Urban coyotes are thriving in cities, but not for the reasons one might expect. A recent study reveals that human-related factors, rather than access to natural habitats, have a stronger impact on their survival.&nbsp;



Researchers tracking coyotes in Chicago discovered that densely populated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-living-causes-chronic-stress-for-some-coyotes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human areas</a> are linked to longer coyote lifespans, overturning the conventional belief that wildlife fares better in more natural settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-presence-plays-a-surprising-role">Human presence plays a surprising role</h2>



“What we found was really interesting, in that the societal characteristics seem to play a much more important role in predicting coyote survival time than the environmental characteristics,” said Emily Zepeda, the study’s lead author and a postdoctoral scholar at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>.&nbsp;



“And then we found this positive effect of human population density on survival time. Both of those things are unexpected because we usually associate human activity with detrimental effects on wildlife.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-urban-coyote-research-project">The Urban Coyote Research Project</h2>



The study, recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11252-024-01643-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Urban Ecosystems</a>, stems from the Urban Coyote Research Project, a long-term study of coyote ecology in the Chicago Metropolitan Area.&nbsp;



This research, led by wildlife ecologist Stan Gehrt, has monitored the behavior and ecology of Chicago’s estimated 4,000 coyotes, offering rare insights into how they adapt to urban life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-coyote-survival">Tracking coyote survival</h2>



For this study, researchers analyzed movement data from 214 coyotes tracked between 2013 and 2021. Using the length of time each coyote was monitored as a proxy for survival, they evaluated societal and environmental factors such as neighborhood income, human density, road density, and proximity to parks.



The findings revealed that human population density positively influenced coyote survival. Coyotes in areas with low human density tended to have shorter lifespans, while those in densely populated areas lived longer. Interestingly, the interaction between income and density also played a role.&nbsp;



In low-density areas, income had little effect on survival, likely due to the lack of human presence. However, in moderate- to high-density neighborhoods, coyotes in lower-income areas were 1.5 times more likely to survive to age two than those in wealthier areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resources-and-competition-in-urban-settings">Resources and competition in urban settings</h2>



The researchers theorize that higher human population density provides urban coyotes with essential resources like food and shelter, helping them endure harsh conditions such as Chicago winters.&nbsp;



“We’ve hypothesized that population density may have a positive effect because it’s actually providing resources like human-related structures or food that allow coyotes to weather the harsh conditions of the winter, which is a major mortality factor for Chicago coyotes,” Zepeda explained.



However, these benefits may come at a cost in higher-income areas, where vegetation and better waste management can attract more coyotes, leading to increased competition and disease transmission.&nbsp;



“There might be more individuals in those areas, but survival time may be shorter there,” Zepeda said. “You might die younger in an area where there are a lot of competitors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptability-of-coyotes">Adaptability of coyotes</h2>



Surprisingly, the study found no significant link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural habitats</a> and coyote survival. Parks and nature preserves, often assumed to be ideal environments for coyotes, did not seem to offer a survival advantage.&nbsp;



“Anecdotally, we see really high densities of coyotes in nature preserves and urban parks. That’s often where you see coyotes in the city if you see them at all,” Zepeda said.



The researchers speculate that this finding could result from a variety of factors, including limitations in how habitat types are classified on city maps or more frequent hunting and trapping in natural areas.&nbsp;



Alternatively, it may highlight the adaptability of coyotes, which seem capable of thriving in urbanized environments despite their preference for natural habitats.&nbsp;



“It could speak to how adaptable they are that they might prefer natural habitat, but at least in terms of survival, they can do just as well in more urbanized areas,” Zepeda added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-societal-factors-and-urban-ecosystems">Societal factors and urban ecosystems</h2>



This study adds to growing evidence that societal factors affecting human populations also influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-biodiversity-is-not-a-luxury-it-is-attainable-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban ecosystems</a>. The presence or absence of humans, combined with the conditions in which they live, may overshadow natural influences on wildlife survival.&nbsp;



Gehrt’s long-term research emphasizes the importance of understanding these dynamics as urban areas expand.



As urban ecosystems continue to evolve, studies like this provide critical insights into how wildlife interacts with human populations.&nbsp;



Further research could explore specific societal factors - such as waste management practices or public attitudes toward coyotes - and their influence on urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>.



