A new study has revealed an intriguing phenomenon that could be contributing to the increasing consumption of plastic waste by whales. 



It all starts within the mysterious depths of the ocean where sunlight does not venture. This is where the likes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-have-the-sperm-whales-gulf-gone-gulf-jumbo-squid-scientists-think-they-know/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm whales</a> and goose-beaked whales forage for food, relying on their intricate soundwave-based navigation system to find their next meal.



But there seems to be a hitch - a torn plastic party balloon can sound remarkably similar to a delicious squid in these lightless depths.



A recent study has found a potential reason why whales might mistake plastic for prey – they sound the same underwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acoustic-signatures-in-the-deep-sea">Acoustic signatures in the deep sea</h2>



What exactly are these acoustic signatures? Well, when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> sends out clicks and buzzes from a vocal cord-like structure near their blowholes, the sounds bounce off objects in the water. 



The sounds that return carry information about the size, shape, and nature of those objects. This is how the whales "see" and interpret their surroundings. And to their acoustic perception, their favorite squid sounds eerily similar to a plastic bag.



"There are hundreds of types of plastic, and the various material properties including polymer (chemical) composition, additives, shape, size, age/weathering, and degree of fouling likely play a role in the frequency-specific responses observed," noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-pollution-and-whales">Plastic pollution and whales </h2>



Now, it's crucial to mention that the whales' sound-based navigation system is not a new kid on the evolutionary block. This sophisticated system has been helping whales find food in the pitch-dark ocean depths for the past 25 million years.



However, plastic pollution is a relatively new challenge faced by whales, and according to Merrill's findings, it's messing with their ultrasonic grocery shopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-debris-around-whales">Plastic debris around whales</h2>



Merrill and his team collected typical plastic trash items like shopping bags, ropes, bottles, and balloons from beaches in Beaufort and Atlantic Beach, North Carolina.



These items were then suspended underwater and subjected to sonar transponder tests on Duke Marine Lab's ship, the R/V Shearwater. 



The team performed acoustic testing on these items at three varying sonar frequencies that span the range of 'clicks' emitted by different species of deep-diving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>.



The sounds of real squid (albeit deceased ones) and pieces of squid beak were also recorded for comparison.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-mistake-plastic-for-prey">Whales mistake plastic for prey</h2>



The results were as alarming as they were surprising. The plastic debris almost always sounded like food, especially plastic films and fragments, which are among the most commonly found items in the stomachs of deceased whales.



Merrill suggests that we could consider re-engineering some plastics to not have an acoustic signature. But he also warns of potential risks. 



For instance, if fishing net and fishing line became "acoustically invisible," that could lead to increased entanglements where whales wouldn't be able to identify and avoid these threats.



For this pioneering study, Merrill collaborated with scientists from neighboring marine labs operated by NOAA, NC State University, and UNC – Chapel Hill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The findings from Merrill's study have profound implications for marine conservation strategies aimed at protecting whales. 



Traditional approaches have largely focused on reducing the amount of plastic that enters the oceans - a task vital to the health of marine ecosystems.



However, understanding that plastic can acoustically resemble prey to whales suggests that addressing the challenge could require innovative solutions within the manufacturing sector as well. 



This could involve developing materials that emit distinct acoustic signatures detectable by marine life without posing any risk of ingestion. 



Such multidisciplinary cooperation between conservationists and material scientists could pave the way for groundbreaking strategies to safeguard these majestic creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-plastic-crisis">Addressing the plastic crisis</h2>



In light of these revelations, there is an urgent need to collectively address the plastic pollution crisis. Reducing our reliance on harmful plastics and advancing research into safer alternatives is paramount.



Moreover, stringent regulations on plastic manufacturing could play a crucial role in mitigating this crisis. By innovating responsibly and enforcing global standards, we can not only protect marine biodiversity but also ensure a healthier planet. 



While technological innovations and alternatives to plastic are critical in addressing this issue of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-whale-found-on-new-zealand-beach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, perhaps the more immediate and straightforward action we can all take is responsible disposal of our waste.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X24010464?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Plastic trash sounds just like food to deep-diving whales

A new study has revealed an intriguing phenomenon that could be contributing to the increasing consumption of plastic waste by whales. It all starts within the mysterious depths of the ocean where sunlight does not venture. This is where the likes of sperm whales and goose-beaked whales forage for food, relying on their intricate soundwave-based navigation system to find their next meal. But there seems to be a hitch - a torn plastic party balloon can sound remarkably similar to a delicious squid in these lightless depths....

The turkeys we'll be sitting down to eat on Thursday have a history that goes way back. Archaeologists have unearthed a clutch of domesticated turkey eggs used as a ritual offering 1,500 years ago in Oaxaca, Mexico -- some of the earliest evidence of turkey domestication.

"Our research tells us that turkeys had been domesticated by 400-500 AD," explains Field Museum archaeologist Gary Feinman, one of the paper's authors. "People have made guesses about turkey domestication based on the presence or absence of bones at archaeological sites, but now we are bringing in classes of information that were not available before. We're providing strong evidence to confirm prior hypotheses." The results were published in an article in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.

