While a mosquito bite may often be just a temporary nuisance, it can be a serious concern in many parts of the world. Some mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti, are responsible for spreading viruses that cause over 100 million cases of diseases like dengue, yellow fever, and Zika each year.&nbsp;



Another species, Anopheles gambiae, spreads the parasite that causes malaria, leading to more than 400,000 deaths annually, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>. These figures have earned mosquitoes the title of the deadliest animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mosquitoes-locate-their-hosts">How mosquitoes locate their hosts</h2>



Male mosquitoes are harmless, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">female mosquitoes require blood</a> for egg development. Given this, scientists have dedicated over a century to understanding how mosquitoes locate their hosts.



Through this research, experts have discovered that mosquitoes don’t rely on a single cue; instead, they use a combination of different senses at various distances to find their targets.



A team led by researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara (<a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSB</a>) has now added a new sense to the mosquito’s known capabilities: infrared detection. 



They found that infrared radiation from a source at roughly the temperature of human skin doubles the mosquitoes’ host-seeking behavior when combined with CO2 and human odor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-preference-for-the-infrared-source">Strong preference for the infrared source</h2>



The mosquitoes showed a strong preference for the infrared source during their host-seeking activities. The researchers also identified where this infrared detection occurs and uncovered how it functions at the morphological and biochemical levels.&nbsp;



“The mosquito we study, Aedes aegypti, is exceptionally skilled at finding human hosts,” said Nicolas DeBeaubien, co-lead author of the study and a former graduate student and postdoctoral researcher at UCSB in Professor Craig Montell’s laboratory. “This work sheds new light on how they achieve this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-new-hosts-from-a-distance-nbsp">Detecting new hosts from a distance&nbsp;</h2>



It is well known that mosquitoes like Aedes aegypti use multiple cues to home in on their hosts from a distance. 



“These include CO2 from our exhaled breath, odors, vision, (convection) heat from our skin, and humidity from our bodies,” explained Avinash Chandel, co-lead author and current postdoc at UCSB in Montell’s group. “However, each of these cues have limitations.”&nbsp;



The insects have poor vision, and strong winds or rapid movements can disrupt their ability to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-are-attracted-to-specific-scents-and-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical signals</a>.



Given these limitations, the researchers wondered if mosquitoes could detect a more reliable directional cue, like infrared radiation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/mosquitoes_thermal-infrared_track-humans_UCSB_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/mosquitoes_thermal-infrared_track-humans_UCSB_1s.webp" alt="Loose fitting clothing lets through less IR, as demonstrated in this image. Photo Credit DeBeaubien and Chandel et al." class="wp-image-1942526"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Loose fitting clothing lets through less IR, as demonstrated in this image. Photo Credit DeBeaubien and Chandel et al.</figcaption></figure>



Within about 10 centimeters, mosquitoes can detect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bad-news-mosquitoes-prefer-heat-and-thrive-in-the-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> radiating from our skin. They can also sense the temperature of our skin once they land on it. 



These abilities correspond to two of the three types of heat transfer: convection (heat carried away by air) and conduction (heat through direct contact).&nbsp;



However, heat energy can also travel longer distances when converted into electromagnetic waves, typically in the infrared (IR) spectrum. 



Animals like pit vipers can detect thermal IR from warm prey, so the team wondered if mosquitoes, like Aedes aegypti, could do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers placed female mosquitoes in a controlled environment and measured their host-seeking behavior in two zones.&nbsp;



Both zones were exposed to human odors and CO2 at concentrations similar to what we exhale. However, only one zone was also exposed to IR from a source at skin temperature.&nbsp;



A barrier was used to prevent heat exchange through conduction and convection. The researchers then counted how many mosquitoes began probing as if searching for a vein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infrared-radiation-and-mosquito-behavior-nbsp">Infrared radiation and mosquito behavior&nbsp;</h2>



Adding thermal infrared radiation from a 34º Celsius source (about skin temperature) doubled the mosquitoes' host-seeking activity, identifying infrared radiation as a newly documented sense mosquitoes use to locate humans. The team discovered that this sense remains effective up to about 70 centimeters (2.5 feet).



“What struck me most about this work was just how strong of a cue IR ended up being,” DeBeaubien said. “Once we got all the parameters just right, the results were undeniably clear.”