By better understanding these relationships, cities can develop strategies to foster coexistence between humans and animals, creating urban environments where both can thrive.



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Coyotes live longer in densely populated human areas

Urban coyotes are thriving in cities, but not for the reasons one might expect. A recent study reveals that human-related factors, rather than access to natural habitats, have a stronger impact on their survival.&nbsp; Researchers tracking coyotes in Chicago discovered that densely populated human areas are linked to longer coyote lifespans, overturning the conventional belief that wildlife fares better in more natural settings. Human presence plays a surprising role “What we found was really interesting, in that the societal characteristics seem to play a much more important...

Sea lice have become a major problem for salmon farmers, as salmon all over the world have become overwrought with the parasite. Once sea lice attach themselves to the salmon, they can both kill the fish and also make them inedible.

You may have noticed a spike in salmon prices lately, and farmers have cited sea lice as the driving cause. In 2016, the global supply of salmon fell 10 percent, and if measures aren’t taken to hinder sea lice infestations, salmon farmers will continue to suffer major blows.

Sea lice are a kind of crustacean called copepods that have two long antennas that they use to hook into the salmon and feed. 

According to the <a href="http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&amp;articles_id=388">Alaska Department of Fish and Game,</a> salmon farms are a perfect breeding ground for sea lice, and it's the juvenile salmon that is most at risk of infection. 

Because of the high rate of infestation in salmon farms, there is a fear that some fish will escape into the wild and further spread the parasite to wild salmon populations. 

“Wild salmon close to fish farms are 73 times more likely to suffer lethal sea lice than juveniles not adjacent to fish farms. A fish farm can also elevate the rate of sea lice infestation in salmon up to 40 miles from their pens,” said Amy Carroll of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game website. 

There are several steps now being explored to control the growing sea lice issue. These management techniques range from using warm water to detach the lice from the fish to introducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-hives-weakened-pesticides/">pesticides</a> that could kill the sea lice. Researchers are also working to find ways to make the salmon resistant to sea lice.

There are also risks involved, as these techniques, while effective in combating the sea lice, can also harm the fish. Sea lice can also become resistant to the pesticides over time.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Salmon industry battling major sea lice problem

Sea lice have become a major problem for salmon farmers,...

Using a technique known as gene knockout, researchers altered the genetic code in the DNA of seven species of butterflies. This led to a breakthrough discovery that a single gene, the WntA gene, is responsible for the incredible diversity of butterfly wing patterns.

Owen McMillan is a staff scientist at the <a href="http://www.stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> and co-author of the study.

"Butterfly wing patterns are amazing: a true evolutionary novelty, highly diverse and strongly shaped by natural and sexual selection,” said McMillan. “By genetically engineering individuals from different species, we are quickly coming to grips with how this diversity is generated. Surprisingly, a single gene, and one that is used repeatedly throughout development, can have huge effects." 

The WntA gene is part of a small family of genes that influence body plans and other patterns during insect development. WntA is a protein molecule that seems to act as a morphogen, a chemical agent that is capable of causing the development of morphological characteristics. 

"Imagine a paint-by-number image of a butterfly," said McMillan "The instructions for coloring the wing are written in the genetic code. By deleting some of the instructions, we can infer which part says 'paint the number two's red' or 'paint the number one's black. Of course, it is a lot more complicated than this because what is actually changing are networks of genes that have a cascading effect on pattern and color."

According to researcher Carolina Concha, the team injected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storm-monarch-butterfly-colonies/">butterfly</a> eggs with an RNA probe that attached to the WntA gene, which they suspected played some role in the expression of color.

"After knocking out the gene, we let the butterflies grow up and compared the wing patterns of the knockout mutants with the original wing patterns," said co-author Richard Wallbank.

The scientists repeated this same procedure in seven different butterfly species. The results of the study revealed that the WntA gene influences wing pattern in ways that the researchers had not expected.

"Going back to the paint-by-number analogy, 'Number one' can move around the wing in different butterflies species, and even in different color pattern variants of the same species,” said McMillan. “In Monarchs, for example, the gene is expressed with fine precision along the wing veins. In contrast, in Heliconius, a group known for vivid wing patterns, the gene is expressed in bold brush strokes from essentially the tip to the base of the wing.” 

McMillan added, “And it gets even crazier, because the color of 'Number one' can change depending on context, shifting between different colored pigments and even changing how light is reflected. In butterflies, color is a function of both pigment and the structural properties of the scales cells that cover the wing.”