Feinman, along with lead author Heather Lapham from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and co-author Linda Nicholas also of The Field Museum, discovered the eggs during an excavation in Oaxaca that was home to the Zapotec people going back thousands of years. "It was very exciting because it's very rare to find a whole cluster of intact eggs. This was very unexpected," says Feinman.

"Heather Lapham is an archaeologist who studies animal bones, and she knew immediately that we had found five intact or unhatched eggs that were left as an offering alongside seven newly hatched baby turkeys, of which only their tiny bones survived," says Feinman. Scanning electron microscope analysis of the eggshells confirmed that they were indeed laid by turkeys.

"The fact that we see a full clutch of unhatched turkey eggs, along with other juvenile and adult turkey bones nearby, tells us that these birds were domesticated," says Feinman. "It helps to confirm historical information about the use of turkeys in the area."

The eggs, according to Feinman, were an offering of ritual significance to the Zapotec people. The Zapotec people still live in Oaxaca today, and domesticated turkeys remain important to them. "Turkeys are raised to eat, given as gifts, and used in rituals," says Feinman. "The turkeys are used in the preparation of food for birthdays, baptisms, weddings, and religious festivals."

The new information about when turkeys were domesticated helps amplify the bigger picture of animal domestication in Mesoamerica. "There were very few domesticated animals in Oaxaca and Mesoamerica in general compared with Eurasia," explains Feinman. "Eurasia had lots of different meat sources, but in Oaxaca 1,500 years ago, the only assuredly domestic meat sources were turkeys and dogs. And while people in Oaxaca today rely largely on meat from animals brought over by the Spanish (like chicken, beef, and pork), turkeys have much greater antiquity in the region and still have great ritual as well as economic significance today."

The turkeys that are so important to the Zapotec today are similar birds to the ones that play a role in the American tradition of Thanksgiving. "These are not unlike the kinds of turkeys that would have been around at the first Thanksgiving, and similar to the birds that we eat today," says Feinman.24

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Field Museum</a>

Turkey domestication happened at least 1500 years ago

The turkeys we'll be sitting down to eat on Thursday...

Just like humans, Chimpanzees learn how to behave from their mother's.

A group of researchers led by Richard Wrangham from the Ruth Moore Professor of Biological Anthropology has shown, for the first time, that chimpanzees learn grooming styles from their mothers. Once learned, chimps continued to perform the behavior the same way, long after the death of their mothers. The study was published in Current Biology.

"I think what it shows is how strong the maternal influence is," Wrangham said. "It's very charming that our oldest known son was almost 40 years old, still doing what his long-dead mother did."

Known as "high-arm grooming," the behavior occurs during the regular grooming sessions chimpanzees engage in throughout the day. As two chimps groom each other, each raises one arm and either clasp hands or cross their arms as they continue to groom. These brief - sessions averaging only about 45 seconds are repeated as often as ten times a day.

But while grooming behavior is universal among chimps, high-arm grooming is not.

The behavior has been observed in eight chimpanzee populations across Africa; Wrangham said, each of which shows differing rates of clasping and non-clasping, but is notably absent in three other well-studied populations.

It's not clear, however, whether any significance should be attached to those differences - at present, researchers have no clear answer as to why chimps engage in high-arm grooming, or what benefits they get from it.

"So what we wanted to understand was what's responsible for the variation in palm-to-palm clasping," Wrangham said. "When a young female joins a new group does she look at what everyone else is doing...and then do what the rest of the group does for the rest of her life?"

Wrangham and colleagues collected the most detailed data ever on how - and how often - chimps in a particular population engaged in high-arm grooming, and they quickly realized that nearly all previous theories about the behavior were wrong.

"This type of behavior, which seems so trivial in many ways - whether you clasp hands or cross arms - has been suggested as signaling membership in a group," Wrangham said. "People often see these types of strange behaviors we see in chimpanzees and wonder if it is some sort of group identification sign.''

"Alternatively, people have suggested that maybe it signals a special type of social relationship if two individuals do it more often with one another. But what we're showing with this paper is that none of the obvious possibilities figure out," Wrangham said. "The pattern varies widely within the group, it's not closely associated with friendship, it doesn't vary by age or sex, and it does not depend on how long an individual has been in the community."

He stated the only connection researchers were able to identify was the maternal one. The chimpanzees were imitating their mothers, not identifying with the community.

Like humans, young chimpanzees learn behavior from their mothers.

"Even when they're adults, even after their mothers are long dead, they still do it the same way their mother did it," Wrangham said. "This is the first time anyone has realized this, and the pattern is delightfully clear."

Wrangham said studies this far haven't been able to show whether high-arm grooming carries any social meaning.

"People may say it's important because they stick to it," he said. "But the alternative view is that no one in the group cares. There's never rejection (when a clasper meets a non-clasper) - everyone has tended to think that this is something that would be seen more among individuals that have a strong alliance relationship, but it turns out to not be true."