Previous studies didn’t observe any effect of thermal infrared on mosquito behavior, but senior author Craig Montell suspects this is due to differences in methodology.&nbsp;



“Any single cue alone doesn’t stimulate host-seeking activity. It’s only in the context of other cues, such as elevated CO2 and human odor, that IR makes a difference,” Montell said. Indeed, his team found that infrared alone has no impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-mosquitoes-detect-infrared-radiation">How do mosquitoes detect infrared radiation?</h2>



It’s impossible for mosquitoes to detect thermal infrared radiation the same way they detect visible light because the energy of IR is far too low to activate the rhodopsin proteins that detect visible light in animal eyes.&nbsp;



Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than about 700 nanometers won’t activate rhodopsin, and the IR generated from body heat is around 9,300 nm. 



No known protein is activated by radiation with such long wavelengths, Montell said. However, there is another way to detect infrared radiation.



Consider heat emitted by the sun: it’s converted into IR, which streams through space and, when reaching Earth, warms the planet by interacting with atoms in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



“You have heat converted into electromagnetic waves, which is being converted back into heat,” Montell explained, noting that the IR coming from the sun has a different wavelength from the IR generated by our body heat, as the wavelength depends on the temperature of the source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-body-heat-and-mosquito-neurons-nbsp">Human body heat and mosquito neurons&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers hypothesized that our body heat, which generates IR, might hit certain neurons in the mosquito, activating them by heating them up. This would enable mosquitoes to detect the radiation indirectly.



Scientists have known that the tips of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-secrets-of-mosquitoes-may-help-us-gain-control-of-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito’s antennae</a> contain heat-sensing neurons. The team found that removing these tips eliminated the mosquitoes’ ability to detect infrared radiation.



Another lab had identified the temperature-sensitive protein TRPA1 at the end of the antenna. The UCSB team observed that mosquitoes without a functional TRPA1 gene, which codes for the protein, couldn’t detect infrared radiation.



The tip of each antenna has peg-in-pit structures well-suited for sensing radiation. The pit shields the peg from conductive and convective heat, allowing highly directional IR radiation to enter and warm up the structure. The mosquito then uses TRPA1 - a temperature sensor - to detect infrared radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-ir-detection-range">Mosquito IR detection range</h2>



The heat-activated TRPA1 channel alone might not fully explain the range over which mosquitoes can detect IR. A sensor that exclusively relied on this protein may not be useful at the 70 cm range the team observed. 



At this distance, there likely isn’t sufficient IR collected by the peg-in-pit structure to heat it enough to activate TRPA1.



Fortunately, Montell’s group had previously discovered in fruit flies that some rhodopsin proteins are quite sensitive to small increases in temperature.&nbsp;



Although rhodopsins were originally thought to be light detectors, Montell’s group found that certain rhodopsins can be triggered by a variety of stimuli. 



They discovered that proteins in this group are versatile, involved not only in vision but also in taste and temperature sensing.&nbsp;



Upon further investigation, the researchers discovered that two of the 10 rhodopsins found in mosquitoes are expressed in the same antennal neurons as TRPA1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-sensitivity-to-infrared-radiation-nbsp">Mosquito sensitivity to infrared radiation&nbsp;</h2>



Knocking out TRPA1 eliminated the mosquito’s sensitivity to infrared radiation. But mosquitoes with defects in either of the rhodopsins, Op1 or Op2, were unaffected.&nbsp;



Even knocking out both rhodopsins together didn’t entirely eliminate the mosquitoes’ sensitivity to IR, although it significantly weakened it.



The results indicated that more intense thermal IR - like what a mosquito would experience at closer range (about one foot) - directly activates TRPA1.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, Op1 and Op2 can be activated by lower levels of thermal IR and then indirectly trigger TRPA1. Since our skin temperature is constant, extending the sensitivity of TRPA1 effectively extends the range of the mosquito’s IR sensor to around 2.5 feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Half the world’s population is at risk for mosquito-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-slow-the-spread-of-dengue-fever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a>, and about a billion people are infected each year, Chandel said.&nbsp;



Moreover, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and global travel have expanded the range of Aedes aegypti beyond tropical and subtropical countries, bringing these mosquitoes to areas in the U.S., such as California, where they were not found just a few years ago.



