The cooperative behavior of bees, resembling a singular "superorganism," is something uniquely remarkable in the world of nature.



It is not uncommon for thousands of worker bees to function collectively to protect the colony, feed it, and look after the offspring. This intricate social conduct unifies their individual actions into a concerted effort.



But how is this complex behavior encoded and inherited among generations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a>? The answer lies in a special gene, as unveiled by a team of scientists.



The research was led by experts at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (<a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HHU</a>), along with colleagues from Frankfurt/Main, Oxford, and Würzburg. The study has uncovered the genetic underpinnings of honey bee cooperation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-cooperative-bee-behavior">Genes behind cooperative bee behavior</h2>



The principal investigator and the head of the Institute of Evolutionary Genetics at Heinrich-Heine University, Dr. Martin Beye, and his team have made this breakthrough discovery. The research was focused on a gene called "doublesex" or "dsx."



"The behavioral repertoire of the individual bees and their function in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> are not learned, but rather inherited. Until now, it was not known how such complex behaviors were genetically encoded," said Dr. Beye.



The key discovery is that the dsx gene influences worker bee-specific behavior, noted study first author Dr. Vivien Sommer.



"The gene programs whether a worker bee takes up a task in the colony and for how long. This includes collective tasks such as caring for the larvae or foraging for food and social exchanges on food sources, for example," said Dr. Sommer. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-editing-in-bees">Gene editing in bees</h2>



The team used the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technique to modify the dsx gene in select bees, attaching a QR code to the manipulated bees.



Cameras inside the hive monitored the bees' behavior, and with the assistance of artificial intelligence, video sequences were analyzed to determine individual behavioral patterns.



"Our central question was whether and how the inherited behavioral patterns changed as a result of the gene modification. Such changes must be reflected in the nervous system of the worker bees where the specific behaviour is controlled," said Dr. Sommer.



Adding a twist, the researchers introduced a green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the dsx sequence to visualize the neuronal circuits. 



They found that the dsx gene plays a crucial role in creating specific neural pathways in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-basis-of-social-behavior-in-the-insect-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee’s brain</a>, according to doctoral researcher Jana Seiler, who is also a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-bee-behavior">New chapter in bee behavior </h2>



"Our findings indicate a fundamental genetic program that determines the neuronal circuitry and behavior of worker bees," said Dr. Wolfgang Rössler, an expert in the Department of Behavioural Physiology and Sociobiology at the University of Würzburg.



The next challenge is to move from the individual honeybee to the whole bee colony and understand how the gene influences the “superorganism.” 



"We hope to find the link between individual programming and the coordinated behaviour of many individuals," said Alina Sturm, a doctoral researcher at HHU.



Revealing the genetic secret behind the collective behavior of honey bees is more than just a scientific breakthrough. It’s a tribute to the remarkable complexity of nature and its infinite capacity for surprise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-bee-behavior">Broader implications of bee behavior</h2>



The discovery of a gene that influences honey bee behavior has implications beyond the study of bees.



Understanding how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-gene-allows-cape-honey-bees-to-reproduce-asexually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single gene</a> can shape complex social dynamics could inspire innovations in fields such as robotics and artificial intelligence.



For example, roboticists often look to nature for insights into building more efficient, cooperative systems. The hive’s "superorganism" structure could serve as a model for developing autonomous swarm robots designed to work together toward a shared goal.



Additionally, the study of bee cooperation offers valuable insights for ecology and conservation. 



Honey bees play a critical role in pollination. Identifying the genetic foundations of their social behavior could lead to better strategies for supporting bee populations amid environmental threats.



By shedding light on the inner workings of the hive, this research adds a new dimension to preserving biodiversity and maintaining the stability of ecosystems that rely heavily on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp3953?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D91765132952246405812279585398434020131%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1730680771" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bees do not learn to be cooperative - it is in their genes

The cooperative behavior of bees, resembling a singular "superorganism," is something uniquely remarkable in the world of nature. It is not uncommon for thousands of worker bees to function collectively to protect the colony, feed it, and look after the offspring. This intricate social conduct unifies their individual actions into a concerted effort. But how is this complex behavior encoded and inherited among generations of honey bees? The answer lies in a special gene, as unveiled by a team of scientists. The research was led by experts...