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> early online edition.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can now alter butterfly wing patterns

Using a technique known as gene knockout, researchers altered the...

Researchers developed a global study to take a closer look at the sizes of endangered vertebrate animal species. An analysis of the body masses of thousands of animals revealed that the largest and smallest species of animals are at a higher risk of extinction than those in between.

"Knowing how animal body size correlates with the likelihood of a species being threatened provides us with a tool to assess extinction risk for the many species we know very little about," said lead author William Ripple of <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>.

The research team scrutinized over 27,000 vertebrate animals that had been assessed for the Red List of Threatened Species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/otter-fossil-mammals-migrated-america/">Mammals</a>, birds, reptiles, amphibians, bony fishes, and cartilaginous fishes were all evaluated for the study. Approximately 4,400 of the animals observed are threatened with extinction.

"Many of the larger species are being killed and consumed by humans, and about 90 percent of all threatened species larger than 2.2 pounds in size are being threatened by harvesting," said Ripple.

"Harvesting of these larger animals takes a variety of forms including regulated and unregulated fishing, hunting and trapping for meat consumption, the use of body parts as medicine and killing due to unintentional bycatch," explained the authors of the study.

The researchers believe that the risks faced by the smallest species are greatly underestimated. The smallest species with high extinction risk consist of tiny vertebrate animals generally less than about 3 ounces in body weight. They are mostly threatened by loss or modification of habitat, and small species that require freshwater habitats are the most at risk.

Some of the smaller species that are threatened include the Clarke's banana frog, sapphire-bellied hummingbird, gray gecko, hog-nosed bat and the waterfall climbing cave fish.

The authors said that different conservation strategies will be needed to face the threats to the largest and smallest animals. While some large mammals such as whales, elephants, rhinos, and lions are well known and get more attention, conservation is also needed for large-bodied species that are not mammals such as large fish, birds, amphibians and reptiles.

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Largest and smallest animals at the highest risk of extinction

Researchers developed a global study to take a closer look...

Plants and insects have an ancient defense against viruses coded into their DNA. But according to scientists, humans and other vertebrates don’t have this genetic defense – at least, not anymore.

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.kuleuven.be/english">University of Leuven</a> in Belgium have found that vertebrates may have once had a genetic defense against viral illnesses like other organisms, but it was lost during the process of evolution.

The difference is a mechanism called RNA interference, which can suppress the expression of certain genes. Insects and plants use RNAI to protect themselves against certain viruses. Scientists have even found that bugs and plants can be made resistant to some diseases using the same mechanism – hence the rise of genetically modified crops.

But scientists hoping to protect humans against diseases in the same way have run into a roadblock: we don’t have the same genetic defense that plants and insects do. 

The key lies with three different types of the Argonautes protein. By looking at 40 varied organisms, including humans, the Belgian scientists discovered the problem.

"Two out of these three types [of Argonautes] are especially important for our research: AGO1 and AGO2. The AGO1 family plays a role in regulating its own gene expression. These proteins help to determine which characteristics encoded in the DNA are actually expressed,” Dr. Niels Wynant of the University of Leuven said in a press release. “The AGO2 family takes care of the defense against viruses. However, we didn't find these AGO2 proteins in vertebrates."

So the researchers started working backward, taking a look at jellyfish and sponges, both ancient animal species that share a common ancestor with humans and other vertebrates – albeit, very far back. Like insects and plants, they had the AGO2 proteins.

"In invertebrates, we noticed that AGO2 proteins indeed evolved much faster than their AGO1 counterparts. We didn't see this rapidly evolving group in the vertebrates,” Wynant said.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-08043-5">Scientific Reports</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Humans have lost an ancient genetic defense against viruses

Plants and insects have an ancient defense against viruses coded...

According to a new study, giraffes have evolved such disproportionate neck and legs in order to manage body heat, in hot, dry climates.

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-necked-reptiles-tanystropheus-were-easily-decapitated-by-dinosaur-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">long neck</a> also likely developed to allow the giraffe access to better food higher up, but scientists are still unclear about why the giraffe evolved such a long neck. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a> and the <a href="http://web.up.ac.za/">University of Pretoria </a>conducted the study, published in the Journal of Arid Environments. At first, the team hypothesized that giraffes evolved such a shape to efficiently lose excess heat due high surface area to mass ratio. The more surface area on an animal, the easier it is to dissipate excess heat. 