The team’s discovery could help improve methods for controlling mosquito populations. For example, incorporating thermal IR from sources around skin temperature could make mosquito traps more effective.&nbsp;



The findings also help explain why loose-fitting clothing is particularly good at preventing bites. Loose clothing not only blocks mosquitoes from reaching our skin but also allows the IR to dissipate between our skin and the clothing, making it harder for mosquitoes to detect.



“Despite their diminutive size, mosquitoes are responsible for more human deaths than any other animal. Our research enhances the understanding of how mosquitoes target humans and offers new possibilities for controlling the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases,” DeBeaubien concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07848-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Mosquitoes use infrared vision to track and bite humans

While a mosquito bite may often be just a temporary nuisance, it can be a serious concern in many parts of the world. Some mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti, are responsible for spreading viruses that cause over 100 million cases of diseases like dengue, yellow fever, and Zika each year.&nbsp; Another species, Anopheles gambiae, spreads the parasite that causes malaria, leading to more than 400,000 deaths annually, according to the World Health Organization. These figures have earned mosquitoes the title of the deadliest animals. How mosquitoes locate...

Scientists have determined that humans likely descended from sponges that lived in early oceans 750 million years ago. According to the researchers, these creatures are the eldest ancestors of all animals.

This new discovery challenges the previous belief that comb jellies are the oldest members of the animal kingdom. Researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> used a new method to statistically test evolutionary models for accuracy. They found that the more precise evolutionary models indicated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/dragon-blood-sponges-crabs-save-life/">sponges</a> are at the root our lineal descent.

Professor Davide Pisani is the lead author of the study.

“Phylogenomics, the use of genomic data in phylogenetics, is a relatively new science,” explained Professor Pisani. “Evidence for comb jellies as the earliest branching animal lineage first emerged in 2008, a decade ago, in the first, large-scale, phylogenomic analysis of the animal phyla. We have now better analytical tools and data and this study seriously challenges the accepted status quo.”

Professor Pisani pointed out that sponges and comb jellies represent completely different evolutionary backgrounds of animal organ systems such as the digestive and nervous systems. “Therefore, knowing the correct branching order at the root of the animal tree is fundamental to understanding our own evolution, and the origin of key features of the animal anatomy,” he explained.

The prehistoric sponge was a filter feeder with no complex organs. While it is not clear what the first-ever animals looked like, Professor Pisani said it was most likely a lot simpler than modern sponges and possibly resembled a blob.

“I found it pretty exciting to find that something as simple as a sponge might have kick-started modern ecosystems,” said Professor Pisani.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/current-biology/">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The earliest known relative of humans is… a sponge?

Scientists have determined that humans likely descended from sponges that...

The Niassa National Reserve in Mozambique is the largest protected area in the country, spanning 16,300 square miles. The reserve is home to a large population of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/us-mexico-border-wall-threaten-100-endangered-species/">endangered wildlife</a> and people who can legally live there. 

Deforestation is a major cause for concern, especially in places like the Niassa Reserve where habitat loss has already become widespread. In Africa, deforestation rates are five times higher than the global average. 

A new study, published in the journal Parks, found that even though the Niassa reserve has undergone some deforestation, it could support lion and elephants with populations in the thousands because of its massive size. 

For the study, researchers examined land-use and tree cover and concluded that the reserve had lost 41 square miles of forest between 2001 and 2014. But put into perspective, this is a small amount (one percent) of the total forest in the reserve. 

The fact that the reserve, despite forest loss, could still support large populations of elephants and lions lends hope that conservation efforts are working, and protected areas are staying, for the most part, protected. 

“The fact that forest loss is much lower than in the surrounding region or in many other African protected areas is a very encouraging result,” said James Allan of the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland </a>in Australia, the study’s lead author.

The results are especially exciting because of the opportunity for large populations of animals to thrive in the remaining parts of the reserve. 

It’s widely known that poaching is a huge issue for elephants, rhinos and other threatened and endangered species in African countries. In Niassa, more than 8,000 animals were poached in the last six years. 

Poaching is not the only threat to wildlife in the reserve, but the researchers say that with the right management strategy and enough investment, the Niassa reserve could hold populations of larger wildlife in the tens of thousands. 

Very few places exist on Earth today that could support those kinds of population numbers, and this further emphasizes the importance of keeping the Niassa reserve intact and making forest conservation and biodiversity a priority. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A safe place for elephants in Africa

The Niassa National Reserve in Mozambique is the largest protected...

A new dinosaur covered in bony armor may have used its shoulder spikes not just for self-defense but to attract a mate, according to new research.