Geese populations around the world are booming thanks to feeding forays onto farmland. But China's wild geese prefer to stay in their wetlands, and that could be causing their numbers to decline, scientists said.

Unlike most other goose populations, the wild geese who winter in China’s Yangtze River wetlands don’t travel to nearby agricultural lands to graze. 

“Whilst this saves them energy and the risk of death from the hunters and poachers they encounter on dry land, it does constrain them to the wetlands and the quality of the food that they can find there,” said Dr. Lei Cao of the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>.

The geese that winter in China travel from Russia and Mongolia. They can’t stay there during the harsh winters, but there are not enough extensive wetlands south of the Yangtze to help support their population.

Cao and her fellow researchers began to worry about China's wild geese when surveys taken during the 2000s showed their numbers were in decline. 

They attached GPS trackers to 67 geese from five different species that winter in the Yangtze wetlands. About 50 of the geese never left wetlands areas. The remainder – all from species that are not declining as rapidly – occasionally left the wetlands but still stayed close to home.

"This is a vital piece of evidence to support our hypothesis that, because Chinese geese are clearly 'prisoners' of their wetland habitats, their recent declines relate to reductions in the quality and extent of these wintering habitats upon which they rely," Cao said.

As China’s wetlands shrink, so does the geese population. But why would China's wild geese avoid neighboring farms while other geese around the world do not?

Cao and her colleagues suspect it’s because China’s rice paddies have more human activity, and because farmers in China often raise domestic ducks and geese that clear mown fields of food their wild cousins could scavenge.

Wintering geese are also popular game for hunters, the researchers said.

Their study will appear in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.037">Current Biology</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

China's wild geese are homebodies, and it could be hurting their numbers

Geese populations around the world are booming thanks to feeding...

Fruit fly brains are tiny, but that doesn’t mean that they’re simple. In fact, the navigational center of a fruit fly’s brain is actually very sophisticated, according to a new study by scientists at the <a href="https://www.janelia.org/">Janelia Research Campus</a>.

Deep within each fruit fly’s brain is a doughnut-shaped structure where neurons and special nerve cells form a delicate compass. Part of the structure, a group of nerve cells called the ellipsoid body, form the needle. 

As a fruit fly travels, even delicate shifts in direction cause activity in the ellipsoid body that allow the fly to know exactly where it is at all times.

"It's a window into something that borders on cognition,” group leader <a href="https://www.janelia.org/lab/jayaraman-lab">Dr. Vivek Jayaraman</a> said in a press release.

The research team had determined this much as early as 2015, but continued their research into the structure of fruit fly brains. Now, they may have determined exactly how this miniscule compass actually works.

A “handlebar” of neurons sit above the ellipsoid body, and the two structures send signals back and forth. Because of its location and the delicate connection, the handlebar neurons can “steer” the ellipsoid body.

"Essentially you have a set of puppet strings by which you can pull the activity one way or another," Jayaraman said.

By genetically engineering the flies so that their neurons glowed when active and then watching them through a specialized microscope, the scientists were able to watch this interplay at work.

While the scientists are still not quite sure how the entire process works, they’ve gained a key to understanding the navigational center of fruit fly brains.

Understanding how navigation works in fruit fly brains could offer some insight into how humans are able to navigate their world so effectively, the scientists said.

The Janelia Research Campus is part of the <a href="http://www.hhmi.org/">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a>, a philanthropic group that works to advance biomedical research and science education.

The group’s most recent research will be published today in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23496">eLife</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fruit fly brains are complex navigational tools

Fruit fly brains are tiny, but that doesn’t mean that...

Researchers have identified areas of the primate brain dedicated exclusively to analyzing social interactions.

The findings could help explain the origins of “theory of mind,” the human ability to understand what other people are thinking, <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a> said.

The researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify those parts of macaque monkeys' brains that become active when the animals watched different kinds of videos.

The team expected that areas containing specialized brain cells called mirror neurons, which fire when an animal performs an action such as grasping a stick or hitting a ball, or sees another animal performing the same action, would light up when the macaques watched other macaques playing with toys.

But the macaques' mirror neuron regions also showed activity when the animals watched their fellow monkeys interacting socially, and even when they watched objects colliding with other objects.

The findings suggest that the motor neuron system, which also exists in the human brain, could be more involved than previously thought in understanding a variety of both social and non-social interactions.

