sink</h2>



Most of the plastics found were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-kitchen-tool-that-could-be-leaching-toxins-into-your-food-polypropylene-cutting-board/">polyethylene</a> - the same material used in grocery bags. Normally, this kind of plastic floats. But when additives like calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) are mixed in during manufacturing, the plastic becomes heavier. 



Those with CaCO₃ sank closer to the shore. Others, without these additives, drifted farther out before eventually settling on the seafloor.



The study also revealed that the deep basin at over 3,000 feet deep acts like a trap. Pressure and fine sediments help keep the plastic down. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofilms-could-change-the-way-we-track-plastic-pollution/">Biofilms</a>, which are slimy layers formed by microbes, usually help weigh plastics down too, but they don’t grow well in this part of the sea. Instead, things like tar, sand, and tiny shells helped plastics stay put.



The scientists noted that these plastic films - while thin and lightweight - are ending up where they can do the most long-term damage. 



Even more troubling, the team found that some of this plastic could become buoyant again if disturbed, but because of how the deep sea works, that rarely happens. Once the plastic settles, it stays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-trash-is-coming-from">Where the trash is coming from</h2>



The plastic pollution isn’t only from local beaches. According to the research, land-based sources from Egypt, Israel, and Turkey are a big part of the problem. 



Shipping also plays a role, especially in deeper waters. Surprisingly, fishing was not a major contributor - possibly due to strict Israeli regulations.



For years, scientists noticed high levels of plastic at the seafloor, but they didn’t fully understand why. 



“For years in our monitoring reports we have reported a high concentration of plastic debris in this area. It was an unsolved mystery as we know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-floor-harbors-up-to-11-million-tons-of-plastic-debris/">plastic debris</a> should remain floating on the sea surface. Now we have a deep understanding of how it happens,” said Dr. Yael Segal from Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research (IOLR). 



“The Eastern Mediterranean is the most polluted area in the world, and we must take action for the sake of the next generation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-risks-to-marine-life">Long-term risks to marine life</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapevines-could-offer-a-breakthrough-alternative-to-plastic-packaging/">Plastic packaging</a> is cheap, easy to produce, and used globally - but it doesn’t go away. It breaks into smaller pieces and can remain in the environment for hundreds of years. 



Deep-sea habitats are already fragile, and adding plastic into the mix could disrupt food webs, introduce toxins, and harm species that haven’t even been fully studied yet.



“As the head of the national monitoring program, I see firsthand how plastic pollution is impacting the entire sea environment: beaches, water, sea bottom, and even local turtle populations,” said Dr. Segal.



Professor Revital Bookman said that the discovery is fascinating in the worst possible way. 



"The eastern Mediterranean is quietly turning into a deep-sea landfill. Plastics that we use for only a few minutes are ending up trapped for centuries, threatening deep marine ecosystems we barely understand," noted Professor Bookman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-needs-to-happen-next">What needs to happen next</h2>



According to the researchers, this study changes how we should think about ocean pollution. Plastic doesn’t just float around until it hits a beach. It travels far, interacts with other pollutants like tar, and ends up in hidden places. 



“This previously overlooked dynamic necessitates a broader perspective on pollution processes in marine environments,” said Professor Bookman. 



“Without systematic deep-sea accounting, we risk underestimating the true environmental footprint of plastic pollution and misallocating mitigation efforts by neglecting offshore and deep-sea sinks.”



To deal with this, the experts call for coordinated efforts across the region. Countries that share the sea need to work together on monitoring, cleanup, and prevention. 



Without a shared strategy, plastics will continue piling up, silently choking one of the planet’s most mysterious ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X25009671?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Hidden plastic graveyard uncovered in the deep Mediterranean Sea

Plastic may not always float where we expect it. The...

A large new study followed 407,618 adults in six European countries for about 11 years and tracked the incidence of cancer, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes. 



The researchers examined how closely people stuck to a healthful, plant-based diet and how that related to developing more than one of the health conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-study-matters">Why this study matters</h2>



The project was led by Reynalda Córdova, a nutritional epidemiologist at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>, working with colleagues across Europe. 



Their team centered the analysis on real-world eating patterns and combined two major datasets to see long term effects.



Chronic diseases often show up in pairs or more. When someone has two or more at the same time, clinicians call it <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5556462/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multimorbidity</a>. Reducing the odds of multiple serious conditions can ease pressure on families and health systems.



In public health, preventing even a modest share of new cases matters because risk compounds when illnesses cluster. 



The analysis used the term “cardiometabolic” to group heart and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-extracts-may-help-treat-metabolic-syndrome/">metabolic</a> problems that often intersect with cancer risk. 



By treating the co-occurrence of conditions as the outcome, the study focused on how disease accumulates over time rather than on single diagnoses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-diets-were-rewarded">Plant-based diets were rewarded</h2>



Participants came from the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12639222/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPIC</a> study, and the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001779" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.K. Biobank</a> (a national research resource that invites adults to share health data for science). These two large cohort projects collect data that connects lifestyle and health records.&nbsp;



Diet quality was scored using a healthful, plant-based diet <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">index</a> that rewards vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and coffee. 



Dietary intake of refined grains, sweets, and animal products, on the other hand, reversed the points.



A companion unhealthful, plant-based diet index scores higher for refined plant foods and sugary drinks, reflecting differences in plant food quality.



