SECORE International has developed a coral seeding method that utilizes assisted reproduction - breeding corals to help restore reefs. This approach has been implemented across the Caribbean through a network of training and partners.&nbsp;



A recent study confirms that the coral seeding method is making a significant impact: during the severe 2023 heatwave in the Caribbean, young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-and-reefs-are-showing-surprising-resilience-as-global-waters-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> that were bred through SECORE's efforts remained healthy, while many wild corals bleached and died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-seeding-in-the-caribbean-nbsp">Coral seeding in the Caribbean&nbsp;</h2>



The summer of 2023 brought devastation to many coral reefs in the Caribbean Basin. An unprecedented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-escalate-coral-bleaching-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwave</a>, both in intensity and duration, hit the region, leading to widespread coral bleaching. 



With high seawater temperatures persisting, many corals were unable to recover and perished.&nbsp;



However, during this time of crisis, a hopeful discovery was made by SECORE’s Restoration Coordinator in Mexico, Sandra Mendoza Quiroz.&nbsp;



While conducting a routine dive to monitor their outplanted corals, she found that the young corals they had bred were healthy, standing out among the bleached and dying reefs.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assisted-reproduction-and-coral-survival">Assisted reproduction and coral survival</h2>



Similar findings were reported by SECORE’s team in Curaçao, where another species of bred coral had withstood the heat.



“We were excited to observe this pattern showing another benefit of using assisted coral recruits in restoration,” said Margaret Miller, research director of <a href="https://www.secore.org/site/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SECORE</a>.



The team in Curaçao and Mexico, working with Coralium Lab at the <a href="https://www.unam.mx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>, collected data on the health of various species and groups of outplanted corals. 



The experts reached out to partners across their Caribbean Restoration Network, including the Dominican Foundation for Marine Studies, the <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Conservancy in the Caribbean</a>, and Reef Renewal Foundation Bonaire. 



Together, the researchers confirmed that young corals bred for restoration were significantly more resistant to bleaching compared to their wild counterparts across six coral species at 15 reef sites in five different Caribbean nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-seeding-builds-resilience-nbsp">Coral seeding builds resilience&nbsp;</h2>



This study marks the first scientific evidence that corals restored using natural reproduction methods demonstrate greater resistance to extreme sea temperatures than wild or fragmented corals.



Miller, who has been breeding corals in the Caribbean for over 30 years, expressed optimism about the findings.&nbsp;



“These results provide a lot of encouragement and confirmation that restoration using assisted coral recruits can play an important role in orchestrating coral persistence into our warmer future,” said Miller.&nbsp;



“Nonetheless, truly securing the future of coral reefs is absolutely dependent on humankind’s success in controlling global warming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-producing-millions-of-coral-embryos-nbsp">Producing millions of coral embryos&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-sounds-the-melodic-key-to-coral-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral restoration</a> methods have evolved significantly in the past decade. Traditionally, corals were propagated by breaking fragments off source colonies and growing them in nurseries before manually transplanting them onto the reef. 



Today, SECORE’s coral seeding approach, which breeds corals specifically for restoration, is widely implemented throughout the Caribbean.&nbsp;



This method involves collecting coral spawn from wild corals, fertilizing the eggs and sperm in a controlled environment (either on a boat or beach), and producing millions of coral embryos.&nbsp;



The coral larvae are grown in ocean enclosures and settled on special substrates before being outplanted onto the reef.



Each generation of corals that reproduces naturally receives a new combination of genes, enhancing their ability to adapt.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-the-new-breeding-efforts">Importance of the new breeding efforts</h2>



The study revealed that the young corals produced through breeding showed greater resistance to bleaching than adult coral colonies and fragments.&nbsp;



However, due to the recruitment failure of many reef-building species in the Caribbean, natural offspring are rare, which further underscores the importance of SECORE’s breeding efforts.