Those areas of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-recognition-technology/">monkey’s</a> brain that respond selectively to specific visual shapes- faces, bodies, or objects got an extra boost when the animals watched videos of monkeys interacting with objects. It perked up even more in response to videos of monkey-on-monkey social interactions. 

This suggests that the same parts of the brain that are responsible for analyzing visual shapes might also be partly responsible for analyzing both physical and social interactions, the authors said.

The team also discovered that additional areas of the brain, far removed from those face- and body-selective areas, also lit up in response to social interactions. The researchers even identified a portion of the network that responded exclusively to social interactions, remaining nearly silent in their absence.

“That was both unexpected and mind-boggling," says researcher Winrich Freiwald, who added that no other study has shown evidence of a network in the brain going dark when denied its preferred input.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a>

Monkey brain study may explain human thinking

Researchers have identified areas of the primate brain dedicated exclusively...

Small parrots called parrotlets use a technique called “wing-assisted hopping” to conserve energy when hopping from branch to branch, according to a new <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> study.

The birds, who live from <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/scorpion-reef-gulf-mexico/">Mexico</a> to South America, use their wings as a booster engine during long hops from to branch to branch while foraging, the study found.

It requires less energy than simply flying, and is a strategy that could have been used by dinosaurs before they developed full flight, the authors said. 

Parrotlets can jump up to 20 cm without using their wings, but can reach up to 75 cm with a little wing help, lead author Diana D. Chin told the website <a href="https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us">Motherboard</a>.  

There were four parrots in the study and the force they used to lift off was measured using sensors in the branches.

The study, published in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/5/e1603041">Scientific Advances</a> can lead to spinoff research on the evolution of foraging dinosaurs, Chin said.

"We modelled what would happen if a theropod combined a long jump with a partial wingbeat," she said. "Early dinos could have gotten more bang for their buck by adding that a partial wing beat." 

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/5/e1603041">Scientific Advances</a>, <a href="https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us">Motherboard</a>

Small parrots could explain how dinosaurs learned to fly

Small parrots called parrotlets use a technique called “wing-assisted hopping”...

Frogs can be found on every continent except <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-turning-antarctica-green/">Antarctica</a>. Their habitats are extremely diverse, ranging from tropical rainforests to deserts. Frogs are known for their incredible jumping skills which seem to defy the laws of physics. Researchers from <a href="http://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College </a>used cameras to get a closer look at the jumping ability of the African red-legged running frog.

Some species of frogs can jump over 20 times the length of their body. This is achieved by stretching the tendons in their legs, which snap back in place in a spring-loaded motion. The research team at <a href="http://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College</a> discovered another weapon behind the frog's powerful jump - a unique skeleton which has evolved over the course of hundreds of millions of years.

The experts studied the high-speed images of the red-legged running frogs, or Kassina maculata. The research, published in the Journal of Experimental Biology, established that these frogs have an accurate method of controlling their hind legs which allows them to leap at various angles. 

“Some jumps were nearly horizontal, with animals skimming over the ground. In other trials, the frogs rocketed upwards almost vertically. Their capacity to jump at such a wide range of angles and distances is amazing,” explained lead author Dr Laura Porro.

The study revealed the frogs’ power to launch forward comes primarily from the hip joint, while their vertical jump is driven by the ankle. The knee joint is key in positioning the legs to determine the angle at which they leap. Computer simulations of the images showed an incredibly complex 3d motion of the frogs’ legs.

“The ability to jump at a wide range of angles is probably very important to this species as they hunt insects in trees at night and need to be able to move around in a complex, 3D environment,' said Dr Porro.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="http://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College</a>

Frogs can defy gravity thanks to their highly evolved skeletons

Frogs can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Their...

The mosquitoes that carry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/challenges-zika-vaccine-success/">Zika</a> virus might also transmit chikungunya and dengue viruses with one bite, according to a new study.

"A mosquito, in theory, could give you multiple viruses at once," said <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> post-doctoral researcher Claudia Ruckert. 

A Colorado State research team infected mosquitoes in a lab with multiple kinds of viruses to learn more about the transmission of more than one infection from a single mosquito bite. While they described the lab results as surprising, researchers said there's no reason to believe that “coinfections” are more severe than being infected with one virus at a time. There has not been much research on coinfections and findings are contradictory, the university said.

