The cooperative behavior of bees, resembling a singular "superorganism," is something uniquely remarkable in the world of nature.



It is not uncommon for thousands of worker bees to function collectively to protect the colony, feed it, and look after the offspring. This intricate social conduct unifies their individual actions into a concerted effort.



But how is this complex behavior encoded and inherited among generations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a>? The answer lies in a special gene, as unveiled by a team of scientists.



The research was led by experts at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (<a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HHU</a>), along with colleagues from Frankfurt/Main, Oxford, and Würzburg. The study has uncovered the genetic underpinnings of honey bee cooperation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-cooperative-bee-behavior">Genes behind cooperative bee behavior</h2>



The principal investigator and the head of the Institute of Evolutionary Genetics at Heinrich-Heine University, Dr. Martin Beye, and his team have made this breakthrough discovery. The research was focused on a gene called "doublesex" or "dsx."



"The behavioral repertoire of the individual bees and their function in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> are not learned, but rather inherited. Until now, it was not known how such complex behaviors were genetically encoded," said Dr. Beye.



The key discovery is that the dsx gene influences worker bee-specific behavior, noted study first author Dr. Vivien Sommer.



"The gene programs whether a worker bee takes up a task in the colony and for how long. This includes collective tasks such as caring for the larvae or foraging for food and social exchanges on food sources, for example," said Dr. Sommer. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-editing-in-bees">Gene editing in bees</h2>



The team used the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technique to modify the dsx gene in select bees, attaching a QR code to the manipulated bees.



Cameras inside the hive monitored the bees' behavior, and with the assistance of artificial intelligence, video sequences were analyzed to determine individual behavioral patterns.



"Our central question was whether and how the inherited behavioral patterns changed as a result of the gene modification. Such changes must be reflected in the nervous system of the worker bees where the specific behaviour is controlled," said Dr. Sommer.



Adding a twist, the researchers introduced a green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the dsx sequence to visualize the neuronal circuits. 



They found that the dsx gene plays a crucial role in creating specific neural pathways in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-basis-of-social-behavior-in-the-insect-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee’s brain</a>, according to doctoral researcher Jana Seiler, who is also a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-bee-behavior">New chapter in bee behavior </h2>



"Our findings indicate a fundamental genetic program that determines the neuronal circuitry and behavior of worker bees," said Dr. Wolfgang Rössler, an expert in the Department of Behavioural Physiology and Sociobiology at the University of Würzburg.



The next challenge is to move from the individual honeybee to the whole bee colony and understand how the gene influences the “superorganism.” 



"We hope to find the link between individual programming and the coordinated behaviour of many individuals," said Alina Sturm, a doctoral researcher at HHU.



Revealing the genetic secret behind the collective behavior of honey bees is more than just a scientific breakthrough. It’s a tribute to the remarkable complexity of nature and its infinite capacity for surprise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-bee-behavior">Broader implications of bee behavior</h2>



The discovery of a gene that influences honey bee behavior has implications beyond the study of bees.



Understanding how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-gene-allows-cape-honey-bees-to-reproduce-asexually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single gene</a> can shape complex social dynamics could inspire innovations in fields such as robotics and artificial intelligence.



For example, roboticists often look to nature for insights into building more efficient, cooperative systems. The hive’s "superorganism" structure could serve as a model for developing autonomous swarm robots designed to work together toward a shared goal.



Additionally, the study of bee cooperation offers valuable insights for ecology and conservation. 



Honey bees play a critical role in pollination. Identifying the genetic foundations of their social behavior could lead to better strategies for supporting bee populations amid environmental threats.



By shedding light on the inner workings of the hive, this research adds a new dimension to preserving biodiversity and maintaining the stability of ecosystems that rely heavily on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp3953?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D91765132952246405812279585398434020131%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1730680771" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bees do not learn to be cooperative - it is in their genes

The cooperative behavior of bees, resembling a singular "superorganism," is something uniquely remarkable in the world of nature. It is not uncommon for thousands of worker bees to function collectively to protect the colony, feed it, and look after the offspring. This intricate social conduct unifies their individual actions into a concerted effort. But how is this complex behavior encoded and inherited among generations of honey bees? The answer lies in a special gene, as unveiled by a team of scientists. The research was led by experts...

With the disturbing decline of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-threatened-by-disease/">honeybee</a> population over the past few years, orchard growers are now looking for viable alternatives in order to manage the pollination of their trees and plants. Luckily, recent research has shown that blue orchard bees (Osmia lignaria) may be a sustainable option in tart cherry orchards. 