Dirk Petersen, the founder of&nbsp; SECORE, is thrilled with the study’s positive results.&nbsp;



“Our coral seeding approach is an important contribution to help coral reefs deal with climate change,” said Petersen. “Our investment over the past five years to build a large network for coral restoration in the Caribbean has paid off.”&nbsp;



“This network not only produces and outplants tens of thousands of corals every year but could also immediately assess how these corals responded to this unprecedented heatwave. Our priority is now to further scale efforts to the ecosystem level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-chance-for-coral-reefs-to-survive">A chance for coral reefs to survive</h2>



Coral restoration, however, is not a solo endeavor. It requires collaboration across various disciplines, from science and engineering to on-the-ground implementation.&nbsp;



The process involves logistics, effectiveness, and thorough training, and must be grounded in strong management strategies that engage local communities.&nbsp;



While coral restoration is crucial, it alone cannot solve the broader challenges posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Still, it provides vital time to help coral populations survive in the face of environmental pressures.



“Our Caribbean Training and Capacity Building Program has turned out to be a successful model, which we urgently need to take to other regions across the world,” Petersen said.&nbsp;



In his view, as extreme weather events continue to increase in frequency and severity, regions beyond the Caribbean will also be affected.&nbsp;



“Restoration measures are best implemented at an early stage to strengthen the reefs. Once degradation has reached a critical level, restoration becomes much more challenging,” said Petersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-coral-restoration-efforts">Expanding coral restoration efforts</h2>



SECORE is now expanding its efforts globally. In 2023, the organization hosted its first training session for participants from U.S. jurisdictions in the Western Pacific and plans to establish a team in Mauritius by the end of the year.&nbsp;



This new base will serve as a hub for restoration training in the Indian Ocean. “Restoration truly is a cooperative effort - let’s all work together to give these valuable ecosystems a future!” Peterson concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309719" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



-----



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‘Coral seeding’ increases resistance to extreme heatwaves

SECORE International has developed a coral seeding method that utilizes assisted reproduction - breeding corals to help restore reefs. This approach has been implemented across the Caribbean through a network of training and partners.&nbsp; A recent study confirms that the coral seeding method is making a significant impact: during the severe 2023 heatwave in the Caribbean, young corals that were bred through SECORE's efforts remained healthy, while many wild corals bleached and died. Coral seeding in the Caribbean&nbsp; The summer of 2023 brought devastation to many coral...

The star-nosed mole is one of the more bizarre-looking creatures to inhabit this planet, and after decades of research on this species, scientists have uncovered many unique traits to go along with its unique face.

For example, star-nosed moles eat faster than any other mammal on the planet. They can identify and eat food – which mainly consists of bugs – in less than two-tenths of a second. They only take 8 milliseconds to decide whether an object is edible or not, essentially making them a furry bug vacuum.

What allows them to make these identifications so rapidly is the extremely efficient operation of their nervous system. Researchers have found that the star-nosed mole’s neurons fire information from the environment to the animal’s brain at speeds approaching the physiological limit in organisms.

The star on their nose is ground zero for this fantastic nervous system. It happens to be the most sensitive touch organ known in any mammal, containing more than 100,000 nerve fibers – which is five times the number of “touch” fibers in the human hand. “The star skin is so sensitive that we have not been able to determine the lowest threshold for activating neurons,” says Kenneth Catania of <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a>.

In fact, from a neurological perspective, their sense of touch is strikingly similar to our sense of sight. The center of the star organ contains a small area called the touch fovea, which the mole relies upon for extremely detailed exploration. The touch fovea is neurologically organized in a way that almost mirrors how our visual system is organized. “These parallels suggest there are common strategies by which evolution ‘builds’ high-resolution sensory systems, whether they are based on sight or on touch,” explains Catania.

These crazy creatures are also the only known mammals that are able to smell underwater. They often dive and swim for their food, blowing bubbles into the water and re-inhaling them through their nose in order to smell for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-hear-preys-heartbeat-important/">prey</a>. 

All of these unique facts are what set star-nosed moles apart from almost any other mammal on Earth. Further research into their unique nervous system may also help increase our understanding of how our own nervous and visual systems work. While this species may not win any beauty pageants, it seems to be more than happy just eating bugs at supersonic speed.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://experimentalbiology.org/2017/Home.aspx">Experimental Biology 2017</a>

Photo Credit: Ken Catania

Star-nosed moles might be the most interesting mammals on Earth

The star-nosed mole is one of the more bizarre-looking creatures...