The models estimated <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/hazard-ratio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hazard ratio</a>, which expresses how much risk changes with each 10-point rise in the score. This was calculated after accounting for age, sex, smoking, activity, and alcohol use. 



Events were counted and sequenced to see whether a first diagnosis was followed by another, which mirrors how disease accumulates in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-diet-and-multimorbitity">Plant-based diet and multimorbitity</h2>



Across the combined cohorts, 6,604 people developed two of the three illnesses during follow up. 



A 10-point increase on the healthy <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666756825000613?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diet score</a> was linked to 11 percent lower risk in EPIC and 19 percent lower risk in UK Biobank data.



In adults younger than 60, the hazard ratio was 0.71, and in those of 60 or older it was 0.86. This shows a stronger association in midlife. 



The pattern for the unhealthful plant score was positive in UK Biobank data, and null in EPIC, underscoring that not all plant-rich eating is the same.



“A healthy plant-based diet might <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-diet-shifts-the-hidden-costs-of-what-we-eat/">reduce</a> the burden of multimorbidity of cancer and cardiometabolic diseases among middle-aged and older adults,” concluded Córdova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthful-plant-based-diet-defined">Healthful plant-based diet defined</h2>



Scores for the healthy pattern rise with vegetables, fruit, whole grains, beans, nuts, and coffee. Less reliance on refined carbs, sweets, and red or processed meat helps keep the score high.



The unhealthful score climbs with sodas, sweets, white bread, and other refined items. Those choices can crowd out fiber-rich foods that support steady energy and metabolic health.



Separating the healthful and unhealthful versions explains why a plant-based diet can help or harm, depending on the mix. Quality matters more than labels, and the scale captures that difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-diet-quality-might-matter">Why diet quality might matter</h2>



A Lancet <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2818%2931809-9/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> linked higher fiber intake with lower risk of several noncommunicable diseases and better glycemic control. 



Fiber also feeds gut microbes that produce short chain fatty acids. These organic substances support metabolic and immune balance.



Other prospective evidence ties plant-based eating patterns to lower type 2 diabetes risk across populations. 



A comprehensive <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2738784" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta-analysis</a> reported that greater adherence to plant-based diets, especially those rich in healthful plant foods, was associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes.



These mechanisms align with the new results, where lower weight, lower inflammation, and better insulin sensitivity likely explain part of the link. Diet is not a cure, but quality changes can tilt the odds toward healthier aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-interpret-this-safely">How to interpret this safely</h2>



Self-reported diet is imperfect, and people may change how they eat after a diagnosis, which can blunt associations. 



Differences that are not measured can also shift estimates, so the authors tested many scenarios to check robustness.



The inconsistency for the unhealthful score between EPIC and UK Biobank suggests that context and measurement matter. Food culture, recall frequency, and how outcomes are captured can all influence results.



Even with caveats, the direction and size of the associations fit prior <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/">literature</a> on plant-rich patterns and long term health. That consistency adds confidence without assuming what a single study proves in every setting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-shifts-in-everyday-choices">Small shifts in everyday choices</h2>



The findings do not require strict rules or total exclusion of animal products. They point to a pattern where plants take the lead while animal products and refined items take a back seat.



Small shifts that raise the healthful plant score are realistic and sustainable. Those shifts also track with widely recommended approaches to lifelong health.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanhl/article/PIIS2666-7568(25)00061-3/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Healthy Longevity</a>.



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Big health study shows how a plant-based diet protects against disease

A large new study followed 407,618 adults in six European...

Teens are known for breaking rules. They often sneak out, lie, and take dangerous risks. Most parents respond the same way: warnings, punishments, threats of losing privileges. But here’s the big question - do those warnings actually work?



A new study looked at what really makes teens stop risky behavior. Turns out, it’s not the threats or punishments that matter most. What matters is how teens feel about their parents when they’re being warned - and whether those parents are living the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peoples-moral-values-literally-change-with-the-weather/">values</a> they preach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teens-notice-parents-actions">Teens notice parents' actions</h2>



Teens don’t just hear what parents say. They watch what parents do. A warning about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harder-lie-convincingly/">lying</a> or drinking means a lot more when it comes from someone who’s consistent, respectful, and acts with integrity. 



If a parent says “honesty matters” but lies to others or bends the rules themselves, teens pick up on that.



That’s what a team of U.S. and Israeli researchers discovered when they asked teens how they reacted to their parents’ warnings. Teens were more likely to accept a warning - not just get defensive - if they saw their parents as living by the values they talk about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-value-of-walking-the-walk">The value of walking the walk</h2>



The study surveyed 105 teenagers in Israel, with an average age of 15, who had all admitted to doing something risky or rule-breaking in the past month. These included things like skipping school, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-moderate-drinking-severely-harms-health-despite-past-studies/">drinking</a>, or staying out past curfew. 



The researchers wanted to know what happened next - how did their parents respond, and how did the teens feel about it?



The teens rated their parents on how much they lived according to their own values. Did their actions match their words? Did they seem satisfied and energized while doing things they said were important - like being kind, staying responsible, or helping others?



When teens saw their parents as truly practicing what they preached, the warnings felt less like control and more like protection. Even if the consequences were strict, like losing privileges, teens were less likely to rebel.



“Parents really have to ‘walk the walk’ and act on their values if they want their teens to behave responsibly,” said Judith Smetana, a <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> psychologist with decades of work studying parent-teen relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-being-a-good-example-isn-t-enough">Being a good example isn’t enough</h2>



Even when parents were seen as role models, some teens still felt frustrated by the warnings. Why? Because those warnings often missed one key ingredient: empathy.