To tackle this theory, the team measured the surface area of the head, neck, trunk, and legs of 60 giraffes from south eastern Zimbabwe, both male and female. 

The results of the analysis showed no real difference in surface area between giraffes and mammals of similar size. 

This means that the giraffe does not possess an evolutionary advantage through a larger surface area on their bodies. Instead, the researchers found that the giraffe's shape and stature boost heat loss and even reduce solar radiation. 

“Their shape confers other thermoregulatory benefits that have advantages for survival in the arid habitat they prefer,” the researchers reported. 

Giraffe populations are declining rapidly, through habitat loss and poaching. As we reported last December, giraffes have been placed on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-extinction-watchlist/">extinction watchlist</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why giraffes have such long necks

According to a new study, giraffes have evolved such disproportionate...

In March 2016, a storm in Mexico caused irreparable damage to monarch butterfly colonies who were staying there for the winter. 

According to a study from the <a href="http://www.entsoc.org/">Entomological Society of America</a>, led by Lincoln Brower, a research professor of biology at <a href="http://sbc.edu/">Sweet Briar College</a>, the storm killed a significantly higher number of butterflies than initially thought. 

Originally, after the storm, the media reported mortality rates of 7 percent among the overwintering monarch colonies. But Brower estimates that 30 to 38 percent of the butterflies died from storm and the logging efforts that occurred after. 

To measure just how many monarchs were killed, the researchers tallied dead butterflies in random plots in the overwintering sites to get an idea of the total devastation caused. 

Brower argues that logging operations that removed debris and downed trees after the storm also greatly impacted the monarch colonies. The Mexican government allowed a salvage logging operation to take place to reduce the risk of wildfires, and the equivalent of several thousand trees was approved for removal. 

Overwintering sites, like the Oyamel forest in Mexico, produce a sort of “microclimate” that protects monarchs from freezing temperatures and unfavorable conditions. 

The March storm, however, downed so many trees that the monarchs were exposed to rain, snow, and sleet, causing many to die. 

“The prolonged severe storm destroyed the normal microclimatic protection provided by the intact Oyamel forest and led to freezing in all the colonies. This awakened us to the realization that the forest surrounding the butterfly colonies also needs to be protected, as a generalized wind buffer,” said Brower. 

Monarchs are already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-monarch-butterflies-extinct/">nearing threatened status</a> as a species, and fewer and fewer return from overwintering sites each year. Misreported information, like the original reports of the monarchs affected by the storm, is detrimental to conservation efforts that require an accurate tallies.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

How one winter storm devastated monarch butterfly colonies

In March 2016, a storm in Mexico caused irreparable damage...

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

A new study from the <a href="http://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has found that older fish are rapidly depleting due to overfishing.

Older fish are an important part of the ecosystem, similar to older <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-weapon-climate-change/">trees</a>, because fish who have aged longer might occupy a different geographical area, might try a different food source, and may become a more dominant predator in some cases. 

“More age complexity among species can contribute to the overall stability of a community. If you trim away that diversity, you're probably reducing the marine food web's ability to buffer against change,” said Lewis Barnett, lead author and a UW postdoctoral researcher at the School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences and the <a href="http://jisao.washington.edu/">Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean</a>.

Older fish also help keep the food chain fresh and can reproduce more over their lifetime. 

“I think of old fish as an insurance policy -- they get you through those periods of bad reproduction by consistently producing eggs,” said Trevor Branch, co-author and a UW associate professor. 

Fishing operations  have regulations on the volume of fish they can catch, but don’t have any regulations on age or size. As a result, most fish aren’t allowed to go through a natural life cycle. The longer a fish lives, the more likely it will be caught. 

There also certain environmental factors at play, like disease and pollution, that can contribute to the decrease in older fish. 

The researchers gathered data from commercial and recreational fisheries that detailed the status of changing fish populations over the years. The results show that of the 63 populations of fish analyzed, the proportions of fish in the older age brackets had declined from 79 percent to 97 percent. 

The surprising results will hopefully help dictate future policy for fisheries and fishing operations. 