Wrangham states that this finding leaves several unanswered questions, with the hope that further study may yet yield insights into the behavior.

"Now that we know some families clasp hands as much as 90 percent of the time, and others do it only 10 percent, what happens when you get two individuals high-arm grooming together when one is a clasper and the other is not?" Wrangham said. "What is it that decides which pattern they will use? Is it dominance? Is it the higher ranking individual? The older one? Or maybe it is the one that initiates?

"Our current evidence suggests that neither dominance nor age carries sway. Eventually, I hope we can work out the social significance of this quirky behavior. If we can find a pattern for which individual "wins" when a clasper grooms with a non-clasper, maybe we will get a clue to why individuals do high-arm grooming at all."

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>

Chimpanzees learn grooming styles from their mothers

Just like humans, Chimpanzees learn how to behave from their...

Kiribati, a small island nation in the central Pacific Ocean, has established a large shark sanctuary that will help ensure the creatures are protected.
The Vice President of Kiribati, Kourabi Nenem, said at the shark sanctuary's launch on Friday that the nation was committed to protecting sharks from exploitation and overfishing.
Kiribati has banned commercial shark fishing in the sanctuary, which is about the size of India.
Palau established the first shark sanctuary in the region in 2009, and has been followed by the Marshall Islands, French Polynesia and other nations.
<a href="http://www.pewtrusts.org/en" target="_blank">The Pew Charitable Trusts</a> estimates that 100 million sharks are killed each year by commercial fisheries. It says sharks are vulnerable to overfishing because they're slow to mature and reproduce.
Sharks are prized by some for their fins, which are used in shark fin soup.
Ben Namakin, who was born in Kiribati and has pushed for the sanctuary, said he first began to consult elders and community groups with the idea about four years ago. He said some people were resistant at first because Kiribati had a tradition of catching and eating sharks.
But he said the elders didn't like the way commercial operators were fishing for the creatures and understood their plight more when told of their unusual biology.
"They came to realize the shark sanctuary was important to protecting our culture," Namakin said.
Luke Warwick, the director of Pew's global shark conservation campaign, said the Pacific islands were leading the way when it came to protecting sharks and that Kiribati's announcement represented another significant step.
He said enforcement of the sanctuaries throughout the Pacific remained a difficult issue.
Warwick said the image of sharks was changing.
"Although they got a bad rap in the past, there's a growing movement that sees them as quite vulnerable," he said. "They need very strong protection."
--
Source: Associated Press

Island of Kiribati establishes large shark sanctuary

Kiribati, a small island nation in the central Pacific Ocean, has...

Every summer, thousands of migratory seabirds go to the Arctic to feed and raise their young. Because of the migratory nature of most Arctic birds, these animals connect the Arctic to all other parts of the globe.

It turns out, these migratory seabirds have a symbiotic relationship with the land...their poop helps cool the Arctic.

That's according to new research from Colorado State University atmospheric scientists, who are working to better understand key components of Arctic climate systems.

Publishing in Nature Communications and featured by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Associate Professor of Atmospheric Science Jeff Pierce and graduate student Jack Kodros present evidence linking ammonia emissions from summertime Arctic seabird-colony excrement, called guano, to newly formed atmospheric aerosol particles. These particles can in turn influence Arctic cloud properties and their effects on climate.

Clouds play a key role in modulating Arctic temperature; thus, understanding factors that influence clouds is essential, Pierce says. Central to the development of clouds is the availability of cloud condensation nuclei - small atmospheric particles around which water can condense.

Using a combination of observations and computer modeling, Pierce, Kodros and co-authors at Dalhousie University, University of Toronto, and Environment and Climate Change Canada determined that migratory-seabird colonies have a definitive influence on atmospheric particles and clouds in the pristine summertime Arctic.

They report the presence of summertime bursts of atmospheric particles linked to ammonia emissions from seabird-colony guano. These particles can spread throughout the Arctic, fostering cloud-droplet formation, and in turn reflect sunlight back to space for a net cooling effect.

"This newly identified and fascinating ecological-atmospheric connection highlights the interconnectedness of the many components of Earth's climate system," Pierce said.

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.colostate.edu" target="_blank">Colorado State University</a>

How does poop from migratory seabirds help cool the Arctic?

Every summer, thousands of migratory seabirds go to the Arctic...