“We were surprised to learn that even children who perceived their parents as demonstrating their values in their everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-moms-meddle-friend-disapproval-worsens-teen-behavior/">behavior</a> experienced their parents’ warnings as frustrating and insensitive to their basic psychological needs,” said Dr. Avi Assor, a professor at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-listening-is-not-persuasive-in-arguments-does-not-change-minds/">Listening</a> is what really worked. The team found that the only thing that actually led teens to stop risky behavior was when parents took the time to understand their child’s point of view. 



Not just enforcing rules - but asking questions. Trying to see the situation through their child’s eyes. That kind of empathy made teens feel supported, not controlled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-teens-really-need">What teens really need</h2>



The study draws from a well-known theory in psychology called self-determination theory. It says people are motivated when three key needs are met: autonomy (feeling in control of your own choices), competence (feeling capable), and relatedness (feeling respected and connected to others).



When parents respect these needs - especially autonomy - teens feel understood and are more likely to cooperate. When parents ignore or block these needs, teens feel pushed, powerless, or disconnected. That’s when defiance kicks in.



This isn’t about letting kids run wild. It’s about how rules are communicated. A warning that says, “You messed up and here’s why I’m upset, but I want to understand you” lands very differently than one that says, “You broke the rules, so now you lose your phone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-key-to-changing-teen-behavior">The key to changing teen behavior</h2>



So what actually works when teens cross the line? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-treat-their-children-differently-but-do-they-have-a-favorite/">Parents</a> need to live the values they’re trying to teach. Their actions should match their words, showing consistency and authenticity. 



Warnings should come from a place of support, not control. And most importantly, instead of jumping straight to punishment, parents should try to understand their teen’s perspective and take the time to listen.



When teens feel heard and respected, they’re more likely to reflect - and possibly change. It’s not easy, but it’s far more effective than lectures or punishment alone. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-025-02196-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Youth and Adolescence</a>.



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Why some teens rebel - and how to stop risky behavior

Teens are known for breaking rules. They often sneak out,...

Makemake,Dwarf,Planet,,Oil,Painting,Style,Image,Rendered.

Makemake, one of the brightest icy bodies beyond Neptune, just joined an exclusive club. Using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, experts have detected gas above its surface.



This is the second confirmed case of a trans-Neptunian object with gaseous material after Pluto. The culprit is methane, the same molecule that dominates Makemake’s frozen surface.



Study lead author Sylvia Protopapa is a principal scientist at the Southwest Research Institute (<a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SwRI</a>).



“Makemake is one of the largest and brightest icy worlds beyond Neptune, and its surface is dominated by frozen methane,” said Protopapa. "Methane is also present in the gas phase above the surface."



The findings show that Makemake is not an inactive remnant of the outer solar system, but a dynamic body where methane ice is still evolving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-seen-in-new-light">Methane seen in new light</h2>



At roughly 890 miles across - about two-thirds the size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/">Pluto</a> - Makemake was long thought to lack a substantial global atmosphere. 



Stellar occultations (brief events when the dwarf planet passes in front of a star) pointed to no more than a wisp of air.



Webb’s infrared spectra now add an important twist: the team sees methane in emission, excited by sunlight and re-emitted as a faint glow known as fluorescence.



That signal is key. Rather than seeing methane by the light it blocks - as in traditional transmission measurements - Webb picked up methane molecules that absorbed sunlight. 



The molecules then re-radiated it at characteristic wavelengths. In the frigid outer solar system, that kind of fluorescent “whisper” is subtle - and squarely in Webb’s wheelhouse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-thin-pluto-like-atmosphere">A thin, Pluto-like atmosphere</h2>



What’s producing the methane glow? The data allow for two very different, but physically reasonable, scenarios.



One possibility is a wisp-thin, Pluto-like atmosphere in equilibrium with surface ices. As seasonal sunlight warms bright methane frost, a trickle of gas sublimates into the sky, drifting until cold patches on the surface refreeze it.



“This discovery raises the possibility that Makemake has a very tenuous atmosphere sustained by methane sublimation,” said Emmanuel Lellouch of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Observatory</a>.



Models point to gas temperatures around 40 Kelvin (–233 °C/–387 °F) and surface pressures of about 10 picobars - roughly 100 billion times lower than Earth’s sea-level pressure, and a million times more tenuous than Pluto’s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-plumes-from-below">Explosive plumes from below</h2>



The other option is more dramatic: localized outgassing. “Another possibility is that the methane is being released in plume-like outbursts,” Protopapa noted.



In this picture, methane vents from hot spots or fractures at a rate of a few hundred kilograms per second - comparable to the water-rich plumes at Saturn’s moon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-alien-life-exists-on-enceladus-scientists-have-unambiguous-proof-they-will-find-it/">Enceladus</a> and far more vigorous than the faint vapor seen at Ceres.



Such activity would dovetail with earlier hints from thermal observations that some patches on Makemake’s surface are warmer or texturally unusual, potentially due to fresh deposits, rough terrain, or buried heat sources.



“While the temptation to link Makemake’s various spectral and thermal anomalies is strong, establishing the mechanism driving the volatile activity remains a necessary step toward interpreting these observations within a unified framework,” said Ian Wong from the <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Telescope Science Institute</a>.