Africa’s protected areas are missing 730,000 elephants which are believed to have been slaughtered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rhinoceros-poaching-paris/">poachers</a>, according to a study by <a href="http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/index.php">Conservation Ecology Research Unit at the University of Pretoria </a>

Study author Ashley Robson called the research a “wake-up call” on the need to do more to protect elephants. 

“Around 70 percent of the current distributional range of African elephants fall beyond protected areas,” Robson said. “That elephants aren't doing well, even where protected, means we need to take action.”

The study, published in <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0175942">Plos One</a> , monitored vegetation and water sources used by elephant populations and poaching statistics to compile its estimate. It used data to estimate what the elephant population should be in 73 protected areas in 21 African countries under natural conditions without poaching.

“In the past, we've had relatively good estimates of how many elephants there are and how many are poached,” Robson said. “ But now, we've determined how many elephants there should be in the first place.”

The findings are “alarming” the study said.

“While the magnitude of the loss due to poaching is devastating, 730 000 elephants are missing across the 73 protected areas assessed,” Robson said.“I don't see our work as more doom and gloom. While the conservation targets are a positive step, our study is a wake-up call.”

The study provides ecologically meaningful goals for elephant conservationists to work toward, the researcher said.

"It's a positive step for elephants,” he said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0175942">Plos One</a>

730,000 elephants missing, believed to have been poached

Africa’s protected areas are missing 730,000 elephants which are believed...

Antarctica and the Southern Ocean are in no in better shape ecological shape than the rest of the world, according to a new international study that debunks a popular view.

In the study, published in <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>, 23 researchers compared Antarctic biodiversity and its management with that of the rest of the world.

Although the region is doing relatively well in some areas, such as invasive species management, it is lagging behind in others, such as protected area management and the regulation of bioprospecting, and other threats are looming, the study found.

“Biodiversity in the Antarctic region has often fallen between the cracks - no pun intended, given the cracks in ice cover that are developing," said study co-author Peter Stoett, professor of political science at <a href="http://www.concordia.ca/">Concordia University</a>.

He called the findings “fairly grim.”

Increased tourism and overfishing remain issues but the larger threats are warmer oceans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/camp-century-buried-waste/">melting ice</a> cover and transnational pollution according to the study.

Stoett and his co-authors met in Monaco and focused on 20 biodiversity targets - known as the Aichi Targets - set by the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> to help assess progress in halting global biodiversity loss. This is the first  time the Aichi targets have been applied to Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.

"Overall, the biodiversity and conservation management outlook for Antarctica and the Southern Ocean is no different than that of the rest of the planet," says professor Steven Chown, the study's lead author and head of the School of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, in Melbourne, Australia.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>

Antarctica has a big biodiversity problem

Antarctica and the Southern Ocean are in no in better...

The tarantula species Lycosa uses its eyes like an odometer to measure distance, according to a new study on spiders by researchers at <a href="http://www.uam.es">Autonomous University of Madrid</a>.

The tarantula lives in burrows topped by turrets built with twigs, leaves and small stones, fastened with the spider's silk. From the turret, the tarantulas surprise their prey and run to pursue it, then return to the burrow from distances between 30 and 40 cm. 

A 1999 study by the university found that the spiders use polarized light from the sky to know their position with respect to their nest. he new research, published in the <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, examines the role the spider’s eight eyes play in its navigation system.

"To calculate the distance it has travelled, the animal needs an odometer that registers the route, its location with respect to the finish point, which would be the burrow, and a 'compass' to track the direction of travel," said lead author Joaquin Ortega Escobar.

The compass is the polarized light, the scientists said. In the new research, they wanted to learn more about the role the spider’s eight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-windows-soul/">eyes</a> play in the navigation system.

The results show the spider principally uses the anterior lateral eyes, which until now had never been analyzed, and to a lesser extent the posterior lateral eyes, to measure the distance back to their nest after they have captured their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-pose-risk-birds-prey/">prey</a>.