Reindeer in Siberia play a crucial role in the lives of the indigenous people. They rely on their reindeer herds for food, clothing, and income.
The indigenous reindeer herders in Russia's northern Yamal Region, a remote section of Siberia where winter temperatures can sink below minus 50 degrees Celsius, are familiar with nature's caprice.
Last year, 70,000 reindeer  starved to death when ice and deep snow sealed off the Arctic tundra where they graze. This summer, the region's first outbreak of anthrax in 75 years - an epidemic thought to be linked to climate change - sickened humans and animals alike.
Now, the nomadic herders who cover the same icy ground their ancestors roamed for centuries are facing a man-made threat as officials push ahead with an unprecedented culling that calls for at least one in seven of the Yamal's reindeer to be slaughtered.
The cull that started this month is championed by local officials and scientists who say a record reindeer population is leading to over-grazing and more frequent epidemics. But environmental activists and some herders allege that energy interests pressed for the forced killings, which they say could destroy the endangered culture of the Nenets people.
"Every herder should decide the fate of their own reindeer," Eiko Serotetto, the owner of a 200-head herd who has called on Russian President Vladimir Putin to stop the expanded cull, said in an interview.
The rare tradition of nomadic reindeer herding the Nenets people practice sees them complete annual migrations of hundreds of miles as they drive their flocks from winter grazing lands below the Arctic Circle to the tundra near Yamal's northern coast.
Since during the Soviet era, the government has organized an annual cull in which up to 70,000 reindeer are usually killed off. This year, officials announced that 100,000 of the animals would be slaughtered by the end of December.
The final number could end up being higher since the slaughtering season also has been extended until the end of January, a month longer than usual.
One of the most heavily affected areas is the Yamal Peninsula, a 435-mile-long promontory of wind-blasted land made up of permafrost and serpentine rivers jutting into the icy Kara Sea and home to about 280,000 of the Yamal Region's estimated 700,000 reindeer.
Shrinking the number of reindeer on the peninsula is necessary for their continued survival, according to Lyudmilla Morozova, a researcher at the <a href="http://www.ras.ru/en/index.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>. The population has grown by 50 percent over the last two decades, Morozova said, and large tracts of reindeer moss, a slow-growing staple of the species' herbivore diet, have been lost due to over-grazing.
"It is essential to urgently reduce reindeer numbers," she said. "The reindeer have eaten all the stores (of food) they shouldn't have eaten, and we are on the edge of a cliff."
Slaughter house workers, many of them former herders, are given kill quotas by the regional government that they levy on herd owners, who in turn receive a fixed price of 190 rubles ($3) per kilogram of meat. During the cull, herders bring their reindeer to one of six regional slaughter houses, each of which can process up to 260 animals a day. The meat is then sold commercially.
Although the Nenets relied on their herds for food and clothing before the Russian Revolution, the yearly cull has become an integral part of their lives and livelihoods, providing one of their primary sources of income.
Andrey Rubashin, the deputy head of Yamal's agriculture, trade and provision department, said the bigger cull will mean more money for herders. Ten more slaughter houses partly financed by donations from oil and gas companies will be built by 2020, according to Rubashin.
"The aim is to push our reindeer herders toward a more intensive use of their reindeer," he said in an interview in the regional capital of Salekhard.
Opponents of the culling plan say traditional pasture lands are disappearing due the growth of the oil and gas industry in resource-rich Yamal, not the reindeer population.
The industry's rapid expansion over the last 15 years has curtailed the access herders have to pasture and their freedom to move across the tundra. Reindeer migration routes are restricted by pipelines, railways, roads and large zones around drilling sites, where herders are prohibited from camping.
"It is an unequivocal tragedy for both people and animals," Yelena Sakirko, the Arctic coordinator for Greenpeace in Russia, said of the bigger cull. "It will end up with nomadic reindeer herders turning into settled reindeer farmers. This is a completely different form of husbandry, and means the loss of a culture."
Reindeer numbers are not unusually high at the moment, according to Moscow-based anthropologist Olga Murashko, who said they were at similar levels in pre-revolutionary Russia and during the 1980s and have remained static for nearly a decade.
In 2010, there were 290,000 animals on the peninsula - 10,000 more than today, according to the Russian State Statistics Service.
Regional government spokeswoman Olesya Litovskikh denied the oil and gas industry lobbied for increased culling. Energy companies spend "billions of rubles" developing far-flung areas and supporting Nenets culture, Litovskikh said.
The Yamal Region already has one of the biggest natural gas fields in Russia, the Bovanenkovskoye field, which is operated by state-owned Gazprom. Rising temperatures and melting Arctic sea ice mean the Yamal Peninsula also looks set to become an energy export hub.
Greenpeace estimates there are 1,100 kilometers (684 miles) of pipelines and 2,095 kilometers (1,302 miles) of railways on the Yamal Peninsula, where 15 percent of the land is licensed for exploration and drilling.
In the short-term, herders fear they are being made to slaughter reindeer they would not normally sell for meat and money, and for reasons that remain unclear. Serotetto says the terrain where he spent his childhood is now inaccessible because of a natural gas compressor station.
The 25-year old herder said he usually sends 10 percent of his herd for slaughter, but he does not yet know if he will be forced to sacrifice more this year. He created an online petition to Putin in October that has gotten 962 signatures.
"Our president should know we are also humans, and it is not just the gas industry that can work here," he said.
--
Source: Associated Press

250,000 reindeer in Siberia are being killed to make room for drilling

Reindeer in Siberia play a crucial role in the lives...