“Future Webb observations at higher spectral resolution will help determine whether the methane arises from a thin bound atmosphere or from plume-like outgassing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-cycles-reshape-makemake">Methane cycles reshape Makemake</h2>



Whichever source proves correct, methane gas on Makemake is very significant. 



It suggests that surface-atmosphere exchanges - processes that cycle ices into vapor and back again - are still active today far beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-object-is-moving-in-sync-with-neptune/">Neptune</a>. Pluto has been the standout example, but Makemake now looks poised to join it.



The research also tightens the link between chemistry and climate on distant dwarf planets. 



Methane ice can brighten or darken surfaces depending on grain size and mixing. It can also alter thermal behavior. And when it vaporizes, it transports heat and material from one region to another.



Even a vanishingly thin atmosphere can smear frost from sunlit areas to shadowed ones, slowly repainting a world over seasonal timescales. 



If plumes are involved, they could dust the surface with fresh, fine-grained frost, refresh colors, and even build subtle landforms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-dwarf-planet-revealed">A complex dwarf planet revealed</h2>



Makemake’s story has always hinted at complexity. Discovered in 2005 and notable for its high albedo and reddish tint (likely due to radiation-processed organics called tholins), it later surprised astronomers with the discovery of a small, dark moon.



Occultations suggested no thick blanket of air, yet infrared data - including Webb’s - have pointed to puzzling thermal anomalies and unusual characteristics of its methane ice. 



The new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/">methane</a> fluorescence doesn’t settle every debate, but it provides a missing piece: gas is present, at least sometimes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/makemake_dwarf-planet_gas-emissions-overlay_NASA_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/makemake_dwarf-planet_gas-emissions-overlay_NASA_1s.webp" alt="An SwRI-led team used Webb telescope observations (white) to detect methane gas on the distant dwarf planet Makemake. Sharp emission peaks near 3.3 microns reveal methane in the gas phase above Makemake’s surface. A continuum model (cyan) is overlaid for comparison; the gas emission peaks are identified where the observed spectrum rises above the continuum. An artistic rendering of Makemake’s surface is shown in the background. Credit: S. Protopapa, I. Wong/SwRI/STScI/NASA/ESA/CSA" class="wp-image-1985573"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An SwRI-led team used Webb telescope observations (white) to detect methane gas on the distant dwarf planet Makemake. Sharp emission peaks near 3.3 microns reveal methane in the gas phase above Makemake’s surface. A continuum model (cyan) is overlaid for comparison; the gas emission peaks are identified where the observed spectrum rises above the continuum. An artistic rendering of Makemake’s surface is shown in the background. Click image to enlarge. Credit: S. Protopapa, I. Wong/SwRI/STScI/NASA/ESA/CSA</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-makemake-research">Next steps for Makemake research</h2>



Webb detected the methane using its ultra-sensitive infrared spectrograph. It was able to tease out faint signatures of the gas against the dim, icy backdrop nearly 40–50 astronomical units from the Sun.



The team’s ability to detect fluorescence highlights both the telescope’s power and the lofting of methane molecules above the surface.



To pin down the source, higher-resolution spectra will be crucial. If Makemake hosts a bound atmosphere, Webb can look for telltale line shapes and ratios that betray gas temperature and pressure, and perhaps the presence (or absence) of other volatiles like nitrogen or carbon monoxide.



If plumes are the source, repeated observations might catch variability - brief brightenings as vents turn on, or regional differences tied to specific terrains. 



“Future Webb observations at higher spectral resolution will help determine whether the methane arises from a thin bound atmosphere or from plume-like outgassing,” Wong said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-makemake-isn-t-frozen-after-all">Makemake isn’t frozen after all</h2>



Either outcome will sharpen our picture of Makemake’s volatile cycle and, by extension, the behavior of other methane-rich worlds that orbit in the deep freeze beyond Neptune.



For a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-on-the-dwarf-planet-ceres/">dwarf planet</a> once pegged as a quiet, frozen leftover, Makemake is suddenly looking lively&nbsp; - and that’s good news. 



It means the outer solar system is not just a museum of icy planets, but a place where sunlight, chemistry, and geology still conspire to keep tiny worlds active.



The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.06772" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image credit: NASA Visualization Technology Applications and Development



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Activity and gases detected on dwarf planet Makemake, once thought to be a frozen wasteland

Makemake, one of the brightest icy bodies beyond Neptune, just...

Every year, across the vast grasslands of East Africa, over a million wildebeest are believed to thunder across the Serengeti and Masai Mara in what’s long been called the world’s greatest wildlife migration. That number just changed. And it changed a lot.



A new study has revealed that the actual number of wildebeest in this legendary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/">migration</a> may be less than half of what we thought. Instead of 1.3 million, the new count shows fewer than 600,000 animals. So where are the missing wildebeest?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-count-wildebeest">A new way to count wildebeest</h2>



Until now, scientists have used airplanes to count the herds from above. They flew along set lines, photographed the animals below, and used math models to estimate how many were in the areas they didn’t see directly. It was the best method available, but not perfect. 



Wildebeest are constantly on the move. If a group shifted from one spot to another, they could be counted twice - or missed altogether. That’s where satellites come in.



Researchers turned to high-resolution satellite imagery that can snap photos covering hundreds of thousands of square miles in one shot. These images don’t scare the animals and don’t require dangerous low-flying planes. 