In the research, when the scientists covered these eyes with a water-soluble paint, the spiders had trouble navigating. Instead of traveling 30 cm back from the nest, they stopped at 8.5 centimeters.

"When we uncovered them, they could return to their nests perfectly,” Escobar said. “ They need the lateral anterior eyes to measure the distance." 

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.uab.cat/web/research/research-article-impact/spanish-foundation-for-science-and-technology-fecyt-1322553783193.html">Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology</a>

Photo Credit: Joaquin Ortega Escobar

How spiders use their eyes as an odometer to measure distance

The tarantula species Lycosa uses its eyes like an odometer...

Early mammals were nocturnal, equipped with night vision that allowed them to survive reptilian predators who hunted by day, a new <a href="http://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> study says.

The study published Friday in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, uses genetic data to explain how the distant relatives of humans may have adapted to the dark, the university said.

The research team, led by Liz Hadly, professor of biology and senior author on the paper, looked at genes involved in night vision in animals throughout the evolutionary tree and where those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-relatives-genetic-code/">genes</a> became enhanced.

"This method is like using the genome as a fossil record, and with it we've shown when genes involved in night vision appear," Hadly said. "It's a very powerful way of corroborating a story that has been, up to now, only hypothesized."

Fossil evidence suggests the earliest mammal-like animals which appeared about 200 million years ago had excellent hearing and sense of smell and were likely also warm-blooded. Experts believe early mammals were also nocturnal and the new study offers direct, genetic evidence for that hypothesis, Stanford said.

“Early mammals coexisted with early reptiles in the Age of the Dinosaurs and somehow escaped extinction," said lead author, visiting scholar Yonghua Wu. "This research further supports the hypothesis that diurnal reptiles, such as lizards, snakes and their relatives, competed with mammals and may have led them to better adapt to dim light conditions."

In the millions of years that have passed since, some mammals, including cheetahs, pikas, camels, elephants, and humans are no longer nocturnal.

"Understanding the constant pressure to get better at seeing the world at night for over 100 million years is a beautiful way of thinking about evolution," Hadly said. "We think of it as something simple - seeing in the light or the dark - but these genes are being constantly refined and altered by natural selection."

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>

Human ancestors were nocturnal, study confirms

Early mammals were nocturnal, equipped with night vision that allowed...

Five major wildlife protection groups Wednesday asked the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> to put giraffes under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/sciencefair/2017/04/19/wildlife-groups-petition-add-giraffes-endangered-species-list/100659562/">USA Today</a> reported.

Listing the giraffe as endangered would ban most imports of giraffe parts into the U.S. and limit exports, the story said. It would also help regulate the domestic trade in giraffe trophies and parts; and help reduce trophy hunting of giraffes, the story said.

“Giraffes have been dying off silently for decades, and we have to act quickly before they disappear forever,” Tanya Sanerib, a senior attorney at the<a href="http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/"> Center for Biological Diversity</a>, one of the groups that prepared the petition, told the newspaper. There are now fewer giraffes than elephants in Africa, Sanerib said

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-reduces-populations/">Hunting</a>, habitat loss and other factors have caused giraffe populations to drop by 40 percent over the past 30 years, the story said. There are now only 97,000 giraffes living in the wild down from between 151,000 and 163,000 in 1985, according to the newspaper.

Other groups filing the petition include <a href="http://www.hsi.org/">Humane Society International</a>,<a href="http://www.humanesociety.org/"> the Humane Society of the United States</a>, and the<a href="http://www.ifaw.org/united-states/get-involved/tell-us-government-to-protect-giraffes?ms=UONDG170407020&amp;cid=7012A000000rnE7"> International Fund for Animal Welfare</a>.

“I can’t – and won’t – imagine Africa’s landscape without giraffes,” Elly Pepper, deputy director of the Natural Resource Defense Council’s wildlife trade initiative, told USA today. "Giving giraffes Endangered Species Act protections would be a giant step in the fight to save them from extinction.”