The researchers suggested several methods for changing fishing operations to help balance out fish populations, including barring fish of a certain size or age from being caught and closing off certain areas to fishing permanently. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Victoria O'Connell

Older fish are rapidly disappearing due to overfishing

A new study from the University of Washington has found...

Allowing yourself to be shocked by electric eels in the name of science might seem foolhardy, but that’s just what Kenneth Catania from <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a> did to measure the electric current that an eel produces out of the water. 

Catania has been researching eels for years and had reported on their ability to deliver twice as much electric discharge by wrapping themselves around their prey. But Catania soon noticed that the eels in his lab often jumped out of the water to deliver a shock to perceived threats and predators. 

Cantina observed this behavior while attempting to scoop up eels in an electrically conductive metal net. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decision-expected-soon-on-endangered-status-of-american-eels/">eels</a>, noticing the threat, would jump out of the water to attack the net. 

At first this behavior confused Catania, but then he hypothesized that this was a way for the eel to protect itself and amp the power of its electric shock, because the current would unaffected by the water. 

“They aren't just simple animals that go around shocking stuff. They've evolved to produce stronger and stronger electrical discharges, and in concert they've evolved these behaviors to more efficiently use them,” said Catania. 

To better understand the dynamics of the electric circuit created by an eel while shocking another animal, Catania willingly allowed himself to be shocked by a relatively small eel in a contained setting. 

Catania created an apparatus that measured the intensity and strength of the electric current as the eel leapt out of the water and made contact with his arm. 

The shock produced wasn’t enough to do any real damage, but did deliver a lot of pain. Catania’s device recorded a peak of 40-50 milliamps in the eels’ electrical current. 

“It's impressive that a little eel could deliver that much electricity. We don't know the main driver of the behavior, but they need to deter predators, and I can tell you it's really good at that. I can't imagine an animal that had received this [jolt] sticking around,” said Catania.

Catania’s research can now be used to measure the power of an electric shock delivered by differing sized eels. While this is useful information for scientists, it also provides a good reminder to the rest of us: don’t mess with electric eels!

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Electric eels leap out of the water to deliver a stronger shock

Allowing yourself to be shocked by electric eels in the...

Octopuses are incredibly intelligent, remarkable creatures whose brains work in completely different ways than other animals. They shift color and change shape to camouflage with their surroundings, they can open jars, and are known to be Houdini-like escape artists for their ability to fit through almost any space as long as the opening can accommodate their beak. 

Until recently, scientists were sure octopuses were solitary creatures, only coming together to mate and then spending the majority of their life alone. But now, a team of researchers have found two separate colonies of congregated octopuses in the same area. 

The sites, called Octopolis and Octlantis, were discovered off the east coast of Australia. Octopolis, a settlement of 16 octopuses was first found in 2009, while Octlantis is just a few hundred meters away with fifteen octopuses. 

The divers who recorded footage of the octopuses found that the cephalopods communicated with each other, built dens from old shells, and would sometimes defend their territory or show aggression to warn other octopuses to stay away. 

The researchers studying the groupings think that their congregating is due in part to the geological makeup of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-ocean-floor/">seafloor</a> where they were found. 

“At both sites, there were features that we think may have made the congregation possible – namely several seafloor rock outcroppings dotting an otherwise flat and featureless area,” said Stephanie Chancellor, a Ph.D. student from the <a href="https://www.uic.edu/">University of Illinois,Chicago</a> and an author of the study.

The researchers concluded that under the right circumstances, octopuses might come together and be more social than ever expected. Further observations of these octopus settlements could help scientists better understand behavioral patterns and communication among certain cephalopods. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Octopuses are more social than we thought, but sometimes fight

Octopuses are incredibly intelligent, remarkable creatures whose brains work in...

Millions of years ago, a dramatic transition from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/link-herbivorous-carnivorous-dinosaurs/">dinosaurs</a> to birds occurred in reptiles, marked by significant structural changes in the brain and skull. Researchers have now tracked this evolution, revealing how bird skull formation evolved and how the brain controls skull growth. 

The study, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, was performed by a team of researchers led by Bhart-Anjan Singh Bhullar, assistant professor of geology and geophysics at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>, and Matteo Fabbri, Yale graduate student.

The team discovered that most reptile brains and skull shapes were similar, but dinosaurs closely related to birds and the birds themselves had larger brains and skulls that grew around them. 