But there’s a catch: there are way too many images for humans to sift through and count animals by hand. So, the team turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-protect-elephants/">artificial intelligence</a>. Two powerful deep-learning models were trained to recognize the tiny shapes of wildebeest from space. 



The shapes appear as blobs just 6 - 12 pixels wide, which is barely visible even when zoomed in. The models, called U-Net and YOLOv8, were trained on over 70,000 examples of labeled wildebeest and reached high accuracy scores of up to 0.83, which is considered excellent for this kind of work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-ai-found">What the AI found</h2>



Once trained, the AI models got to work analyzing satellite photos taken in August 2022 and 2023 over the Masai Mara region of Kenya and Tanzania. The results came as a surprise. 



In 2022, the models counted between 324,202 and 337,926 wildebeest. In 2023, they found between 502,917 and 533,137. That’s a huge gap compared to the long-standing estimate of 1.3 million wildebeest - a number that’s been around since the 1970s.



The models were created and run by a team that included researchers from Oxford University’s Wildlife Conservation Research Unit. They believe the new counts are more reliable because satellite images don’t require any guesswork about where the animals might be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-did-the-wildebeest-go">Where did the wildebeest go?</h2>



There’s no clear answer yet about what happened to the “missing” wildebeest. The study was led by Dr. Isla Duporge from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



“The sheer difference between traditional estimates and our new results raises questions about where the ‘missing’ wildebeest might be," said Dr. Duporge.



"Based on data from GPS tracking surveys, we are confident that most of the herd were contained within the surveyed area. And whilst some individuals may have been obscured by tree cover, it seems unlikely that such a large number - on the order of half a million - would have been concealed in this way,” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-changes-in-migration">Possible changes in migration</h2>



It’s possible that wildebeest aren’t vanishing - they may just be moving differently than before. Changes in rainfall due to climate change could be shifting where the best grazing areas are. 



Human activities like farming, roads, and fences are also blocking traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildebeest-suffer-genetically-from-blocked-migration-routes/">migration</a> paths. If the herds are splitting or rerouting, they may be harder to spot in one place.



Also, current satellite images can’t easily tell a wildebeest apart from other similar animals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-zebra-got-its-stripes-to-dazzle-horseflies/">zebra</a> or eland. So the count might actually be slightly higher than it should be, not lower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-accurate-data">Importance of accurate data</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/">Great Migration</a> doesn’t just involve wildebeest. Lions, crocodiles, hyenas, and other predators rely on this moving buffet for survival. The migration also draws visitors from all over the world and brings in millions of dollars to local communities in Kenya and Tanzania through tourism.



If the herds really are shrinking, it could ripple through the entire ecosystem. That’s why having accurate data is so important.



“The field of wildlife conservation relies on having accurate data on wildlife population numbers," said Dr. Duporge.



"Combining earth observation satellite data with deep learning, this study has revolutionized our understanding of migratory wildebeest numbers, and could open the floodgates for surveying other species using this method.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-else-can-ai-spot-from-space">What else can AI spot from space?</h2>



This isn’t the first time AI and satellites have teamed up for conservation. The same research team had earlier trained a model to spot elephants from space. But this new wildebeest study is the first to count individual animals in a large, spread-out population.



According to the team, the same technology could soon be used to track other herd animals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-reindeer-populations-are-declining-faster-than-ever-before/">reindeer</a>, camels, and zebra. They’re even working on a new method to detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-half-of-africas-rhinos-have-private-owners/">African rhinos</a> - one of the most endangered animals on the planet.



Professor David Macdonald, a co-author of the study, noted that the most basic fact to know as a foundation for conserving any species is how many of them there are. 



"The technological breakthrough of our study - satellite-based wildlife monitoring, powered by AI - potentially revolutionises the answer for wildebeest, besides opening up incredible possibilities for monitoring other large species," said Professor MacDonald.



This new way of counting animals could change how we protect wildlife. But for now, it leaves us with a big, unsettling question: what happened to hundreds of thousands of wildebeest that we thought were there? We may need to rethink what we know about one of the planet’s most iconic migrations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/9/pgaf264/8249339" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Missing wildebeest? AI survey sparks a migration mystery

Every year, across the vast grasslands of East Africa, over...

Think about sipping a sugar-free drink that still tastes sweet. Many of us have puzzled over this illusion. Now scientists at Karolinska Institutet in Sweden reveal how our brains transform smell into taste.



The research, published in Nature Communications, shows that the brain encodes certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-dna-may-explain-why-you-love-or-hate-certain-smells/">aromas</a> as if they were flavors themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flavor-and-smell-form">How flavor and smell form</h2>



Flavor is more than taste. It comes from a combination of gustatory signals and retronasal odors, those aromas drifting from the mouth to the nose. 



The insula, known as the taste cortex, was found to integrate these signals earlier than expected. This means the brain does not wait for higher regions to combine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-your-brain-decides-what-smells-good-or-bad/">taste</a> and smell but merges them immediately into one experience.



Study lead author Putu Agus Khorisantono is a researcher in the Department of Clinical Neuroscience at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>. 



“We saw that the taste cortex reacts to taste-associated aromas as if they were real tastes,” explained Khorisantono. "The finding provides a possible explanation for why we sometimes experience taste from smell alone, for example in flavored waters." 