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which live in tropical, subtropical, and in some temperate climates, transmit chikungunya, dengue and Zika viruses to humans. The viruses continue to emerge into new regions, possibly increasing the likelihood of coinfection.

The first report of chikungunya and dengue virus coinfection occurred in 1967, according to the study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.  More recently, coinfections of Zika and dengue viruses, Zika and chikungunya, and all three viruses have been reported during various outbreaks, including the recent outbreak of Zika  in North and South America.

Although the Colorado State research team found that mosquitoes in the lab can transmit all three viruses simultaneously, this is likely extremely rare in nature.

"Dual infections in humans, however, are fairly common, or more common than we would have thought," Ruckert said.

CSU researchers had expected to find that one virus would prove to be dominant and outcompete the others but that wasn’t the case.

"It's interesting that all three replicate in a really small area in the mosquito's body," Ruckert said. "When these mosquitoes get infected with two or three different viruses, there's almost no effect that the viruses have on each other in the same mosquito."

Concerns about Zika virus have heightened following news in 2008 that the virus could be transmitted sexually in addition to being spread by mosquitoes.

Dengue and chikungunya virus symptoms are similar to an infection with Zika virus, and can also include joint and bone pain, nose or gum bleeding and bruising.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a>

Mosquitoes that carry Zika can also transmit other diseases

The mosquitoes that carry Zika virus might also transmit chikungunya...

Growling and teeth baring are not the only ways dogs convey their aggression, according to a new report.

“The ladder of aggression starts with lower level and more subtle behaviors and they will progress to more intense behaviors,' Carrie Westgarth at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/sath/">Small Animal Teaching University</a> in Liverpool told <a href="http://www.bbc.com/bbctwo">BBC Two's</a> “Trust Me, I’m a Vet”.

Westgarth and the team at the Small Animal Teaching University have researched hundreds of cases of dog attacks and have worked out the code that warns a bite may be coming.

Dogs can display agitation by yawning, panting, lip licking and turning away, Westgarth said.

The next stage in the “ladder of aggression” could be raising a front paw, walking or creeping away. If their ears are pulled back that could also be a sign they may bite. 

Crouching, a tail tucked under, staring or stiffening up may indicate even higher warning levels.

Of course, not every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-dogs-anxious-owners-can-help/">dog</a> will follow these exact patterns of behavior, but Westgarth's research gives guidance especially for the earlier signs.

The solution is to reassure dogs and making them feel comfortable, or try to avoid the pet getting on the “ladder of aggression” in the first place, Westgarth said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcone">BBC Two</a>, <a href="http://dailym.ai/2rrzfXc">Daily Mail</a>

How to understand your dog’s language of aggression

Growling and teeth baring are not the only ways dogs...

What are the reasons that shoppers may prefer free-range chicken eggs over eggs from caged hens? This is the question that researchers at the <a href="http://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> answer in a new study on free-range eggs published in the journal <a href="http://anthrozoos.expressacademic.org/login.php">Anthrozoös</a>, the journal of the <a href="http://www.isaz.net/isaz/">International Society for Anthrozoology</a>. 

In order to collect data for their study, the researchers conducted focus groups and interviewed 73 participants of mixed age and gender. After compiling their responses, they then categorized the different reasons that individuals gave for why they choose one egg type over the other.

The most common motivations for purchasing free-range eggs were that they were viewed as being higher quality, more nutritious, and safer to eat. Also, participants emphasized trying to avoid “industrialized” food.

Interestingly, although many participants described caged-egg farming as “cruel,” they did not often point to animal welfare reasons as paramount in their egg-purchasing decisions. Rather, a number of people thought that free-range <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-egg-layers-secret/">chickens</a> might be “happier,” and thus create a better quality egg. Researchers say this finding shows consumers are more likely to buy a product if it is both “ethical” and assumed to be of higher quality – not just ethical reasons alone.

“Taste and quality are strong motivations for purchasing and may be part of the reason why people are prepared to pay a higher price,” says lead author Heather Bray of the <a href="http://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a>. “More importantly these findings suggest that consumers think about animal welfare in a much broader way than we previously thought, and in particular they believe that better welfare is connected to a better quality product."