The rhino-sized Borealopelta markmitchelli fossil was discovered by miners in Alberta, Canada in March 2011, but was not unveiled as a new species until earlier this year, when excavation of the specimen was completed. 

The fossil is incredibly well-preserved, according to scientists. The fossilization included soft tissues like skin, which is rare.

A team from the <a href="http://www.tyrrellmuseum.com/">Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology</a>, which has the specimen on display, believe that the armor on the new dinosaur may have served a few different purposes, particularly the imposing, exaggerated spikes found on the specimen’s neck and shoulders.

“For most of these elaborate structures in living animals – tail feathers in birds, coloration in lizards, horns in mammals – the driving [evolutionary] force is generally sexual selection,” Dr. Caleb Brown, who is one of the researchers studying the fossil, told <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/11/nodosaur-borealopelta-armor-social-sexual-defense-science/">National Geographic</a>. “That doesn’t preclude its function in defense or species recognition.”

The <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/">National Geographic Society</a> is supporting the new research on the fossil.

B. markmitchelli, also called the nodosaur, wouldn’t be the only species to use bodily structures for both defense and to attract a mate. Many animals use antlers, horns, tusks or other structures for both fighting and flirting. 

“Dinosaurs, particularly Ornithischia, bear a startling array of ‘extreme’ and ‘exaggerated’ structures ... that have sparked interest both in the public and amongst paleontologists,” Brown wrote in his paper. “Many of these structures are superficially similar, and perhaps functionally analogous, to those of animals alive today; such as the horns and frill of ceratopsians and those of chameleons and bovids.”

Some of those functions are sexual in nature, he added

The new dinosaur was a plant-eater, and likely lived in what is now western Canada, which would have been warm and humid at the time. Flooding may have led to the species’ demise, scientists said. 

The specimen discovered in March 2011 was likely swept into a prehistoric sea – now Alberta’s oil sands – where it drowned, but was preserved until the present day. 

Brown’s new research on the armored dinosaur was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/4066/">PeerJ</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Machairo, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nodosaur.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>

New dinosaur had armor for protection – and attraction

A new dinosaur covered in bony armor may have used...

Puffin colonies are a popular wildlife attraction, perhaps due to their unique, colorful look. Places like Iceland and Maine, where the Atlantic puffin resides, even offer puffin watching tours. 

But despite their popularity, puffins now face population declines and many puffin species are now threatened. 

Now, a new study has found that puffins who travel further distances during the winter are at a disadvantage for breeding the following spring. 

The study was conducted by an international team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.zoo.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford’s Department of Zoology</a> who examined puffin migration across a wide range of puffin colonies. 

The study, published in the journal Current Biology, is the first of its kind to take such an expansive look at multiple seabird colonies in order to understand puffin migrations. 

According to the lead author of the study, Dr. Annette Fayet, previous research focused on individual colonies and all but ignored puffin colonies in Norway or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-iceland-sells-risky-seismic-activity-tourist-attraction/">Iceland</a>, which is why this study is so monumental. 

The researchers observed seasonal behaviors in multiple puffin colonies over a span of eight years.

The researchers collected data on 270 individual birds in total and were able to identify the motivations behind those behaviors. 

Some puffin colonies in the United States travel shorter distances during the winter, but other puffins, like the Irish puffin, migrate much further, traveling across the Atlantic Ocean. 

“Our large dataset also allowed us to tackle the big question of what drives avian migration - something we could not have achieved with a smaller sample,” said Dr. Fayet. 

The researchers found that larger colonies or habitats that have scarce resources in the winter are the major motivators for migrating further distances. 

Even though these further migrations may aid the puffins in surviving the winter, it takes a great toll on the bird’s energy. The puffins that travel further have a greater risk of unsuccessful breeding the following year. 

The results of this study could apply to many other migratory species, and understanding how migration affects the health and survival of a species could help with conservation efforts. 

“If we as conservationists want to help these species to survive we need to look at what we can do to support them during the winter season as well as the summer months,” said Dr. Fayet. “With this in mind, it may be a good idea to implement protected areas in seabird winter hotspots such as the area south of Iceland and Greenland.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Puffins who have to migrate farther often struggle with breeding

Puffin colonies are a popular wildlife attraction, perhaps due to...