"This underscores how strongly odors and tastes work together to make food pleasurable, potentially inducing craving and encouraging overeating of certain foods.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-links-flavor-and-smell">How the brain links flavor and smell</h2>



The researchers tested 25 adults. First, participants learned to identify sweet and savory flavors through combinations of taste and smell. 



Later, inside a scanner, they received either tasteless odors or odorless tastes. Algorithms trained on brain responses to actual tastes were then tested on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radio-waves-can-boost-our-sense-of-smell-without-contact/">odors</a> alone. The surprising outcome was that odours mimicked the brain’s taste responses.



The study revealed that sweet or savory odors activated the same neural patterns as the corresponding tastes.



This overlap was strongest in the ventral anterior insula, a region connected to olfactory areas. Importantly, the researchers ruled out simple pleasure ratings as the cause. Instead, the brain genuinely encoded odors in a way that matched taste perception.



“This shows that the brain does not process taste and smell separately, but rather creates a joint representation of the flavor experience in the taste cortex,” said senior researcher Janina Seubert. 



“This mechanism may be relevant for how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-and-different-odors-can-influence-how-we-see-colors/">taste</a> preferences and eating habits are formed and influenced.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-flavor-and-smell-matter">Why flavor and smell matter</h2>



The findings highlight the insula as a hub for flavor integration. They also reveal that taste representations can drift over time. Neural patterns of taste identity were less stable across days, echoing results seen in rodent studies. 



This suggests that our flavor experiences are dynamic, adapting with exposure, context, and internal states such as hunger, mood, or attention. 



A flavor that feels vivid and distinct one day may blur or even shift the next, depending on what the brain has recently learned or anticipated.



This fluid quality points to a system designed not for rigid coding but for flexibility, helping us adjust to changing diets, environments, and cultural influences on taste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flavor-identity-and-reward-value">Flavor identity and reward value</h2>



The study also observed cross-modal decoding in other regions, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, which is known to encode the value of food. 



The researchers propose that the insula forms a shared flavor identity, while the orbitofrontal cortex evaluates its reward value. This dual process could explain why certain odors make foods irresistible and shape long-term eating habits.



The team now wants to test external smells, or orthonasal odors. These are the scents we encounter before eating, like walking past bread or pastries.



“We want to find out whether the activation pattern in the brain’s taste cortex changes from salty to sweet when we walk from the cheese aisle to the pastries in the supermarket,” said Khorisantono. “If so, this could have a significant impact on the foods we choose to consume.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flavor-and-smell-affect-health">How flavor and smell affect health</h2>



This research reframes flavor as a deeply integrated brain process. Smell and taste are not separate streams but overlapping codes that can trick the brain into tasting without tasting.



Beyond solving everyday mysteries like sweet-tasting flavored water, the work raises questions about cravings, overeating, and how our diets are shaped by environments filled with powerful aromas. 



The research also suggests that everyday exposure to food-related smells in supermarkets, restaurants, offices, and even advertising spaces may influence us more than we realize.



These aromas may prime the brain to expect certain tastes, creating a loop where scent alone can nudge us toward food choices we might not otherwise make. 



Over time, this subtle influence could shape eating habits, nutritional patterns, and even health outcomes, revealing how deeply our sensory world directs behavior long before conscious decisions take place.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63803-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How smell tricks the brain into tasting flavors

Think about sipping a sugar-free drink that still tastes sweet....

Minerals might look like small players in our meals, yet they can leave lasting marks in our DNA. A large global analysis now shows that shortages and surpluses of these micronutrients shaped human biology in ways that still influence health today.



A new study examined 276 genes tied to 13 minerals across 40 populations and found clear signs that natural selection responded to local diets and soils. The signals span <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/5700-year-old-piece-of-gum-reveals-the-complete-dna-of-a-prehistoric-woman/">minerals</a> such as iron, calcium, zinc, iodine, magnesium, and more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-minerals-shaped-human-dna">How minerals shaped human DNA</h2>



The research was led by Jasmin Rees during his PhD studies at University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>). The team searched human genomes for footprints of positive selection, a process where helpful genetic changes spread because they improve survival or reproduction.



They looked for two types of evidence and found both local and wider patterns. Some gene changes were shared across many regions, while others were tightly linked to one place and a specific nutrient challenge.



“Different human populations lived in different environments, so they had to adapt to different kinds of environmental pressures, such as disease and diet, that over time can drive trait differences. This is the first study that looks at micronutrient-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preserving-earths-genetic-future-before-its-too-late/">adaptation</a> on a global scale and across this many micronutrients,” said Rees.



Micronutrient availability depends on <a href="https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e5c7124b-cdc4-4bc1-b910-b14f5e6965e4/content" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a>, which can vary a lot even over short distances. Plants take up minerals from the ground, animals eat the plants, and we eat both, so geology quietly shapes what ends up on our plates.



<a href="https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/WHO-WFP-UNICEF-statement-micronutrients-deficiencies-emergency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deficiencies</a> remain common, affecting roughly 2 billion people worldwide. Before modern supplements and fortification, those gaps were even larger and more prolonged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-adaptations-to-minerals">Genetic adaptations to minerals</h2>



The analysis highlighted iodine related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-dna-holds-the-hidden-history-of-human-language/">genes</a> in some Central American Maya communities that live on iodine poor soils. Iodine shortage can lead to <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-HealthProfessional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goiter</a>, an enlarged thyroid that signals low thyroid hormone production.