Melting arctic sea ice is causing problems for humans and sea creatures alike.

Declines in the Arctic sea ice are arguably the most dramatic evidence of the effects of current climate warming on ocean systems. Native peoples of the far north have long appreciated and relied upon the migrations of animals with the changing seasons, including some of the largest and least studied, the Arctic whales. While sea ice is perhaps the most defining feature of their habitat, the relationship between Arctic whales and sea ice is still largely a mystery, and there is increasing concern over how these species will adapt to climate related changes in sea ice.

Researchers from Florida Atlantic University's Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute and a team of scientists working in collaboration with Native hunters in Alaska and Canada have just published results of a study in the Royal Society Biology Letters titled, "Genetic Profiling Links Changing Sea Ice to Shifting Beluga Whale Migration Patterns," assessing the relationship between changing sea ice and beluga whale migration as well as summer residency patterns of a number of populations over two decades of dramatic sea ice changes in the Pacific Arctic. The researchers found that beluga whales, often known as the white whale, (Delphinapterus leucas) exhibited a tremendous ability to deal with widely varying sea ice conditions from one year to the next over a 20-year time frame in their return to traditional summering grounds each year.

"It was not clear how sea ice influences beluga whale migration patterns and their summer habitat use, and climate change has added urgency to determining how environmental factors might shape the behavior and ecology of this species," said Greg O'Corry-Crowe, Ph.D., lead author and a research professor at FAU Harbor Branch, whose research focuses on combining molecular genetic analysis with field ecology to study the molecular and behavioral ecology of marine apex predators.

Using a combination of genetic profiling, sighting data and satellite microwave imagery of sea ice in the Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort seas, O'Corry-Crowe and collaborators also found some dramatic shifts in migration behavior in years with unusually low spring sea ice concentration and in one case with an increase in killer whale (Orcinus orca) sightings and reported predation on beluga whales.

For the study, O'Corry-Crowe and collaborators from the University of Alaska; the North Slope Department of Wildlife Management, Alaska; the Alaska Department of Fish and Game; the Native Village of Kotzebue in Alaska; the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee; and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans in Yellowknife, Canada, used genetic "fingerprinting" to investigate the population of origin of whales returning to four traditional coastal sites in the Alaskan and Canadian Arctic between 1988 and 2007. They compiled detailed beluga sightings and harvest data for the same period to assess inter-annual variation on timing of return. Lastly, they analyzed sea ice data in the Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort seas to determine seasonal and regional patterns of sea ice from 1979 to 2014. They used data from tissue samples from 978 beluga whales, which were collected over a 30-year period.

"Continued reductions in sea ice may result in increased predation at key aggregation areas and shifts in beluga whale behavior with implications for population viability, ecosystem structure and the subsistence cultures that rely on them," said O'Corry-Crowe.

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank">Florida Atlantic University</a>

Melting Arctic sea ice is changing whale migration patterns

Melting arctic sea ice is causing problems for humans and...

Ever wondered how animals make decisions? Is there a lot of thought involved, or do instincts, personality type and environment lead the way?

According to a new study, the judgments and decisions a pig makes are governed by their mood - whether good or bad - and their personality type.

The new study, carried out by scientists specializing in animal behavior and welfare at the University of Lincoln and Newcastle University, UK, demonstrates for the first time that the combined mood and personality type of an animal have a significant impact on its outlook.

The findings are published today (November 16, 2016) in the Royal Society's scientific journal, Biology Letters.

Previous research has revealed how, in humans, mood and personality type affect our 'cognitive biases' - deviations in judgement which form our individual characteristics and personalities, complete with errors and imperfections. However, until now, it was not known whether the same process also affects how animals think.

Funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), the new study was designed to explore how mood and personality type affect how optimistic or pessimistic pigs are. The researchers found that just like humans, domestic pigs are more likely to have a pessimistic outlook on life if they are in a bad mood.

The personalities of pigs are deemed to be either 'proactive' or 'reactive' - proactivity in pigs is characterized by more active conduct and a consistency of behavior, whereas reactivity in pigs is often indicated by passive behavior and being more changeable in their responses. In humans, proactivity and reactivity have been linked to extraversion and neuroticism, with extrovert individuals being more optimistic and people with neurotic tendencies proving more pessimistic. The scientists worked with a group of pigs which included both 'proactive' and 'reactive' individuals.

The pigs were housed in one of two environments known to influence their mood, and were trained to associate two separate feeding bowls with different outcomes. One contained sugar-coated sweets (representing a positive outcome) and the other contained coffee beans (a negative outcome). When a third 'ambiguous' bowl was introduced, the researchers observed whether or not the pigs approached the third feeding bowl expecting more sweets (another positive outcome), thus showing how optimistic or pessimistic each pig was.

Pigs with a proactive personality type were more likely to respond optimistically regardless, but the optimism of the reactive pigs was significantly affected by their mood. Reactive pigs living in a more enriched environment, which is known to contribute to a 'good mood', were much more likely to be optimistic about the new feeding bowl.

