Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp;



While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU) has compiled a reference framework of isotope compositions for modern reptiles. This dataset stands to improve our ability to identify the diets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient reptiles</a>, including dinosaurs.



“This reptile reference framework is a convenient toolbox that will enable us to better reconstruct the diet of extinct animals, such as dinosaurs,” Tütken explained. “A set of comparable data of this kind has not previously been available.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-diets-of-modern-reptiles">Diverse diets of modern reptiles </h2>



Today's reptiles showcase a remarkable range of diets, from strictly plant-based to exclusively carnivorous. Many also exhibit specialized feeding preferences, such as the marine iguana in the Galapagos, which eats only algae, or chameleons, which subsist solely on insects.&nbsp;



Gila monsters prefer eggs, while top predators like the saltwater crocodile and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/komodo-dragons-have-iron-tipped-teeth-to-rip-apart-flesh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragon</a> feed entirely on meat. “This diversity makes it difficult to reconstruct the nutritional habits of extinct animals,” Tütken said.



The oldest known ancestors of modern reptiles lived more than 300 million years ago; for instance, the 315-million-year-old Hylonomus resembled a lizard. These early reptiles often bore skulls, jaws, and teeth indicative of insectivory.&nbsp;



The point in geological history when they transitioned from insect-eating to purely carnivorous or herbivorous diets remains unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-geochemical-reference">Building a geochemical reference</h2>



In creating their new framework, Tütken’s team examined 28 modern reptile species by measuring calcium and strontium isotopes in their bones and teeth, which offer chemical clues about what these animals eat.&nbsp;



“To obtain a wide spectrum for comparison, we selected reptiles with pronounced herbivorous or carnivorous behavior, and we also included those with specialized dietary preferences,” Tütken noted. The list included alligators, monitor lizards, chameleons, and more.



Focusing on calcium isotopes, the researchers highlighted the ratio of calcium-44 to calcium-42. They observed a clear trend in which these isotope concentrations decreased at every step in the food chain.&nbsp;



“Overall, the values are highest in insectivorous reptiles, clearly differentiating these from animals with other feeding behaviors,” said lead author Michael Weber, a paleontologist at JGU.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-unique-feeding-patterns-nbsp">Detecting unique feeding patterns&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herbivores</a> showed lower isotope ratios, while carnivores presented the lowest levels. This approach even allowed them to detect unique feeding patterns, such as the algae diet of marine iguanas and the egg-based diet of other reptiles. The team also examined stable strontium-88 to strontium-86 ratios.&nbsp;



“We set up the first extensive reference system of stable strontium isotopes as a dietary proxy. The results for strontium are largely consistent with those for calcium isotopes in respect of the various nutritional forms,” explained study co-author and paleontologist Katrin Weber.&nbsp;



However, strontium is more vulnerable to alteration over time, making calcium isotopes the more reliable measure for extinct species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-reptiles-to-mammals">Comparing reptiles to mammals</h2>



In analyzing these isotopes, the researchers discovered that reptiles show greater calcium isotope variability than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, even under similar dietary regimes.&nbsp;



This phenomenon is believed to stem from physiological differences, and it illustrates why mammal-based data cannot directly determine the diets of prehistoric reptiles such as dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-wear-patterns-and-animal-diets">Teeth wear patterns and animal diets</h2>



Beyond chemical traces, the scientists also investigated the mechanical wear patterns on modern reptile teeth, collecting data in collaboration with Dr. Daniela Winkler at <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kiel University</a>.&nbsp;



Scratches on tooth surfaces reveal whether an animal consumed tough materials such as shells or bones, or softer foods.&nbsp;



When combined with isotope data, these wear patterns can distinguish faunivores that ingested abrasive substances from those relying on soft food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-diets-of-extinct-species">Discovering the diets of extinct species</h2>



“In order to understand and interpret the data for chemical and mechanical patterns of nutritional behavior from fossil finds, we first had to determine the corresponding information for related modern species with their known dietary preferences,” said Tütken.



“As a result, we now have a reference frame for comparison that enables the precise diet assessment and thus a more accurate reconstruction of the feeding habits of extinct species.”



The study forms part of a larger initiative led by Tütken, who in 2016 received an ERC Consolidator Grant to examine the feeding habits of early land vertebrates.&nbsp;



By combining geochemical and mechanical evidence, Tütken’s team has created an essential resource for scientists to unravel the mystery of what ancient reptiles - and possibly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> - might have eaten, guiding us toward a deeper understanding of evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Reptiles provide new clues about the diets of extinct animals

Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp; While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp; Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU)...

A recent study has found that wolves are flourishing in the human-free Chernobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ). According to the investigators, the region is no safer for animals, yet some are thriving in the absence of humans.

The study reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-hunting-bears-wolves/">wolves</a> have quickly repopulated the contaminated zone since the nuclear disaster of 1986. With no threat of being hunted by humans, the wolves can enjoy an abundance of prey across the region that has been recovering for the past 30 years.

In 2015, a young male wolf was tracked at a distance of over 220 miles from his home, which is the farthest-known distance of any animal trekking out of the polluted site. 