Researchers have identified two pesticides that are making songbirds severely ill. Pesticides known as neonicotinoids and organophosphates, which are among the most widely used in the world, have been previously linked to declining bee populations.

Now, biologists have witnessed firsthand just how harmful the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-bumblebees-buzzing/">pesticides</a> are for birds as well. 

A study by researchers at the <a href="https://globalnews.ca/search/university-of-saskatchewan/">University of Saskatchewan</a> is unprecedented in demonstrating the toxic effects of neonicotinoids and organophosphates in birds. The research team fed sparrows varying doses of the pesticides over the course of three days during spring migration.

The experts found that the birds suffered from drastic weight loss and completely lost their sense of direction after ingesting only three or four seeds affected by an insecticide in the class of neonicotinoids known as imidacloprid.

“What surprised us was how sensitive and rapid the effects were, particularly to imidacloprid,” said study co-author Christy Morrissey. “The birds showed a significant loss of body mass and signs of acute poisoning (lethargy and loss of appetite).”

“The migration trials also showed that birds completely failed to orient or changed their northward orientation,” said Morrissey.

Study co-author Margaret Eng said that the team found it encouraging that most of the birds observed in the study recovered after they stopped ingesting the pesticides.

“But the effects we saw were severe enough that the birds would likely experience migratory delays or changes in their flight routes that could reduce their chance of survival, or cause a missed breeding opportunity,” said Eng.

According to Morrissey, the findings of this study could have a major impact on the regulation of these pesticides.

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pesticides found to be extremely toxic to birds

Researchers have identified two pesticides that are making songbirds severely...

A Canadian fishing crew caught a lobster off the coast of New Brunswick that is truly one-of-a-kind. The lobster has a Pepsi logo plastered across its claw like a tattoo. 

Karissa Lindstrand, the woman that noticed the interesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-lobster-numbers-decline-maine/">lobster</a> while it was being loaded in a crate to have its claws banded, drinks Pepsi every day and quickly identified the image. 

There is no telling how the image got there, and some are speculating that the lobster must have grown inside of a Pepsi can. But Lindstrand claims that the picture was pixelated, which means it likely did not originate from a can.

Lindstrand told the<a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/"> Globe and Mail</a>, “It looked like the image was tattooed on the lobster claw. I've just seen deformed claws. I've never seen anything like this before with the image of a Pepsi symbol.”

Lindstrand explained that the image was not paper but could be scraped off. 

“I'm still trying to wrap my brain around what exactly it was,” she said. “I just happened to notice a blue picture, and got looking at it closer and it was a Pepsi can.”

The discovery comes at a time when a growing collection of evidence suggests that the pollution in Earth’s oceans is expanding out of control. Researchers are now estimating that between five and 13 millions tons of plastic is being dumped into the ocean every year.

Matthew Abbott is a marine coordinator with the Conservation Council of New Brunswick. He suggested that the lobster claw delivers an important message.

 “What it really tells us is the prevalence of marine debris in our coastal waters,” said Abbott. “This is a case where the lobster not necessarily has been hurt by it, but it shows that even in the relatively deep waters off Grand Manan there’s garbage down there.”

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Karissa Lindstrand

Ocean pollution: Pepsi logo found plastered on lobster’s claw

A Canadian fishing crew caught a lobster off the coast...

There are nearly 70 species of sea snakes in the world that can be found everywhere from the South Pacific to New Zealand to Central America. 

Over time, sea snake species have become specially adapted to their aquatic surroundings. They have flat tails that help them maneuver through the water, they can hold their breath, and go for months without taking a drink. 

"Sea snakes have evolved to survive in a way that is completely different than turtles, crocodilians or freshwater snakes,” said Coleman Sheehy, the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> herpetology collection manager. “Nothing else does it like sea snakes - they've made fascinating adaptations to overcome the huge number of difficulties associated with surviving in the ocean and are by far the most successful marine reptile group.”

But even though sea snakes are found far and wide in the Pacific and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dead-zone-indian-ocean/">Indian Oceans</a>, there is a major body of water where the creatures have yet to appear: the Atlantic Ocean. 

This is especially perplexing because extinct species of sea snake once lived in the Atlantic and today, sea snakes could hypothetically thrive in the Caribbean.

A new paper, co-authored by researchers from the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida </a>and published in the journal Bioscience, examines the lack of sea snakes in the Atlantic and suggests some possible answers.