Project leader Professor Lisa Collins, from the University of Lincoln's School of Life Sciences, explained: "In humans, mood and personality type interact to determine cognitive bias but this was not something that had previously been investigated in any other animals. The results of our study clearly show that those pigs living in a worse environment were more pessimistic, and those in a better environment were much more optimistic. Importantly, this finding demonstrates that humans are not unique in combining longer term personality traits with shorter term mood biases when making judgments."

Dr Lucy Asher from the Institute of Neuroscience at Newcastle University was the lead author for the study. She said: "Our results suggest that judgement in pigs, and potentially in other animals, is similar to humans - incorporating aspects of stable personality traits and more transient mood states. The study provides a fascinating insight into the minds of these intelligent animals and paves the way for even more in-depth studies in the future."

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.lincoln.ac.uk/home/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Lincoln</a>

Animals make life decisions based on their mood and personality type

Ever wondered how animals make decisions? Is there a lot...

Two new lizard species have been discovered in the Chilean Andes.

Collected from areas of heroic past, both small reptiles were named after courages tribal chiefs who have once fought against colonial Spaniards in the Arauco war. The study, conducted by a team of Chilean scientists, is published in the open access journal <a href="http://zookeys.pensoft.net/" target="_blank">ZooKeys</a>.

Jaime Troncoso-Palacios from <a href="http://www.uchile.cl/" target="_blank">Universidad de Chile</a> and his team found both new lizard species near a lake in a pre-Andean zone among deciduous vegetation. Following the examination of the collected specimens and further analysis of their mitochondrial DNA, performed by Dr. Alvaro A. Elorza from Universidad Andres Bello, Chile, the scientists concluded that they belong to species unknown to science.

One of the lizard species, called Liolaemus janequeoae, or, Janequeo`s Lizard, is distinct for being smaller than its relatives, measuring a maximum of roughly 7 centimeters at length, as well as having no pattern on its back. Both features are quite striking for the group of lizards it belongs to. The only contrasting coloration for the lizard species are several white scales appearing on the upper side in males. Otherwise, the lizard species are predominantly light brown with pearly whitish down side of the body.

In the local Lonko tribe's history, Janequeo was a prominent chief, who lost her partner during the Arauco war, after he was caught and tortured to death by the colonial Spaniards. She is said to have had a leading role in the Battle of Fort Puchunqui. Coincidentally, the new lizard species was discovered where the war once took place, in the Araucanía Region.

The second new species, called Liolaemus leftrarui, or Leftraru`s Lizard, was collected from the same locality, hence it also received a heroic name honoured in the Arauco war. It is called after the most prominent Mapuche tribal chief. According to the stories, he was taken by the Kingdom of Chile's Governor at the age of 11 to become his servant. There, however, he learned the military strategy of the Spanish, managed to escape and joined his people in the war. Later, not only did he kill his former master, but also won the most remarkable victories over the Spaniards.

The Leftraru`s Lizard is a large species of about 8 centimeters in length, characterised with absent precloacal pores, a common feature for its lizard group, save few. On the upper side of its body there are also unusual light blue dots. Overall, its colour is brown splashed with dark brown spots. Apart from the blue scattered scales on the back, there is also a bit of green on its head, limbs and tail. At the rear it becomes yellowish.

In conclusion, the authors note that the lizard fauna of Chile has been mistakenly assumed to be quite scarce up until recently. Yet, their latest discovery, along with several other new species, described in recent years, could be a clear sign that, "some populations under study could be described as new species in the future".

--

Credit: Pensoft Publishers

Two new lizard species discovered in the Chilean Andes

Two new lizard species have been discovered in the Chilean Andes....

According to researchers, milk has done the body good for thousands of years. 

Scientists have recently discovered widespread evidence of prehistoric milk production in southern Europe.

The study, a collaboration between the University of York, the University of Bristol, and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, uncovered evidence that humans have been utilizing milk and dairy products across the northern Mediterranean region from the onset of agriculture - some 9,000 years ago.

The importance of meat and dairy production in the Neolithic Mediterranean area remains a topic of debate, with previous research showing that the attraction for milk may have been a driving force for the domestication of cud-chewing animals like cows, goats and sheep.

This study combined evidence of the presence of milk and carcass fats in more than 500 pottery vessels together with an examination of the ages at death of domesticated animals excavated from 82 sites dating from the 7th to 5th millennia BC.

The findings show varying intensities of dairying and non-dairying activities in the northern Mediterranean region, with the slaughter profiles of the animals mirroring the fats detected in cooking pots.

Dr Cynthianne Spiteri, Junior Professor of Archaeometry at the University of Tübingen, who conducted the residue analysis as part of her PhD at the University of York's Department of Archaeology, said: "At the onset of food production in the northern Mediterranean region, milk was an important resource to these early farming communities.