Natalie Boyle, an entomologist at the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a>, suggests that a simple change in the layout of the bees’ nesting boxes could make blue orchard bees more likely to remain in the orchard to nest. 

While the honeybee is a social bee species that gathers in colonies, the blue orchard bee is more solitary and nests in the cavities of wood, stems, or even artificial materials like cardboard tubes. This difference in preferred nesting requires that growers make the necessary changes to nesting sites if they want blue orchard bees to take up residence in their orchards.

Boyle laments that management practices for commercial pollination with the blue orchard bee haven’t been as well researched as those of the honeybee. She is looking to change that, saying “This study shows that by simply changing the availability and distribution of nesting sites in the orchard, we can substantially increase overall blue orchard bee nesting success in a commercially managed orchard.”

In order for blue orchard bees to become a cost-effective managed pollinator, they must be willing to remain in the orchard after they are released – which has been an issue in the past.

By changing the nesting arrangement from a large central nesting location with small perimeter nests to small nesting boxes spread evenly throughout the orchard, Boyle found that the blue orchard bees were much more willing to stay and procreate. 

While both setups showed a successful return of bees to the nesting sites, the nesting rates were significantly higher in the uniform nest-box distribution model. Occupancy of nest-tubes increased along with the number of live larvae per location and larvae per individual nest tube.

Although the study did not evaluate the blue orchard bees’ impact on pollination and orchard yield, the researchers are planning a follow-up experiment in 2017. 

In the meantime, Boyle states, "We hope that this study provides practical information that orchardists can use to incorporate blue orchard bee pollination into their current management efforts, particularly with varieties that have been historically fruit set-limited when honey bees are used alone."

More information can be found in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jinsectscience">Entomological Society of America’s Journal of Insect Science</a>.

--

By Connor Ertz, Earth.com Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.entsoc.org/">Entomological Society of America</a>

Image: <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/images/docs/18333_18528/Osligapple.jpg">USDA</a>

Could blue orchard bees replace honeybees for pollination?

With the disturbing decline of the honeybee population over the...

A new study – published online in <a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/">Nature Research’s Scientific Reports</a> – details the discovery of a newly discovered tyrannosaur species that went through a unique evolution.

The research team, led by Thomas Carr, of <a href="https://www.carthage.edu/bridge/">Carthage College’s</a> Department of Biology, included David Varricchio of <a href="http://www.montana.edu/">Montana State University</a>, Eric Roberts of <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/">James Cook University</a>, Jason Moore of the University of New Mexico, and Jayc Sedlmayr of <a href="http://www.lsuhsc.edu/">LSU Health Sciences Center New Orleans School of Medicine</a>. 

Their findings include that Daspletosaurus horneri – also known as “Horner’s Frightful Lizard” – evolved directly from its geologically older relative, D. torosus. This is evidence of a rare form of evolution called anagenesis, in which one species gradually morphs into an entirely new, separate species.

D.horneri is believed to have lived in Montana 75.2-74.4 million years ago. It had a body length of about 9 meters and preyed on horned dinosaurs, crested duckbill dinosaurs, dome-headed dinosaurs, and smaller theropod dinosaurs.

The team also uncovered new details on the facial structure of tyrannosaurs, a group that includes the Tyrannosaurus rex and its closest relatives – and you thought your in-laws were bad… okay moving on.

Their research found that the faces of tyrannosaurs were covered by large, flat scales, with small patches of armor-like skin and a horn. They found no evidence of lips, but discovered that the snout may have been extremely touch-sensitive.

By working with well-preserved fossils, the scientists were able to compare tyrannosaur skulls with those of crocodilians, birds, and mammals. They then analyzed their findings against earlier research that matched bone texture with varying types of skin covering.

Sedlymayr describes their research process further, saying, “Much of our research went beyond field paleontology - it was generated from lab-based comparative anatomy, the dissection of birds as living dinosaurs and crocodilians as their closest living relatives.”

The scientists discovered a complex sensory web within the facial structure of these tyrannosaurs. They believe it is derived from the trigeminal nerve, which is shown throughout evolutionary history to be connected to an array of “sixth senses” in vertebrates. These senses include the use of magnetic fields for bird migration, infrared sensing in pit vipers, and the sensing of water vibrations by alligators, among many others.