Sea snakes began to evolve 6 to 8 million years ago and many species first appeared 1 to 3 million years ago. But before the snakes could move to regions in the Atlantic, the only safe means of traveling to the Caribbean, via the Isthmus of Panama, had been blocked off. 

Today, places where passage is possible, such as over the tip of South Africa, are too cold and dry for the snakes to survive the journey.

Sea snakes rely on warmer waters and freshwater for drinking, and so the chances of any sea snake species making it to the Caribbean are slim. 

The authors of the paper also discuss the threatened status of some sea snake species. According to the authors, even if warmer waters made an Atlantic crossover possible, the negative impacts of climate change would more than likely cause many sea snake species to die out. 

Population declines are currently underway among several sea snakes specices. 

“I think one of the reasons we're seeing declines in certain populations is because of changing rainfall patterns,” said lead author Harvey Lillywhite. “If rainfall patterns aren't conducive to providing water to drink, sea snakes can't survive, even if ocean temperatures are favorable. The availability of freshwater is going to be a huge factor in understanding local extinctions.” 

Sea snakes are an important part of the ecosystem and their evolutionary adaptability is unmatched. If populations are already facing decline due to climate change, it does not bode well for their continued survival. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Why you can’t find sea snakes in the Atlantic Ocean

There are nearly 70 species of sea snakes in the...

Sitting in on the hard plywood floor of the cramped wildlife hide, we peeked out of the windows on a flat piece of grassland, eerily lit by a nearly full moon.  The early morning hours seemed full of potential as Erin, my girlfriend, and I sat whispering and sipping coffee from a dented green thermos.  In those hours before the grouse arrived I thought back to another lek.

Erin and I worked for three months as temporary managers of a nature reserve in the cloud forest near Mindo, Ecuador.  Besides maintaining facilities and assisting guests, a large part of our work was bird work.  On our first full day being oriented to our responsibilities, we rose before dark and were led by the departing reserve managers on a path climbing a hill through dense, tropical forest.  The trail led to a small spur trail that ended at a small shack draped in camouflage netting.  Inside the small tin roofed blind, we sat on a rough wooden bench and waited with clipboards of empty data sheets and binoculars hung ‘round our necks.  Eventually we heard the flutter of arriving wings and the loud, rising aaaawoooo cry of the male Andean Cock of the Rock (Rupicola Peruvianus) abbreviated: ACOR.  

Through the dense foliage there wasn’t as much to see of the birds as one could hope. The exotic vocalizations and loud beating of wings as males sparred or showed off gave the imagination a lot of material.  The Andean cock of the rock is a medium sized bird that is rather non-descript except for the bright red and large crest on the males heads.  In the early morning dimness, through the tangle of branches, vines and epiphytic bromeliads the ACOR males were mostly flashes of vivid color against a collage of green.  

Watching the Sharp Tailed Grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus jamesi) was the opposite of the half-veiled display of the ACOR.  With the grouse, everything was on display.  The name, Sharp Tailed Grouse, proved to be very adept at capturing the bird.  The males in displaying point their tails straight up, revealing a white rump pointing sharply indeed at the sky.  The birds make a rattling noise as they shake back and forth, snaking in lines through the lek.  Then all the grouse freeze.  It seems the males pause in their dance to see if any females have taken notice.  One time all the males froze except one who kept dancing for a bit, oblivious, when he saw his mistake I imagine he stopped quickly to hide his embarrassment.  A few of the males seemed more dominant or at least made a more impressive lekking display; these inflated bright purple pouches in their neck.  There were also the plump, clucky squelching noises and the excitable birds jumping into the air.  

From the site of the grouse lek, you could look across the rolling fields of grassland cut by the regular lines of barb wire to the water tower of the town of Wall.  At night, when we heard coyotes yipping their savage song we could see the tiny lights of Wall twinkling, like a far off dream.  

In Ecuador as with the grouse, the lekking happened in the early morning but less impressively before sunset.  For a small fee we would take guests to the blind to watch the ACOR.  One afternoon I took a young Italian man who said he was also a biology student to watch the ACOR lek.  As we were sitting in the hide waiting patiently for the birds’ tell-tale aaaawoooo or the sharp rattle of wings, I heard the far off beep beep beep of a car alarm.  We sat quietly and waited for the birds to come, they came but over the time we were in Ecuador, we noticed them coming less often.    