"It is likely to have played an important role in providing a nourishing and storable food product which was able to sustain early farmers, and consequently, the spread of farming in the western Mediterranean."

Dr Mélanie Roffet-Salque and Professor Richard Evershed, from the University of Bristol's School of Chemistry said: "In this work, we integrate for the first time the findings of the analyses of lipid fats extracted from hundreds of cooking pots with the reconstruction of the actual herds at tens of sites, based on the remains of sheep, goats and cattle.

"Some of our earlier work had demonstrated that milk use was highly regionalized in the Near East in the 7th millennium BC, and this new multidisciplinary study further emphasizes the existence of diverse use of animal products in the northern Mediterranean Neolithic.

"Dairying was clearly practiced both in the east and west of the region, but surprisingly not in Northern Greece, where the lipids from pots and the animal bones tell the same story: meat production was the main activity not dairying."

Dr Rosalind Gillis and Dr Jean-Denis Vigne, archaeozoologists at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris added: "The choice of raising certain domesticates for their milk would have been heavily influenced by the landscape around the Neolithic communities. For example, rugged terrains are more suitable for sheep and goats. And open well-watered landscapes are better suited for cattle."

Professor Oliver Craig from the University of York's Department of Archaeology said the findings were particularly relevant as much of the population in that region today can't digest milk.

He added: "We presume this was also true back in the early Neolithic period, although this is still to be confirmed through genetic testing of ancient skeletons. Despite this deficiency, our research shows that they certainly exploited milk because we have found organic remnants in the pots they were using. This implies they were transforming milk into dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese, to remove the lactose.

"Despite dairying being a multi-billion pound global industry, we know that much of the world's population today are still intolerant to lactose so it is very important to know at what point people in the past were exposed to it and how long they have had to adapt to it."

The study, which was partly funded by The Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and the European Union, is published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank">University of York</a>

Humans have been using milk and dairy products for 9000 years

According to researchers, milk has done the body good for...

Add cockatoos to the growing list of  species capable of making tools.

Researchers from the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna and the University of Oxford have shown that Goffin's cockatoos can make and use elongated tools of appropriate shape and length out of different materials, suggesting that the birds can anticipate how the tools will be used.

Tool manufacture was once regarded as a defining feature of mankind, but it is now known that a variety of animal species use and make their own tools. In nature, some of the most striking cases of tool-related behavior are seen not just among close relatives of Homo sapiens, such as chimps and other primates, but among birds including crows, vultures and Galapagos finches.

In all cases, what makes this possible is possessing the right combination of heritable and acquired competencies, as well as being capable of a degree of individual creativity. Goffin's cockatoos is a particularly interesting example for scientists to study, as it has unlikely to have a repertoire of inherited tool-related skills and relies more on innovation and problem-solving.

Goffin's cockatoos, which is native to Indonesia, is neither known to use tools in the wild nor to have evolved related abilities for manipulating twigs for other purposes such as nest building. One bird, called Figaro, previously displayed the ability to spontaneously (ie without training) make tools by biting long splinters out of the wooden beams of its cage, which he then used to rake pieces of food that were otherwise out of reach. Three others have since followed, showing that making such tools is within the capacity of the species.

While impressive, these feats do not prove sensitivity to the need for the tools to be of a particular shape: because wood is fibrous, biting and pulling actions naturally split it into the long, narrow pieces necessary to succeed. If individuals are capable of anticipating the requirements of each tool, they should be able to produce functional instruments by displaying different actions and using different materials.

To test if the birds were in fact aiming to make elongated tools that could bridge a particular distance, the researchers gave them the problem of reaching a piece of food placed a few centimeters beyond a circular hole in the transparent wall of a box. They were given four different materials that required different manipulations to produce suitable tools: larch wood (already familiar to them), leafy beech twigs (which had to be trimmed to be functional), cardboard (which, lacking a fibrous structure, could be cut into any shape and length), and totally amorphous beeswax.

Dr Alice Auersperg, who heads the Goffin Laboratory in the Messerli Research Institute at the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, said: 'While none of the birds succeeded in making tools out of beeswax, we found that at least some of them could make suitable tools from the three remaining materials.'

The successful parrots made well-shaped tools, even though each material required different manipulation techniques. To make tools out of larch wood, they bit the material once or twice and tore off the resulting splinter. To use the leafy twigs, they snapped off redundant leaves and side branches until what was left was usable. Finally, to make cardboard tools they simply cut what was necessary from the edge of the sheet provided.

Dr Auersperg added: 'To us, the tools made from cardboard were the most interesting ones, as this material was not pre-structured and required the birds to shape their tools more actively. They succeeded by placing a large number of parallel bite marks along the edge of the material like a hole punch, using their curved upper beak to cut the elongated piece out of the cardboard block after reaching a certain length. Interestingly, this length was usually just above or very close to the minimum length required to reach the food reward placed behind the barrier.'