"In some ways, the facial components of the trigeminal nerve of these dinosaurs mirrors that of humans," said Sedlmayr. In humans, this nerve allows for significant touch sensitivity within our faces. Through this, we can have complex emotional and social facial displays that are imperative for human communication.

Based off this new research, maybe humans and dinosaurs aren’t so different after all.

--

By Connor Ertz, Earth.com Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.lsuhsc.edu/">Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center</a>

Newly discovered dinosaur species shows similarities to humans

A new study – published online in Nature Research’s Scientific...

No one likes to think of that mouse creeping through their kitchen in the middle of the night as being “domesticated,” but that’s how scientists think of the situation. It’s technically true, since house mice turn up in the abodes of humans virtually wherever they settle for long. And now new research indicates that the rodents have been helping themselves to our food and shelter for at least 15,000 years. That’s about 3,000 years longer than it was assumed that mice started sharing our residences – when agriculture got humans to settle down – and possibly even longer than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-sniffing-cancer-cells/">dogs</a> have lived with us.

That’s among the findings of a group of researchers from Israel, the U.S., the UK and France, as reported this week in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

“The research provides the first evidence that, as early as 15,000 years ago, humans were living in one place long enough to impact local animal communities – resulting in the dominant presence of house mice,” said co-author Fiona Marshall, a professor of anthropology at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a>.

It was previously thought that house mice didn’t “settle” with humans until farming communities were established about 12,000 years ago. The early hunter-gatherer cultures preceding agriculture were supposed to be too mobile to attract mice.

However, the group studied by the researchers were hunter-gatherers known as Natufians who established a village in the Jordan Valley in Israel about 15,000 years ago. A study of fossilized rodent molars from this time showed the fossilized remains mostly of house mice, as they learned by studying the molar shape.

Later, when the climate and region became cold and dry, it forced the Natufians to follow quickly depleted resources like traditional hunter-gatherers. In this time, the fossil balance shifted between the house mice and their short-tailed cousin field mice, who are wilder and less tolerant of humans. The field mice populations dominated.

Dogs are thought to have joined us some 14,000 years ago, though there’s some debate as to whether our co-existence goes even farther back.

--

Written by David Searls, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:<a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/03/21/1619137114.abstract"> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>

We've 'domesticated' the house mouse for 15,000 years

No one likes to think of that mouse creeping through...

Like many vertebrates – excluding humans – a bird’s eyes are located on the sides of its head. This anatomical specificity is believed to have several functions, including increased depth perception and greater visual coverage. However, not much has been known about the purpose of the blind spot in front of a bird’s head… until now.

Researchers Luke Tyrrell and Esteban Fernández-Juricic from <a href="http://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> published a study on Wednesday in the open-access journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>. In this study, they found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-dehydration-climate-change/">birds</a> with longer beaks had a larger blind spot in front of their heads, which correlates to a narrower field of binocular vision.

Binocular vision refers to vision that uses two eyes with overlapping fields of view, which allows for good depth perception. This is useful for a creature that might need to snatch an insect out of the air or land on a tiny branch without impaling itself.

In making this discovery, the researchers went through published data on the visual fields of 40 species of birds, and measured the beaks and skulls of museum specimens. Their findings suggest that the size of the blind area and the visibility of the beak play an important role in a bird’s vision. 

Furthermore, Tyrrell believes, “The evolution of binocular vision in birds appears to be driven, in part, by a blind area in front of the head.” This finding will help scientists better understand how individual species of birds use sight to their advantage, and how they progressed evolutionarily. 

--

By Connor Ertz, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>

A bird’s blind spot may be directly related to beak size

Like many vertebrates – excluding humans – a bird’s eyes...

Dudes. Who needs ‘em? Not cockroaches, necessarily.

Thanks to parthenogenesis, a type of asexual reproduction, the virgin females in some species can give birth to female babies and generations of all-female colonies can develop.  

Researchers at <a href="https://www.oia.hokudai.ac.jp/">Hokkaido University</a> in Japan studied the phenomenon of asexual reproduction by segregating 15 female cockroaches and watching them getting on with their lives. With no access to males, they laid eggs and hatched adorable baby, um, cockroaches. But female cockroaches, only. And those females, well, they followed the example set by mom.

Arthropod populations such as cockroaches develop this method of reproducing when there are no males lined up at the singles bar. The downside (for them, not us) is that their offspring don’t have the life expectancy of roaches reproduced the traditional way, though they live long enough to have female offspring of their own. The upside is that the colony tends to get along better together without the constant fighting of the males and to be more cooperative, said the researchers in an article published in the journal <a href="http://zoologicalletters.biomedcentral.com/">Zoological Letters</a>.