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has 90 days to respond to the petition, the story said.

--

By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:  <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/sciencefair/2017/04/19/wildlife-groups-petition-add-giraffes-endangered-species-list/100659562/">USA Today</a>

Wildlife groups seek endangered status for giraffes

Five major wildlife protection groups Wednesday asked the U.S. Fish...

Without oxygen, humans and all other mammals wind up dead within minutes – all other mammals… except for naked mole-rats.

This strange, cold-blooded mammal lives decades longer than any other rodent, rarely gets cancer, and is impervious to many forms of pain. It’s like the James Bond of hairless, buck-toothed mammals.

To add to their unique anatomy and physiology, a new study has found that when deprived of oxygen, naked mole-rats can survive for hours by metabolizing fructose – just like a plant.

When humans become oxygen starved, our brain cells run out of energy and begin to die. But the cells in the brain of a naked mole-rat begin to burn fructose. Burning fructose produces energy anaerobically (without oxygen) through a metabolic pathway what was previously thought to be used exclusively by plants.

Thomas Park, a professor of biological sciences at the <a href="http://www.uic.edu/">University of Illinois at Chicago</a>, led an international team of researchers in a new study of these fantastic little beasts. 

The researchers exposed naked mole-rats to low oxygen conditions and discovered that they release large amounts of fructose into their bloodstream. Fructose was found to be transported into brain cells by molecular fructose pumps found only in the intestinal cells in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/chewing-early-mammals-survive/">mammals</a>. 

“The naked mole-rat has simply rearranged some basic building-blocks of metabolism to make it super-tolerant to low oxygen conditions,” says Park, who has studied these creatures for the last 18 years.

The study found that naked mole-rats can survive for up to five hours at oxygen levels low enough to kill a human within minutes. They do this by going into a state of suspended animation, dramatically slowing their heartbeat and breathing rate to conserve energy. This discovery makes the naked mole-rate the only known mammal to use suspended animation in order to survive oxygen deprivation.

Further research also found that this species is able to avoid another deadly factor in low oxygen environments: the pulmonary edema – a buildup of fluid in the lungs that is a common cause of death in high altitude mountain climbers. 

Looking back on these findings, the researchers believe that the naked mole-rat’s unique metabolism may be an adaptation for living in their low-oxygen burrows. These little creatures live underground in crowded conditions along with hundreds of members of their colony. Not surprisingly, this leads to a rather quick depletion in oxygen – making the naked mole-rat’s bizarre adaptions understandable yet fascinating. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.uic.edu/">University of Illinois at Chicago</a>

How naked mole-rats can turn into plants when low on food

Without oxygen, humans and all other mammals wind up dead...

The brown marmorated stink bug arrived in the United States around 20 years ago with the first specimen collected in Allentown, Pennsylvania. This invasive insect attacks fruits, vegetables, and crops. The non-native bugs are pests indoors as well, searching for homes to occupy in the fall and winter. Once they gain access to a home, stink bugs are proving to be a challenge to remove. New research shows the bugs are dodging traps in large numbers during late fall and winter.

Entomologists conducted a study to test the effectiveness of trapping stink bugs using one of the leading techniques. The traps were baited with aggregation pheromones, which are those that attract other members of a species to a particular location.

The lead author on the study is Rob Morrison, PhD., a research entomologist for the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">United States Department Of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service</a> (USDA-ARS). Morrison teamed up with fellow entomologists at the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">USDA-ARS </a>Appalachian Fruit Research Station, <a href="https://www.vt.edu/">Virginia Tech University</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University">North Carolina State University</a>. The team tested stink bug traps in infested homes in 2014 and 2016. Traps were set up in buildings that were both heated and unheated. 

“Just eight to 20% of the stink bugs we saw crawling around hallways were captured,” says Morrison.

The study, set to be published next week in the Journal of Economic Entomology, reveals that the brown marmorated stink bug, or Halyomorpha halys, are not attracted to the aggregation pheromone during late fall and early winter. The bugs are largely unresponsive to the aggregation <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/pheromones-human-exist/">pheromones</a> until the days become significantly longer in late April to early May. In addition to capturing only a small percentage of the stink bugs, the traps failed to give a consistent indication of the amount of stink bugs present in each location. This means the traps are not accurate enough for monitoring purposes.