Co-author Professor Alex Kacelnik, from the University of Oxford's Department of Zoology, said: 'Ultimately, we want to understand how animals think - namely, to produce the equivalent of explicit computer programs capable of doing what the birds do. We really don't know if the birds can picture in their minds an object that doesn't yet exist and follow this image as a template to build something new, or how their brains elicit the appropriate set of movements to organize their response to novel problems, but this is what we are trying to find out.

'Studying tool-making in species like Goffin's cockatoos, which does not make tools naturally, is especially revealing, as these birds cannot do it by following pre-programmed instructions evolved to solve this specific problem. These cockatoos, like other parrots, offer wonderful research opportunities: their intelligence is flexible and powerful, they can solve physical and logical problems, they can learn from watching the behavior of others, they can learn about the surrounding objects by playing - and now it seems plausible that they can imagine which object would allow them to solve a new problem and go on to build it. I am sure that they will keep surprising us.'

--

Credit: <a href="http://www.oxford.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Oxford</a>

Goffin's cockatoos seen making sophisticated tools

Add cockatoos to the growing list of  species capable of...

Is there really scientific value in researching ticklish rats? There just might be, according to Dr. Michael Brecht and Dr. Shimpei Ishiyama of Berlin, Germany’s Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience.

In the late 1990s, researchers discovered that rats make noises while playing or being tickled, and wondered if those noises were similar to human laughter. Other animals have also shown signs of being ticklish, including dogs and chimpanzees.

Brecht and Ishiyama <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/354/6313/757">decided to find out</a> if the rats were truly ticklish by monitoring their neural activity. 

After inserting wire electrodes into the rats to record their responses, they tickled the tiny creatures on their bellies, backs and tails. They also recorded the rats’ ultrasonic “laughter.”

They found that the rats had a good belly laugh and their sensory neurons fired intensely when they were tickled on, you guessed it, the belly. The back had less response, and the tail hardly any at all, indicating that, like humans, rats aren’t ticklish everywhere. 

They also tried the experiment in a few different conditions, and found that they (unsurprisingly) had less fun when they were tickled in anxiety-inducing situations, such as being under bright lights. Their chirp response was reduced and the fear may have reduced their sensory response.

So why bother? The researchers found that the rats were ticklish in some of the same spots as humans, showing that mammals might have some hard-wired neural responses related to tickling. 

They also found that the rats had similar responses – including their chirped laughter – when playing other games with researchers and each other. What does it mean? According to Brecht and Ishiyama, that tickling and the laughter that comes with it may have evolved as a form of social bonding through play.

The scientists looked at lab mice, which are less social than rats, and found that they were less than tickled by researchers attempts to induce a tickle response. In fact, they didn’t appear ticklish at all, and they don’t seem to play like rats, either, the researchers noted. 

That could connect to how other animals and even humans developed a response to being tickled. 

The study was published on November 11 in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ticklish rats have researchers tickeled pink

Is there really scientific value in researching ticklish rats? There...

Invertebrate extinction has become a serious cause of concern.

The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species lists 394 insect species classed as extinct. But in a piece published in the <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/the-insect-crisis-we-can-t-ignore-1.20948?WT.ec_id=NEWS-20161110&amp;spMailingID=52736449&amp;spUserID=MjI5MDcwMTc5OTg1S0&amp;spJobID=1044388516&amp;spReportId=MTA0NDM4ODUxNgS2">Nature</a> journal, Axel Hochkrich, chair of the IUCN SSC Invertebrate Conservation Subcommittee, argues this number is completely inaccurate and that a very high number of species are going extinct on a regular basis. Hochkrich urges the scientific community to invest more time and resources in preserving invertebrate biodiversity. 

Various invertebrate species go extinct on a day-to-day basis with little to no record to indicate which species are lost and at what rate. Hochkrich argues the importance of preserving invertebrates as they perform important ecosystem duties such as pest control, pollination, and nutrient cycling. 

So far, in an effort to protect invertebrate species, the IUCN has set a “barometer of life” goal to conserve 45,000 invertebrate species by the year 2020. Additionally, the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> signed on to help slow biodiversity loss, also by 2020. But as Hochkrick points out, most of this work is done on a volunteer-only basis, which significantly limits what can be accomplished.

In addition to necessary governmental funding, conservationists can also receive support from companies who need invertebrates for pollination and chemical compounds.

Hochkrich believes the reason invertebrate extinctions go largely unnoticed is because “the number of experts who work on most insect groups is extremely low: it has even reached zero in many regions and for some insect groups. So although the extinction risk of about 18,000 invertebrate species has so far been assessed for the IUCN Red List, nearly one-third are classified as ‘data deficient’. Many invertebrate species have not been documented since their original description, and we have no idea whether they still exist.”

Another factor is that invertebrates literally and figuratively do not have the same level of visibility as larger vertebrate species. The lack of resources and tools to track and protect invertebrate species on the verge of extinction leaves the science community little recourse until invertebrate extinction research becomes a higher priority.

Invertebrate extinction cause for concern as insect species dwindle

Invertebrate extinction has become a serious cause of concern. The...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...