Also, they rarely left the toilet seats up.

Virgin cockroaches don’t even need the company of other females to reproduce asexually, either. They can generate their generations in solitary confinement too, though not as frequently as they do when kept with other females. According to the study, when kept in a group, they’d lay <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/female-lamprey-fish-mate/">eggs</a> every ten days, while the output fell to every 13.4 days when alone.

We know: that still seems like significant egg production. Let’s all wash our hands and clean our houses now.

--

Written by David Searls, Earth.com staff writer

Source:<a href="http://zoologicalletters.biomedcentral.com/"> Zoological Letters</a>

Good news! Cockroaches can even breed without males

Dudes. Who needs ‘em? Not cockroaches, necessarily. Thanks to parthenogenesis,...

Medical diagnostic equipment is expensive and might be unavailable in rural areas and developing nations. That’s bad news for undiagnosed cancer victims, since early detection is a critical element of successfully treating illnesses and saving lives. But what if trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-mirror-owners-emotions/">dogs</a> could diagnose the existence of cancer cells just about as accurately as the most advanced mammography and MRI technology?

That possibility has excited researchers from <a href="http://www.kdog.fr/">KDOG Cancer Detect Group</a> in Paris, under whose direction dog trainer Jacky Experton spent six months training two German Shepherds to sniff out cancer. The average dog’s nose is thousands of times more sensitive to odors than human sniffers. That’s why Thor and Nikios were taught to identify and alert to the smell of breast cancer cells in bandages previously held to patients’ breasts.

When it came real-deal testing time to detect breast cancer bandages versus the bandages of healthy women, the dogs’ success rate was remarkable. In the first test, Thor and Nikios correctly picked out the bandages of 28 out of 31 cancer patients. In the second test, they did even better, eliciting perfect scores.

This was only the first of many clinical trials the two dogs and other trained canines will undergo. In time, it’s possible that machines can be “trained” to similarly detect cancerous cells based on what we learn with this research. Other projects are underway to test canines' ability to smell different types of cancer in the skin, blood, urine and exhaled breath.

--

By David Searls. <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:<a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html"> Daily Mail</a>

Dogs get perfect scores for sniffing out cancer cells

Medical diagnostic equipment is expensive and might be unavailable in...

For years, anthropologists have hypothesized that primate brains are larger than many other mammals’ because primates – including humans – are social creatures. 

The “social brain hypothesis” suggests that humans and primates need large brains to track social pressures, relationships, and other factors. 

But it seems to be bunk.

A team of anthropologists from <a href="http://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> set out to test the “social brain hypothesis” and see whether any evidence backs up the belief.

Instead, they found that it may be nutrition, not sociability, that affects the size of primate brains.

“Complex foraging strategies, social structures, and cognitive abilities, are likely to have co-evolved throughout primate evolution,” Alex DeCasien said in a press release about the study. DeCasian is an NYU doctoral candidate and lead author of the study. “However, if the question is: ‘Which factor, diet or sociality, is more important when it comes to determining the brain size of primate species?’ then our new examination suggests that factor is diet.”

To reach their conclusions, researchers examined data on more than 140 species of primates, the largest such study to date. They looked at food consumption – including whether each species preferred leaves, fruit, both, or an omnivorous diet – along with complexity of each species’ social structures.

Primates that ate primarily fruit, a combination of fruit and leaves, or an omnivorous diet all had significantly larger brain sizes than primates that ate leaves exclusively.

But it’s not necessarily the food itself that causes primate species that eat fruit or meat to evolve larger brains, the researchers discovered.

It’s the complexity of the problem-solving needed to get food other than leaves, the team found.

“Fruit is patchier in space and time in the environment, and the consumption of it often involves extraction from difficult-to-reach-places or protective skins,” DeCasien said. “Together, these factors may lead to the need for relatively greater cognitive complexity and flexibility in frugivorous species.”

The study will be published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are primate brains so big? Anthropologists look for the answer

For years, anthropologists have hypothesized that primate brains are larger...

As wolves disappear from the East Coast, eastern coyotes have moved into their niche, taking over hunting areas. But although they’re cousins, coyotes don’t match wolves’ hunting prowess when it comes to large game, a new study found.