In parts of South Asia, soils carry very high magnesium. The researchers detected signs near genes linked to magnesium handling and proposed that these shifts could have reduced the risk of magnesium overload in those settings.



Zinc stood out for how widespread the signals were across non-African groups. Several zinc transporter genes showed signs of selection, which fits with the importance of zinc in immune function, growth, and metabolism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-health-today">Impact on health today</h2>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlocking-the-hidden-half-of-plants-with-dna/">patterns</a> help explain why the same diet can affect people differently. If a community has many variants that conserve a scarce mineral, moving to a region or diet with plenty could change risk in ways doctors should anticipate.



Climate pressures add another layer. Rising carbon dioxide has been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13179" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> to reduce zinc and iron in key crops, which could tighten already narrow nutritional margins for many families.



Public health steps like iodized salt, biofortified staples, and targeted screening remain crucial. Genetic context does not replace nutrition programs, it can help fine tune them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-signals-mean">What the signals mean</h2>



Some nutrient-related genes show concentrated selection at a few points in the genome, a pattern called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10550320/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oligogenic adaptation</a>. Others show weaker, dispersed signals across many genes, a pattern often called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41576-020-0250-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polygenic adaptation</a>.



The study also estimated when some of these shifts likely happened. Many appear to cluster around migrations into new environments, which tracks with changes in soils and foods rather than any single recent cultural shift.



“Micronutrient deficiencies have likely shaped worldwide human evolution more directly than previously appreciated. This paper is a first step in understanding which populations might be most at risk,” said Rees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-and-future-research">Limitations and future research </h2>



Genome scans show where selection likely acted, but they do not prove the exact biological effect of each DNA change. Lab studies are needed to measure how a variant alters transport, storage, or enzyme activity.



Diet data and environmental maps can sharpen the picture. One recent <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(24)00276-6/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> synthesized national intake surveys to estimate inadequate micronutrient intake across countries, pointing to where diet gaps are largest.



Better soil maps would also help, since farmers can fix plant deficiencies that matter for yield, but not always those that matter mainly for human health. That difference matters for elements like iodine and selenium, which are vital for us but not always for the crop.



Population level findings do not define any person. Your health depends on diet, environment, and many genes working together.



These discoveries are tools to make prevention smarter. They can help target fortification, guide supplementation policies, and focus screening where biology and environment intersect.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(25)00315-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Journal of Human Genetics</a>.



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Minerals shaped human DNA in surprising ways

Minerals might look like small players in our meals, yet...

There’s a heat-driven health crisis creeping in - not with coughing or fevers in a doctor’s office, but with buzzing mosquitoes.



Dengue fever, a disease that used to stick mostly to tropical zones, is breaking borders and heading toward cities and countries that never had to worry about it before. The reason? It’s getting warmer.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/">Dengue</a> is far more than a nuisance. The illness often starts with high fever, headaches, and body aches. In some cases, it spirals into internal bleeding, organ failure, and death.



Once mostly seen in places like Brazil and the Philippines, it’s now on track to affect millions more across both Asia and the Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-and-dengue-transmission">Temperature and dengue transmission </h2>



Until now, scientists had a pretty good hunch that heat played a role in dengue’s spread. What this new study makes clear is just how big that role is - and how dangerous the trend could become.



The analysis looked at 1.4 million records of dengue across 21 countries, mainly in Central and South America, plus Southeast and South Asia. The research shows that even small increases in average temperature are already making dengue infections worse and more widespread.



“The effects of temperature were much larger than I expected,” said Marissa Childs, the lead author from the <a href="https://www.summer.uw.edu/">University of Washington</a>. “Even small shifts in temperature can have a big impact for dengue transmission, and we’re already seeing the fingerprint of climate warming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mosquito-s-sweet-spot">The mosquito’s sweet spot</h2>



Dengue doesn’t spread well in just any heat. It thrives in a narrow band of temperatures. The peak danger zone? Around 82°F. That’s the sweet spot where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/">mosquitoes</a> are most active and the dengue virus replicates fast.



This means that as previously cooler cities and regions warm up, they’re becoming perfect breeding grounds for mosquitoes that carry dengue. This includes major population centers in Mexico, Peru, and Brazil. Many are just now reaching that danger zone, and that’s where the biggest spikes are expected.



The study found that hotter areas already above this optimal temperature might actually see slight dips in dengue spread. But those declines don’t come close to canceling out the massive increases elsewhere. The total global impact is still a steep rise in infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-of-infections-linked-to-heat">Millions of infections linked to heat</h2>



Between 1995 and 2014, warmer temperatures were responsible for 18% of dengue infections across the 21 countries studied. That’s not a future estimate - it’s already happened. 



Based on current rates, over 4.6 million extra dengue cases have been caused by climate-driven warming every year.



Looking ahead, things could get worse, and fast. Depending on how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/">greenhouse gas emissions</a> rise, cases could jump another 49% to 76% by 2050. That means more than double the current number of dengue infections in places that are already home to over 260 million people.



“Many studies have linked temperature and dengue transmission,” said Erin Mordecai, senior author of the study. “What’s unique about this work is that we are able to separate warming from all the other factors that influence dengue - mobility, land use change, population dynamics - to estimate its effect on the real-world dengue burden." 



"This is not just hypothetical future change but a large amount of human suffering that has already happened because of warming-driven dengue transmission.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-places-new-risks">New places, new risks</h2>



The numbers in the study might actually be lower than the real totals. The research didn’t include places where data is unreliable or hard to get - such as large parts of India and Africa. 