As we sat in the blind watching the grouse, the dance became a little less active but the birds were still all around us.  The sun was just starting to come up.  Erin and I sat tight, the forest service information packet which told us how to get here warned us to leave the grouse undisturbed until they were all gone.  For grouse, lekking grounds are special places, places they return to year after year.  I heard a story of people inadvertently building a house on top of a lekking place.  The birds were said to return and lek on the roof of the house.  The truth is that human disturbance has a huge impact on grouse.  You won’t see a lek in the parking lot of a shopping mall.  My bird book tells me that the Sharp-tailed Grouse were once much more widespread than today.  A range that spread along much of Canada and the western US has been shattered and shrunk to islands dotting the map.  Sharp Tailed Grouse are considered a species of Least Concern; they have a stable population; does that mean we shouldn’t mourn what is lost?  

As Erin and I sat, patiently waiting for the grouse to leave on their own, men in the blind next to ours stepped outside, hefting a camouflage camera with a huge lens.  The birds were a flap of feathers and then gone.  The men walked to their car without a second thought.  We sat, filled with rage and waited, maybe the birds would return.  We waited in vain, the grouse were gone.            

--

By <a href="zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Earth.com exclusive: Birds, sex and dying dances

Sitting in on the hard plywood floor of the cramped...

Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that existed between 228 to 66 million years ago. Researchers are now gaining more insight into the development and behavior of these prehistoric creatures thanks to a collection of more than 200 fossilized eggs.

Until recently, scientists only had a total of eight pterosaur eggs that were well-preserved in structure with an embryo inside. Three of these eggs had been recovered in Argentina and five were from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cremated-remains-china-buddha/">China</a>. 

But now, researchers have access to an unprecedented number of pterosaur eggs after 215 eggs were discovered on a Lower Cretaceous site in China.

Using computed tomography scanning, researcher Xiaolin Wang et al. was able to observe the inside the eggs, 16 of which contain embryonic remains of varying intactness. The most complete embryo has a partial wing and cranial bones visible, including a complete lower jaw. 

In addition, there are good quality samples of thigh bones which are well-developed. This indicates that the pterosaur, or Hamipterus tianshanensis, relied on functioning hind legs soon after hatching. 

The structure supporting the pectoral muscle, on the other hand, appears to be underdeveloped. This suggests that newly-hatched pterosaurs were most likely unable to fly, and leads the study authors to believe that newborns needed some parental care.

Over years of research, there has been a growing collection of evidence that pterosaurs had long incubation periods. This theory is supported by the discovery of an embryonic individual that appears to be at least two years old and was still growing when it died. 

The findings of this study will appear in an upcoming issue of the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>, published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

--

By<a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"> Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Alexander Kellner (Museu Nacional/UFRJ)

Fossilized eggs provide glimpse into prehistoric flying reptiles

Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that existed between 228 to 66...

A new report from the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) is warning dog owners that “bone treats” are not safe for dogs. The treats, which are real bones that have been processed and packaged, are causing a range of illnesses and are responsible for the deaths of 15 dogs.

Most dog owners are aware of the choking hazards associated with bones, but the risks of bone treats are far more expansive, particularly the bone treats found at many pet stores. 

Carmela Stamper is a veterinarian in the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/OfficeofFoods/CVM/default.htm">Center for Veterinary Medicine</a> (CVM) at the FDA.

“Giving your dog a bone treat might lead to an unexpected trip to your veterinarian, a possible emergency surgery, or even death for your pet,” said Stamper.

90 incidents of illness caused by bone treats have been recently reported to the FDA by veterinarians and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-extend-life/">dog owners</a>. Documented illnesses include gastrointestinal obstruction, choking, cuts and wounds in the mouth or on the tonsils, vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding from the rectum.

During production, the bone treats are dried and treated with preservatives and seasonings. Ethoxyquin, which is also used as a pesticide, is an artificial ingredient often found in bone treats that is being investigated as a possible cause of illness. 

Another preservative widely used in bone treats is BHA, and while it is approved for consumption by humans and animals it is also considered to be a potentially carcinogenic substance.

Some of the specific bone treats to avoid are “Ham Bones,” “Pork Femur Bones,” “Rib Bones,” and “Smokey Knuckle Bones.” 

Stamper said, “We recommend supervising your dog with any chew toy or treat, especially one she hasn't had before. If she ‘just isn't acting right’, call your veterinarian right away!”