“Across the dinosaur-bird transition, the skull transforms enormously and the brain enlarges. We were surprised that no one had directly addressed the idea that the underlying parts of the brain -- the forebrain and midbrain -- are correlated or somehow developmentally related to the overlying frontal and parietal bones,” said Bhullar. 

The formation of the skull is dependent on the brain, but the research shows a distinct relationship between the development of the brain and the development of roof of the skull. 

According to the study, the brain signals the formation of the cranium in all vertebrates with bony skulls. 

“What this implies is that the brain produces molecular signals that instruct the skeleton to form around it, although we understand relatively little about the precise nature of that patterning,” said Bhullar. 

This research not only sheds light on how birds transitioned from dinosaurs, but could also have larger implications in understanding the relationship between skull formation and brain growth.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Transition from dinosaurs to birds altered brain, skull growth

Millions of years ago, a dramatic transition from dinosaurs to...

New research shows that monkey fights spread like a disease, with one fight causing another, which prompts another, and so on. In fact, the fighting typically won’t stop until the original first pair resolve their issues. The findings have led scientists to believe that the fighting is based on collective memory. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University </a>and the <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/">Santa Fe Institute</a> conducted a study observing captive pigtailed macaques at the <a href="http://www.yerkes.emory.edu/">Yerkes National Primate Center</a> in Georgia. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-brain-explain-human-thinking/">Macaques</a> are widely studied in the scientific community because of their similar neural networking to humans. The researchers used macaques to better understand conflict variations, such as size and duration, to see if there existed any patterns that could better explain social behaviors. 

While observing the macaques, the team found that there were conflicts in the group, but that there were also distinct restful periods without fighting. When a fight was started, one macaque would threaten or attack another. The fighting would then spread through the macaque group and would not stop until the original conflict was resolved.

“The duration of the conflict is not just determined by individuals independently deciding whether to continue fighting or drop out, but through their joint memory for the past and subsequent collective decision-making,” said Jessica Flack from the Santa Fe Institute.

The researchers feel a similar model could explain human aggressions and fights.

By understanding how long a fight will last among macaques, and knowing that the original conflict is the source of spreading monkey aggression, future research can predict and determine quantifiers for conflicts that break out, and also help to manage conflicts. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Fighting is infectious among groups of monkeys

New research shows that monkey fights spread like a disease,...

Western monarch butterflies are reaching unprecedented levels of endangerment, and their populations are much lower than previously realized. Eastern monarch conservation has been a subject for many environmentalists, policy makers, and scientists, but now, according to new research, the western monarch is doing much worse. 

Monarch population decline can be traced to habitat degradation, pesticide use, and climate change, but the exact cause of why the western monarchs are dying off is uncertain. 

Cheryl Shultz, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/">Washington State University, Vancouver</a> and the lead author of the study, found that there just 300,000 Western monarchs who winter in California, where before, in the 1980’s, there were millions of them. 

“This study doesn't just show that there are fewer monarchs now than 35 years ago. It also tells us that, if things stay the same, western monarchs probably won't be around as we know them in another 35 years,” said Schultz. 

The western monarch risks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-event-darkness/">extinction</a> over the next few decades if policies and conservation efforts are not put into place soon. 

Western monarchs spend winter in forested groves in coastal California and spend spring and summer in Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Utah, and then return back to California in the fall. 

It was California residents who first noticed that monarch butterfly populations were diminishing, as fewer and fewer were recorded in their traditional overwintering sites. 

Schultz gathered data from monarch butterfly counts going back to the 1980’s. The counts came from volunteers, from butterfly enthusiasts, and from the Xerces Society's Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count. 

The research confirmed what the California residents feared and found that the butterflies were declining in population levels. 

The decline is so extreme that the U.S Fish and Wildlife service is debating whether to list the monarch butterfly as a threatened species. 

“The hard part of being a conservation biologist is documenting species declines. The exciting part is figuring out how to help declining species recover. In the 20th century, we brought bald eagles back from the brink of extinction by limiting use of DDT. If we start now, we can make the 21st century the era in which monarchs return to our landscapes,” said Elizabeth Crone, a <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> professor and co-author on the study. 

These findings will hopefully help preserve and revive western monarch populations, as well as shed further light on the effects of climate change and habitat degradation through man-made infrastructure and pesticide use. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Western monarch butterflies could soon go extinct

Western monarch butterflies are reaching unprecedented levels of endangerment, and...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...