The research, led by Dr. John Benson of the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>, examined the prey hunted by eastern wolves and the eastern coyotes that have taken on the role of apex predator as the wolves vanish. 

The wolves hunted large, hooved mammals like moose and deer. Eastern wolves are disappearing, however, primarily due to human hunting and trapping. Coyotes that have taken their place rarely hunt large mammals, preferring smaller prey and scavenging leftovers from humans.

“Eastern coyotes are effective deer predators, but their dietary flexibility and low kill rates on moose suggest they have not replaced the ecological role of wolves in eastern North America,” Benson and his colleagues wrote in the study, published in the journal <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.1499/full">Ecological Applications</a>.

The researchers used GPS technology to track 10 wolf packs and eight packs of eastern coyotes. 

They found that the moose make up about half of wolves’ hooved large prey, and white-tailed deer are slightly less than that. Coyotes only rarely hunt hooved prey other than deer, they discovered.

While coyotes are, on average, only 10 to 15 pounds lighter than eastern wolves, that’s enough to make successfully hunting moose much more difficult, the researchers said. It also lowers their caloric needs enough that they don’t need to rely on large game as much as wolves do, they said.

But while this makes it easier for eastern coyotes to find food and survive, it also destabilizes the ecosystems once dominated by wolves.

“If coyotes start hammering white-tailed deer, and deer start to decline, then (coyotes) can just eat rabbits or squirrels or garbage but continue to prey on deer, too. So we think that could be a destabilizing element,” Benson said in a <a href="http://news.unl.edu/newsrooms/today/article/big-game-jitters-coyotes-no-match-for-wolves-hunting-prowess/">press release</a>. “There are some areas where you’ve got way too many white-tailed deer in the east, and then you’ve got other areas where hunters are concerned because the deer are declining. That speaks to the fact that coyotes are an unpredictable predator.”

An added problem is that the two species can interbreed, and are. But the offspring are more likely to follow coyote hunting patterns, the researchers found.

The study comes as Canada has designated the eastern wolf as threatened, and is looking for ways to expand their numbers and range.

The study was funded by the <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/ministry-natural-resources-and-forestry">Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ecologists ask: who's the better hunter, eastern coyotes or wolves?

As wolves disappear from the East Coast, eastern coyotes have...

The world changed dramatically beginning some 35 million years ago in what is now Australia. For starters, the entire island nation broke off from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-sets-record-high/">Antarctica</a>, and at about the same time, temperatures dropped globally. The freeze resulted in a mass extinction event that drew the interest of modern-day scientists from <a href="http://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a>.

The ANU researchers used molecular evolutionary studies and fossil records to study a species of pygopodoid geckos that became extinct due to the abrupt climate change.

“The dramatic shift to colder and drier climates likely resulted in rapidly changing Australian habitats, which hugely impacted the animals that inhabited them,” said Ian Brennan, the lead researcher of the study and a PhD student at the ANU Research School of Biology. “Our research provides evidence that rapid shifts in climate may have profound and long-lasting effects on global biodiversity.”

Species of pygopodoid geckos died off in a mass extinction event caused by the freezing temperatures. But over time new species of the hardy reptile adapted to the changing climate in a number of ways once the effects of the big chill wore off and the landscape turned to heated deserts some ten million years ago.

For instance, the reptiles dodged the radiant heat by becoming nocturnal and they developed rugged skin and scales to defend against water loss.

The study proved that climate change affects biodiversity in long-term and dramatic ways. So how will Earth and its inhabitants change to meet the conditions to come under this next cycle of global environmental change?

The ANU study was published earlier this month in the journal Evolution.

-- 

Written by David Searls, Earth.com Staff Writer

Source:<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/evo.13207/abstract"> Evolution</a>

Image Credit: Stuart Hay, ANU

Mass extinction event occurred in Australia 35 million years ago

The world changed dramatically beginning some 35 million years ago...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storms-whale-dolphin-strandings/">Dolphins</a> sure do get a lot of credit for their intelligence, as some <a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/35013555/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/dolphins-second-smartest-animals/#.WNQfe2X9P7E">studies</a> have even named them the second-smartest animal on the planet. But it turns out that dolphins may have found some competition in sea otters. According to a new study, sea otters have been using tools for far longer than other marine animals, including dolphins.

The study was performed by scientists from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/researchcenters/conservation-biology-institute">Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute</a> in Washington and was published in the journal <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Biology Letters</a>. The team of researchers carefully studied over 100 wild sea otters living off the California coast.