The results of the study also showed that there is a high level of awareness among participants for caged-egg production, compared to other types of animal farming. Furthermore, despite their unease at supporting caged-egg farming, participants who bought free-range or cage-free eggs did not necessarily also buy their meat in the same ethical scope. This was due to the price difference between egg types being much smaller than those between different sources of meat. 

Moving forward, the authors believe more research can be done to help further understanding of consumer motivations for purchasing products with ethical production claims. Further information could lead to more purposeful production methods or product labeling that is directed at attracting consumers. In the meantime, feel free to join the few participants of the study who said they produced their own free-range eggs by keeping their own hens. They make great pets and an even better breakfast.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://taylorandfrancis.com/">Taylor &amp; Francis Group</a>

Most choose free-range eggs for nutrition over ethical reasons

What are the reasons that shoppers may prefer free-range chicken...

Beaver dams may help lower stream temperatures, helping cold-water fish such salmon and trout, a new study says.

Although previous research has suggested that beaver dams raise stream temperatures, the study by Nicholas Weber from <a href="http://ecologicalresearch.net/">Eco-Logical Research, Inc., USA</a> and colleagues found the opposite. They monitored water temperatures along 34 kilometers of the John Day River in Oregon over eight years and assessed the impact of artificial beaver dams on water temperature along four reaches of Bridge Creek.

Juvenile steelhead salmon in Bridge Creek experience extreme stress at about 25°C, and the researchers found that maximum daily temperatures in much of the study stream exceed this temperature for much of the summer.

But temperatures rarely exceeded 25°C after the proliferation of beaver dams, possibly because they dams help moderate temperatures both by increasing water storage and encouraging surface water and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-monsoon-patterns-india/">groundwater</a> exchange. Beavers and salmon were once more abundant and widely distributed in North America, and beaver dams could help mitigate the thermal degradation that can threaten sensitive species, according to the study published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.  

“Beaver are often considered a keystone species, and their propensity to build dams plays an integral role in maintaining biodiversity and enhancing aquatic processes that benefit an array of aquatic and terrestrial organisms,” Weber said. 

Increasingly, beavers and artificial beaver dams are being used as low- cost tools in stream and river restoration efforts, Weber added.

The new study demonstrates that beaver dams could also be used to lower stream temperatures,  mitigating “thermal degradation that can threaten sensitive species,” Weber said.

[caption id="attachment_450650" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/140260.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-450650" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/140260-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Credit: Weber et al., 2017[/caption]

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>

Image Credit: Weber et al., 2017

Beaver dams may protect cold-water fish from warming temperatures

Beaver dams may help lower stream temperatures, helping cold-water fish...

For newborns, breast-feeding is a critical part of their development. Factors such as the duration of breast-feeding and when solid food is introduced to their diet can be important to an infant’s future health.

But this isn’t just important for humans. Primates also breast-feed their young, and the specifics of these feeding tendencies – while not well understood – can have a significant effect on primate populations.

A recent study in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> now reveals that biomarkers in the teeth of wild orangutans show how breast-feeding patterns are related to food fluctuations in their natural habitat. These findings may help us delve deeper into the evolution of breast-feeding in humans as well.

Primate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-giant-salmon-teeth/">teeth</a> contain growth patterns – similar to tree rings – which allowed researchers to determine the concentrations of maternal elements in an young primate’s teeth as it developed. This was able to reveal details on their dietary and nursing patterns.

“Early-life dietary transitions reflect fundamental aspects of primate life, history, and evolution,” explains Christine Austin, a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a> in Australia.

Analysis of deceased Sumatran and Bornean orangutan teeth revealed that these primates exclusively consume milk for their first year, after which they cycle between more and less milk consumption. This breast-feeding may occur until they are eight or nine years old – a behavior that would be considered quite bizarre in humans. 

Researchers believe this cycling behavior is a result of the changing availability of fruit, which may cause young orangutans to turn to breast milk when fruit availability is low.

The research team is confident these findings will lead to future studies on how food availability and certain environmental factors affect the nursing patterns of primates.