The analysis also doesn’t fully cover areas where dengue is still emerging, like parts of the United States and Europe.



But signs are showing up. Dengue cases have already been reported in California, Texas, Florida, Hawaii, and even southern parts of Europe. As people move, cities grow, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-variables-can-predict-future-mosquito-activity/">virus</a> evolves, the risks are rising.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-slow-the-spread">How to slow the spread</h2>



The study points to two ways forward: prevention and preparation. On the prevention side, aggressive action to cut carbon emissions would slow down global warming and reduce heat-driven spread of dengue. 



This strategy would require more investment in clean energy and fewer emissions from fossil fuels.



But even with strong prevention efforts, adaptation is critical. Health systems need to be ready. Mosquito control programs have to expand. And access to new vaccines will matter more than ever.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/">Climate change</a> is not just affecting the weather - it has cascading consequences for human health, including fueling disease transmission by mosquitoes,” Mordecai said.



"Even as the U.S. federal government moves away from investing in climate mitigation and climate and health research, this work is more crucial than ever for anticipating and mitigating the human suffering caused by fossil fuel emissions.”



What this study shows isn’t just that dengue is spreading. It proves that climate change is already making people sick in ways that were once hard to measure. The suffering isn’t tomorrow’s problem - it’s today’s reality. And unless big changes happen fast, that reality is only going to get worse.



The full study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



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Rising heat is supercharging dengue and spreading it into new regions

There’s a heat-driven health crisis creeping in - not with...

A restless night can leave you groggy the next day. But when sleeplessness becomes chronic, the toll extends beyond fatigue. A new study suggests that insomnia may influence how quickly the brain ages, reshaping memory and thinking over time.



The researchers found that chronic insomnia increases the risk of cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-turning-point-when-your-body-starts-aging-faster-proteins-key/">decline</a>. People who struggled with sleep at least three nights a week for three months or more had a 40% higher chance of developing mild cognitive impairment or dementia. 



This translates to the effect of adding 3.5 years of brain aging. The researchers emphasize that the study reveals an association, not direct causation.



“Insomnia doesn’t just affect how you feel the next day - it may also impact your brain health over time,” said Dr. Diego Z. Carvalho of the Mayo Clinic, who is a member of the <a href="https://www.aan.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Academy of Neurology</a>.



“We saw faster decline in thinking skills and changes in the brain that suggest chronic insomnia could be an early warning sign or even a contributor to future cognitive problems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insomnia-and-brain-aging">Insomnia and brain aging</h2>



The research team followed 2,750 older adults, with an average age of 70, for more than five years. Of these participants, about 16% struggled with chronic insomnia. At the beginning, everyone answered questions about whether their sleep had changed in the past two weeks.



The participants also took yearly tests designed to measure memory, attention, and other thinking skills.



A smaller group had detailed brain scans to look for warning signs, including white matter damage from small vessel disease and amyloid plaques, the sticky protein often linked to Alzheimer’s.



As the years passed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/">patterns</a> began to emerge. People with chronic insomnia were more likely to see their thinking and memory decline. Fourteen percent of them developed mild cognitive impairment or dementia, compared with just 10% of those who slept normally. 



That difference may sound small, but when applied to thousands of people, it becomes significant. Even after researchers adjusted for other health factors like age, high blood pressure, sleep apnea, and use of sleep medications, the insomnia group still carried a 40% higher risk.



This finding suggests that the effects of poor sleep cannot be fully explained by other medical conditions. Instead, insomnia itself may be playing a more direct role in how the brain ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-sleep-impacts-the-brain">Losing sleep impacts the brain</h2>



The researchers compared two groups: people sleeping less than usual and those sleeping more. The contrast was clear. Those getting less sleep scored lower on memory and thinking tests, as if their brains had aged four extra years.



Brain scans confirmed the findings. People with less sleep had more brain damage and more amyloid plaques, the proteins tied to Alzheimer’s. 



The buildup looked like what is seen in people with a dementia risk gene. This suggests that losing sleep often can make the brain age faster and become weaker.



For those sleeping more, the outlook was brighter. Their brain scans showed less damage, hinting that extra rest might help recovery, even if scientists don’t yet know how.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-link-between-insomnia-and-aging">The link between insomnia and aging</h2>



Certain groups proved especially vulnerable. Participants with the APOE ε4 gene experienced sharper declines in memory and thinking. This finding highlights how insomnia may interact with genetic risks to accelerate cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-purpose-the-secret-ingredient-for-healthy-aging/">problems</a>.



“Our results suggest that insomnia may affect the brain in different ways, involving not only amyloid plaques, but also small vessels supplying blood to the brain,” said Dr. Carvalho.



“This reinforces the importance of treating chronic insomnia - not just to improve sleep quality but potentially to protect brain health as we age. Our results also add to a growing body of evidence that sleep isn’t just about rest - it’s also about brain resilience.”



The study used medical records to find people with insomnia. This means some cases might have been missed, or the seriousness of symptoms not fully recorded. 



Even so, the results show how harmful poor sleep can be over time. They highlight the need to check sleep problems more carefully, treat them sooner, and teach people why sleep is important for healthy aging.



The research was funded in part by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000214155" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Chronic insomnia linked to faster brain aging and dementia risk

A restless night can leave you groggy the next day....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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