According to the report, sea otters have been using stone tools for thousands, if not millions, of years. They have been spotted floating on their backs using rocks and sharp stones to help break open shellfish to eat.

While dolphins have also been known to use tools such as sponges to protect their noses while looking for food on the seafloor, they likely have only discovered this method within the past 200 years.

"It's older in sea otters," Dr. Katherine Ralls from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/researchcenters/conservation-biology-institute">Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute</a> told <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-39339424">BBC News</a>. "They're very smart; they'll use rocks as anvils and as hammers."

While dolphins typically learn how to use tools from their parents, sea otters seem to develop the skill naturally.

"Orphaned otter pups raised in captivity exhibit rudimentary pounding behaviour without training or previous experience, and wild pups develop tool-use behaviour before weaning regardless of their mother's diet type,” said the report.

--

By Rory Arnold, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Biology Letters</a>, <a href="https://www.si.edu/researchcenters/conservation-biology-institute">Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute</a>, <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-39339424">BBC News</a>

Sea otters compete with dolphins over which animal is smartest

Dolphins sure do get a lot of credit for their...

Get ready for a bunch of big, hard-to-spell words. And the possibility that some of T.rex’s dinosaur relatives were a measly bunch of plant eaters. 

Paleontologists (there’s your first word challenge) from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> in England are proposing the possibility that the dinosaur classification system needs to be shaken up.

According to an article in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html">Nature</a>, the researchers believe the system is a bit more complex than what we’ve assumed since 1888. That was the year that paleontologists defined the two main branches of the dino tree: one consisting of bird-hipped herbivores (plant eaters) called Ornithischia, and the other group of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-poop-important-clues/">herbivores</a> and carnivores (meat eaters) with lizard-like hips, called Saurischia.

Too simple.

The <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> researchers studied fossil skeletons and tens of thousands of dinosaur anatomical models to hypothesize that the tree should be reshaped They propose that Theropoda, a classification of dinosaurs that includes the formidable Tyrannosaurus rex, actually branches from the Ornithischia limb despite T. rex very definitely being a meat eater. And that the Saurischia limb should also include the carnivorous Herrerasauridae, among the oldest of dinosaurs, on a separate branch. This is a finding that runs counter to prevailing thought.

“It must be tested and reviewed by others," said study lead author Matthew Baron of the group’s hypothesis and the arguments that are sure to follow. "I personally can’t wait for the debate that this will cause in the field and I look forward to a lively and hopefully civil exchange of ideas and evidence in the coming years.”

Still not content to leave well enough alone, the cantankerous researchers also proposed the possibility that dinosaurs showed up on the planet about ten million years earlier than previously thought, due to the study of a fossil from East Africa.

--

Written by David Searls, Earth.com Staff Writer

Source:<a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html"> Nature</a>

Have scientists been up the wrong dinosaur tree since 1888?

Get ready for a bunch of big, hard-to-spell words. And...

Not only is the existence of the rusty patched bumblebee threatened, but for a while so was the directive to add it to the endangered species list.

Among his last acts in office, President Barack Obama had directed that the rusty patched bumblebee be added, but the temporary freeze that the Trump administration had ordered on all federal regulations had intervened. However, on Tuesday the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> announced that the administration had relented and the bumblebee had been added to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-act-endangered/">endangered</a> species list. This makes it the first bee from the continental U.S. to be gain inclusion, although Obama had designated seven Hawaiian bee species as endangered earlier in his term.

“The Trump administration reversed course and listed the rusty patched bumblebee as an endangered species just in the nick of time,” said Rebecca Riley, senior attorney with the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resources Defense Council</a> (NRDC). “Federal protections may be the only thing standing between the bumblebee and extinction.”

The NRDC had filed a lawsuit in federal court in February to carry out the Obama order.

The news should be good for food growers. This particular species used to be abundant in 28 states, but it has suffered an 87 percent population decline over the last 20 years and the species can now only be sporadically found in pockets within thirteen states. Like other bee species, the rusty patched bumblebee (named for the marking on its back) pollinates critical fruit, seed and nut crops.

With the designation, the federal government will protect the endangered bumblebee and its grounds as part of the federally enacted Endangered Species Act.

--

Written by David Searls, Earth.com staff writer

Source:<a href="https://www.fws.gov/"> U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a>

Bumblebee declared endangered after all

Not only is the existence of the rusty patched bumblebee...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...