But this research can be connected to human behavior as well, says Austin: “By first studying nursing patterns of our primate cousins, we can apply these findings to future studies in humans. This method can be used to reconstruct the diet histories of contemporary humans in order to reliably and accurately study the relationship between infant diet and health outcomes in childhood or later life, as well as inform models of population growth.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: The Mount Sinai Hospital/<a href="http://icahn.mssm.edu/">Mount Sinai School of Medicine</a>

Orangutan breast-feeding sheds light on human evolution

For newborns, breast-feeding is a critical part of their development....

Approximately 130 million years ago, India split off from the supercontinent Gondwana. It drifted north - moving at a rate of approximately 15 centimeters a year. Eventually, India collided with Asia and formed the Himalayan Mountains. This collision also buried Cambay amber that is giving scientists incredible new insight into the mystery of India’s drift. 

Embedded in the 54 million-year-old Indian amber are the fossils of three new species of fungus gnats. The newly-discovered insects are closely related to fossils found in Europe. In fact, the fossils in the Cambay amber have a striking resemblance to their relatives encased in the European Baltic amber. 

The long-beaked fungus gnats, or Lygistorrhinidae, have been previously  identified in the younger Baltic amber. These tiny tropical flies are extremely rare, and only two species of the insects were preserved in the Baltic amber. The unearthing of three species in the Indian amber are an unprecedented find. 

The significance of this discovery is that it may disprove the theory that India became an isolated subcontinent after it drifted. This and other faunal connections to Europe suggest India was not a solitary island. 

Exactly how the insects were exchanged is unclear, but experts theorize there may have been an island chain linking Europe and <a href="https://www.earth.com/plants/west-indian-nightshade-solanum-ptychanthum/">India</a>. 

The biodiversity of early India is not very well documented. The study, published in <a href="https://peerj.com/">Peerj</a>, sheds new light on the origin of India's insects which could lead to a better understanding of the country's geological evolution.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Source: <a href="https://peerj.com/">Peerj</a>

Image Credit: Frauke Stebner

Insect fossils found in Indian amber may solve ancient mystery

Approximately 130 million years ago, India split off from the...

In the bird world, successful courtship usually involves a combination of ideal coloration, plumage, and mating moves. Scientists know that a male bird’s courtship behavior can be affected by factors such as size and hormone levels. But ornithologists have recently delved more into the effects of social context on male mating behavior in birds.

A new study published in <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/auk-ornithological-advances">The Auk: Ornithological Advances</a> shows how male dark-eyed juncos change their courtship behavior based off their social landscape. This involves whether or not the male already has a mate and if other birds are present to witness this behavior.

The researchers found that while both paired and unpaired males are out to capture the attention of any female in their eye line, they often use different tactics. Dustin Reichard of <a href="https://www.owu.edu/">Ohio Wesleyan University</a> and his colleagues compared the behavior of unpaired males with paired males when mates were present and paired males when mates were absent.

Reichard and his colleagues made these observations at the Mountain Lake Biological Station in Virginia. They placed caged female juncos in front of uncaged males and analyzed the male’s reactions.

Their findings revealed that paired males actually approach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-spiders-eaten-females/">females</a> much quicker and spent more time in close proximity with the female. These same males were more active and had their body feathers erect for a longer period of time than unpaired males. Paired males also sang fewer long-range songs than the unpaired males, which the researchers think may be due to the paired males not wanting other birds to overhear. 

Interestingly for paired males, the presence or absence of their mates had no effect on their behavior. This was not the case for the behavior of their mates, as Reichard observed that “Often the male’s mate would respond aggressively to the caged female, diving at the cage while pausing occasionally to chase her mate away from the area.”

Despite this apparent marital hiccup, Reichard says that none of the pairs in their study divorced after the research was finished. “People called me a ‘junco homewrecker’ during these experiments, but there's little evidence to support that accusation.”

Whatever marital discord this study may have caused among the junco population, scientists believe the results were worth the risk. <a href="http://www.auburn.edu/">Auburn University’s</a> Geoffrey Hill, an expert on mate choice in birds who was not involved in the research, says “This study shows the potential for extremely complex behavioral interactions in birds that were long thought to be bland monogamists.”

[caption id="attachment_450592" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/140300.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-450592" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/140300-300x165.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="165" /></a> Image Credit: J. Welklin[/caption]

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/aos-publications">American Ornithological Society Publications Office</a>

Certain birds may not be as monogamous as previously thought

In the bird world, successful courtship usually involves a combination...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...