The findings of the study show the best approach to stink bugs is prevention.

"To prevent brown marmorated stink bugs from gaining access to your house, seal all holes and cracks, including where the roof meets the structure, and where the house meets the foundation," Morrison says.

The results of the study raise concerns about just how serious the spread of stink bugs may become. Morrison and his colleagues will continue to work toward containment of the insects.

"The brown marmorated stink bug may rely on a yet-to-be-identified chemical stimulus or other communication method during the fall when they disperse to overwintering sites and when they emerge during the spring," explains Morrison. "Both are areas of active research."

--

By Chrissy Sexton, Earth.com Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">United States Department Of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service</a>

Stink bugs found to cause extra trouble during the winter

The brown marmorated stink bug arrived in the United States...

While we humans may have liquor stores and bars to supply us with seemingly endless amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/alcohol-body-drunk/">alcohol</a>, we’re not the only organisms that can get drunk and act out. When under the effects of alcohol, inebriated crayfish will tail-flip until they become over-intoxicated and eventually roll on their backs – as researchers from the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> found out recently.

Professor Jens Herberholz and students Matthew Swierzbinski and Andrew Lazarchik at the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> have published a study showing that isolated crayfish are less sensitive to the effects of alcohol than socialized crayfish. Herberholz previously studied the cellular mechanisms that underlie decision-making and aggression in crayfish, so he was interested to see how previous social experience in these crustaceans might change how alcohol affects them.

“How past social experience might shape the neurobehavioral effects of acute alcohol exposure is significantly understudied,” says Herberholz. This may be due to the fact that alcohol is a complicated drug, as it affects a wide range of cellular systems. This means that the factors that contribute to alcohol sensitivity have gone largely undiscovered.

The research team began their experiment by intoxicating individual crayfish that were previously housed together. Rather than allowing them to sip from glasses of full-bodied merlot, the crayfish were placed in tanks of dilute alcohol from a range of concentrations. The individuals were then filmed as they became more and more intoxicated – going from walking aggressively on stiff legs to tail-flipping to finally rolling on their backs.

As was expected, the effects occurred much more quickly in the tanks with the highest alcohol concentrations, which caused the crayfish to begin tail-flipping just 20 minutes into the exposure. The crustaceans that were in the most dilute alcohol took around 2 hours to express this behavior.

When the team performed the same tests on crayfish that had been held in isolation for a week prior to their night out on the town, the animals were significantly less sensitive to the effects of alcohol. In this case, they took about 28 minutes on average to being tail-flipping. 

This tail-flipping behavior in crayfish is controlled by the lateral giant interneuron. By inserting fine silver wires near the sensory nerves that excite this interneuron, Lazarchik discovered that the neural circuit became more sensitive in both isolated and socialized crayfish when they were inebriated. However, the effects of alcohol on the lateral giant interneuron became apparent more quickly in the sociable crayfish – perfectly matching their more expedited tail-flipping behavior.

Herberholz believes that alcohol may have more of an impact on the GABA neurotransmitter – which inhibits behavior – in the socialized crayfish compared to the isolated ones. He also suspects that isolation could cause humans to become less sensitive to the effects of drinking, and may cause individuals to consume more.

“Our study shows that social experience can change the sensitivity to acute alcohol,” says Herberholz, going on to add that similar responses may be observable through socialization studies of humans – although they are a long way from proving this theory. The researchers hope that in the future, this research could lead to better treatments and preventative measures to help humans suffering from alcohol abuse.

More information on this study can be found in the Journal of Experimental Biology.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.biologists.com/">The Company of Biologists</a>

What crayfish can teach us about the effects of alcohol

While we humans may have liquor stores and bars to...

The archer fish – famous for its ability to shoot aqua darts at its land-based insect prey, knocking it into the water – also has another impressive hunting tactic: it can launch itself from a near standstill out of the water to a height over two times its body length.