To report an issue with bone treats or other pet foods, visit FDA’s Web page on “<a href="https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/ReportaProblem/ucm182403.htm">How to Report a Pet Food Complaint</a>.”

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Common bone treats are causing injury and death in dogs

A new report from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)...

Researchers have tracked the movement of insecticide resistance across Africa by studying the DNA of mosquitoes. The analysis, which is the largest genetic study of insects to date, has identified several insecticide resistance genes that are rapidly progressing.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/video/satellites-predict-malaria-outbreaks/">Malaria</a>, which is spread by Anopheles mosquitoes, infects more than 200 million people every year. In 2015, malaria was to blame for the deaths of 429,000 people, with most fatalities occurring in sub-Saharan Africa.

Insecticides have helped control the spread of malaria since 2000, but the advancing insecticide resistance in mosquitoes is thwarting these efforts. In an attempt to understand how mosquitoes are evolving this resistance so quickly, researchers sequenced the DNA of 765 wild Anopheles mosquitoes from 15 locations in eight African countries.

By examining the genome of each mosquito, the experts discovered that wild mosquitoes are genetically far more diverse than had been previously realized. Overall, the researchers found 52 million differences among the mosquito genomes, and such high genetic diversity promotes rapid evolution.

Dr. Mara Lawniczak from the <a href="http://www.sanger.ac.uk/">Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute</a> is one of the study’s corresponding authors. 

"The diversity of mosquito genomes was far greater than we expected,” said Dr. Lawniczak. “Such high levels of genetic variation poise mosquito populations to rapidly evolve in response to our efforts to control them whether that be with insecticides or any other control measure, including gene drive."

Analysis of the mosquito genomes also revealed rapid evolution of several genes that had previously been linked to insecticide resistance. Within those genes, the researchers identified many previously-unknown genetic variants that may be causing the resistance. 

The research team established that the mosquitoes are spreading these genetic variants across the entire continent of Africa through migration.

Professor Martin Donnelly from the <a href="http://www.lstmed.ac.uk/">Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine</a> is a corresponding author of the study. 

"We know that mosquito populations are rapidly evolving resistance to insecticides, which is a serious threat to the future of malaria control in Africa,” said Professor Donnelly. “We have been able to see that a diverse array of genes linked to insecticide resistance are under very strong selection, confirming that they are playing an important role in the evolution of insecticide resistance in natural mosquito populations. Our study highlights the severe challenges facing public efforts to control mosquitoes and to manage and limit insecticide resistance."

Alistair Miles from the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute is the study’s lead author.

"The data we have generated are a unique resource for studying how mosquito populations are responding to our current control efforts, and for designing better technologies and strategies for mosquito control in the future,” said Miles. “More data will be needed to fill in the geographical gaps and study how mosquito populations change over time and in response to specific control interventions. However, this study demonstrates a clear path towards building a new and much-needed source of intelligence to support the campaign to eradicate malaria in Africa."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insecticide resistance spreads across Africa

Researchers have tracked the movement of insecticide resistance across Africa...

When you notice your dog licking their lips, you might think it’s just because they’re hungry. But according to new research, dogs begin licking their mouths when confronted with an angry human face. 

The study was conducted by researchers from Brazil and the United Kingdom.

For the study, different dogs were filmed while being shown either angry or positive facial expressions and exposed to positive or negative sounds, some that were human and some that were from other dogs. 

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-expressive-looking/">dogs</a> sat with handlers, and the camera was able to capture gestures, so the researchers knew exactly when the dogs responded to the faces. 

The researchers noted that when the dogs saw an angry human face, they would lick their mouths. 

“Mouth-licking was triggered by visual cues only (facial expressions),” said Natalia Albuquerque from the <a href="http://www5.usp.br/english/?lang=en">University of Sao Paulo</a>, the study’s lead author. “There was also a species effect, with dogs mouth-licking more often when looking at humans than at other dogs.” 

The results of the study shed light on how dogs interact with their owners and the world around them. Mouth licking for dogs is a direct response to negative emotions displayed humans. 

“Humans are known to be very visual in both intra and inter-species interactions, and because the vision of dogs is much poorer than humans, we often tend to think of them using their other sense to make sense of the world,” said Daniel Mills, co-author. “But these results indicate that dogs may be using the visual display of mouth-licking to facilitate dog-human communication in particular.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What dogs really mean when they lick their lips

When you notice your dog licking their lips, you might...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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