Scientists have done plenty of work documenting the archer fish’s arrow-like spit-shooting, which is usually aimed at insects on overhanging leaves and causes them to fall into the water. But not much work has been done studying the way these fish will often catch their falling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-hear-preys-heartbeat-important/">prey</a>.

When an insect topples into the water, it’s fair game for any predatory fish in the vicinity. To keep other competitors hungry, archer fish will sometimes leap out of the water, catching their prey in midair and eliminating all competition.

Engineers at <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have researched the hydrodynamics of this fish’s jumping behavior, publishing their results in the <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. What piqued their interest was the ability of the archer fish to seemingly go from 0 to 60 almost instantaneously.

“Unlike, say, a shark that comes barreling up from the bottom to catch its prey, an archer fish’s initial momentum is zero,” explains Alexandra Techet, an associate professor of mechanical engineering at <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">MIT</a>. “All that force has to be created close to the surface, at a near standstill. That’s what makes this fish really interesting to study and completely different than your traditional leaping and jumping problem.”

In order to study this behavior, the research team housed 10 archer fish in a 55-gallon tank filled with brackish water – mimicking their typical habitat in the mangrove swamps and brackish river waters of Southeast Asia. Like training fun-sized dolphins, they taught the fish to jump by hanging freeze-dried shrimp above the surface of the water and temporarily removing the food if the fish tried to spit it down. 

After a month of training, five of the ten fish were trained to consistently jump for their food. The remaining five were apparently slow-learners, or just really content with trying to shoot their food out of the air – the gunslingers of the archer fish community.

The team then began using a high-speed camera to record the jumping behavior of these fish. Going frame-by-frame, they were able to analyze the jumping movements of the fish through the direction and velocity of particles they placed within the water that glowed under infrared light. This analysis allowed them to identify three main phases in archer fish jumping behavior: hovering, thrust production, and gliding.

The first phase is the fish hovering just below the water’s surface, with its snout positioned at the surface so it can see any overhanging prey.

In the second phase, the fish begins to produce upward thrust by raising its pectoral and pelvic fins while moving its tail back and forth until it gains enough momentum to launch.

For the final phase, the archer fish glides through the air and up to the bait, no longer producing any thrust and simply navigating the air by changes in its posture.

The team also found that the number of tail movements each fish produced directly related to the height of the bait. So the higher the bait, the more times the fish would beat its tail. Co-author Leah Mendelson, a graduate student at <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">MIT</a>, expressed her surprise at the fish’s ability to generate so much power in such a limited space: “How do you accelerate when the most critical thing that’s in scarce supply is the space you have to do it in? There’s no running start. And to me that’s one of the biggest takeaways.”

With this frame-by-frame breakdown, the researchers found that the maximum velocities reached by each fish ranged from 0.6 to 1.7 meters per second squared. They also determined that archer fish are able to launch themselves out of the water at heights as great as 2.5 times their body length.

“The speed they leave the water with is on the order of Olympic swimmer speeds,” says Mendelson. “The record for the 100-meter freestyle is a little under 50 seconds, so, 2 meters per second. So these fish are almost as fast as an Olympic swimmer, but actually going up rather than horizontal.”

The next step for these engineers is to study the archer fish’s jumping behavior from a three-dimensional perspective. This will help determine what other fins play a role in propelling the fish out of water. 

Techet believes that further research could lead to analysis that helps guide the design of surfacing underwater vehicles – after all, nature has had millennia to perfect this species’ design.

“Am I going to make a flapping robot that jumps out of the water?” asks Techet. “Probably not. But the concepts here are ubiquitous between fish, propulsors, and foils in general.” Flying fish robots aside, studies such as this will only help to further our understanding of biology and engineering, and could possibly lead to some interesting mechanical designs in the future.

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://web.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>

The archer fish may be paving the way for underwater vehicles

The archer fish – famous for its ability to shoot...

It may seem that dolphins (even late bloomer dolphins) and other oceanic diving species go straight from being born to exploring the depths of the ocean with relative ease – after all, how else would they avoid predators and catch those small, elusive fish? But just because they’re born in water doesn’t mean their built-in SCUBA system is fully developed from birth.

The muscles of fully developed diving species – such as dolphins, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/russias-bay-whales/">whales</a>, birds, and seals – contain more myoglobin than the muscles of land-based animals. Myoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the bloodstream, which is obviously an extremely important physiological function for animals that go without surfacing for minutes or hours at a time. Their muscles are also better equipped at neutralizing the lactic acid produced when these diving species switch to anaerobic respiration after they run out of oxygen toward the end of a long dive.

These anatomical and physiological differences make sense between land and marine animals. But researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a> wanted to know if these differences extended to comparisons between deep-diving species and species that remain in shallow coastal waters. Might a deep-diving species such as the spinner dolphin have larger reserves of myoglobin compared to a more coastal species such as the bottlenose dolphin?

Researcher Shawn Noren and her team set out to measure the oxygen storage capacity and muscle biochemistry of spinner dolphin swim muscles in order to test their theories.

They discovered that the spinner dolphin swim muscles did not mature any quicker than the muscles of coastal species. The data showed that spinner dolphins’ ability to carry oxygen through myoglobin increased as the animals aged. The ability of the muscle to neutralize lactic acid also increased, however, it plateaued at an age of about 1.6-2 years. This is the age at which young dolphins are typically weaned, and matches with the age at which other coastal species’ diving physiology reaches maturity.

Ultimately, Noren and her colleagues determined that ocean-going spinner dolphin calves do not develop the ability to sustain deep dives any faster than the shallow-diving coastal species. However, the youngest spinner dolphins already had higher concentrations of muscle myoglobin than coastal bottlenose dolphins at the same ages.  

The researchers also surmised that this slow development could put young dolphin calves at risk of being separated from their mothers during pursuits by commercial tuna fishing fleets. “The relatively underdeveloped muscle biochemistry of calves likely contributes to documented mother-calf separations for spinner dolphins chased by the tuna purse-seine fishery,” explains Noren.

It’s possible that this could negatively affect dolphin populations if tuna fishing continues at its current rate. Luckily, continued research should be able to shed more light on how these deep-diving species develop and may one day provide a solution for declining populations.

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.biologists.com/">The Company of Biologists</a>

Late bloomer dolphins are especially at risk in tuna fisheries

It may seem that dolphins (even late bloomer dolphins) and...

Hundreds of millions of years ago, the oceans were filled with sea scorpions that killed their prey with sidelong strikes of their long serrated tails, according to a study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a>.

The findings followed discovery of a fossil of a new species of the eurypterid, Slimonia acuminata, near Lesmahagow, Scotland, the university said.

"Our study suggests that sea scorpions used their tails, weaponized by their serrated spiny tips, to dispatch their prey," said Scott Persons, paleontologist and lead author of the study, published in <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/an/current#">The American Naturalist</a>  

The scorpions, were related to modern scorpions and horsehoe crabs, and had thin, flexible bodies and pinching claws that could grow up to three meters in length. Although the scorpions were inflexible vertically, they were very adept at moving horizontally.

"This means that these sea scorpions could slash their tails from side to side, meeting little hydraulic resistance and without propelling themselves away from an intended target," Persons said. "Perhaps clutching their prey with their sharp front limbs eurypterids could kill pretty using a horizontal slashing motion."

The research breaks new ground in the study of eurypterids. “Such a high degree of apparent lateral tail flexibility has not been previously recognized in eurypterids,” the new study said. 

Ancient early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-species-similarities-humans/">vertebrates</a> were likely the scorpion’s food source, the researchers said.

The side-winding tail was “an effective means of predatory attack and self-defense,” the study said.

[caption id="attachment_307228" align="aligncenter" width="720"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/138455_web.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-307228" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/138455_web.jpg" alt="" width="720" height="473" /></a> Image Credit: Nathan Rogers[/caption]

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By: <a href="mailto:dbeasley@earth.com">David Beasley </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a>

&nbsp;

Were sea scorpions the original sea monster?

Hundreds of millions of years ago, the oceans were filled...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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