The researchers put tracking devices on 14 grey wolves in the CEZ. While 13 adult wolves stayed close to home, the single juvenile set out on a journey. The young wolf was already 186 miles outside of the Exclusion Zone when his GPS collar stopped working.


Scientists believe that this could be indicative that the CEZ serves as a type of wildlife refuge, and future research will be focused on the migration of other animals outside of the zone. 

These studies may provide insight into how the fallout zone has impacted wildlife and will also inform experts on any potential genetic mutations that may spread into outside populations.

“It is worth exploring how the CEZ may serve as a source for some wildlife populations rather than a sink as has been previously suggested,” wrote the study authors.

“Considering the high population density of wolves specifically relative to neighboring uncontaminated reserves (up to seven  times greater), it is appropriate to speculate that wolves born in the CEZ regularly disperse into surrounding populations.”


Study co-author Michael Byrne from the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri at Columbia</a> told <a href="https://www.livescience.com/">Live Science</a>: “Instead of being an ecological black hole, the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone might actually act as a source of wildlife to help other populations in the region.”

“And these findings might not just apply to wolves - it's reasonable to assume similar things are happening with other animals as well.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/animal+sciences/journal/10344">European Journal of Wildlife Research</a>

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

With no humans in radioactive Chernobyl, wolves are in charge

A recent study has found that wolves are flourishing in...

Domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-domesticated-america-10000-years/">dogs</a> have lost their ability to quickly settle disagreements and reconcile, unlike the pack mentality exhibited by wolves. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/">University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna</a> recently conducted a study comparing wolves in captivity to rescue dogs at a shelter. 

The study was published in the Royal Society Open Science Journal. 

The researchers set out to see how wolf packs and wolf behavior differed after a fight compared to the shelter dogs who were domesticated. 

The ability to quickly resolve a fight is an important skill for many social species who congregate in groups, packs, and herds. 

However, domesticated dogs seem to have lost their “pack mentality,” and according to a report from the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5915625/Why-dogs-kiss-make-Researchers-lost-pack-mentality-wolves.html">Daily Mail</a>, this makes it more difficult to resolve fights as well as wolves do. 

“Highly cooperative social species are expected to engage in frequent reconciliation following conflicts in order to maintain pack cohesiveness and preserve future cooperation,” the researchers said.

The team observed four captive wolf packs and rescue dogs at a shelter. The wolves got into fights often with each other, almost once an hour, but quickly made up within ten minutes. 

For the shelter dogs, the researchers observed that the dogs fought less but when they did the dogs were more aggressive and violent and did not reconcile after. 

Less than one in five fights were quickly resolved with the shelter dogs. 

Wolf packs require co-operation and so fighting and resolutions are necessary for keeping the peace and the researchers say this could explain why domesticated dogs are unable to efficiently resolve conflicts. 

“We provide evidence for reconciliation in captive wolves, which are highly dependent on cooperation between pack members, while domestic dogs, which rely on conspecific cooperation less than wolves, avoided interacting with their partners after conflicts,” the researchers concluded. “Our results are in line with previous findings on various wolf packs living under different social and ecological conditions, suggesting that reconciliation is an important strategy for maintaining functional relationships and pack cohesiveness.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why dogs can't forgive and forget with each other

Domesticated dogs have lost their ability to quickly settle disagreements...

For the average person, it’s usually hard to tell the difference between crows and ravens. Although, for the avid aviary observer, this distinction is likely as plain as the beaks on their faces. And for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-build-tools-memory/">crows</a> and ravens themselves, their differences are the source of significant aggression between the two species where their territories overlap. But who is the instigator of these aggressive interactions between the two species? A new study in <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/auk-ornithological-advances">The Auk: Ornithological Advances</a> uses citizen science data to find the answer.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> used more than 2,000 publicly collected and submitted observations from around North America to assess the interspecies aggression between crows (American and Northwestern) and Common Ravens. Results showed that both species of crows were almost exclusively the instigators in aggressive interactions with ravens, no matter where the interaction was documented in North America – about 97% of the time, crows struck first.

Observations determined that crows’ aggression was most frequent during the breeding season, which is believed to be due to nest predation by ravens. Aggression during the winter is likely explained by crows attempting to deter nest predation preemptively, while also defending the resources they would need for nesting later during breeding season. It was also observed that crows mostly attacked in small groups, avoiding one-on-one fights with ravens. 

All of the observations used in this study were from citizen scientists, which shows how useful this depot of data can be for such large-scale studies.

“There are two take-home messages. First, we show that bigger birds do not always dominate smaller birds in aggressive interactions, and that social behavior may allow smaller birds to chase off larger birds,” explains Ben Freeman of Cornell University. “Second, this is a case example of the power of citizen science. It would be next to impossible for even the most dedicated researcher to gather this data across North America. But because there are thousands of people with expertise in bird identification and an interest in bird behavior, we can use data from eBird to study behavioral interactions on a continental scale.”

This study serves as a look into the interspecies dynamics between crows and ravens, while also being a shining example of how citizen science data can assist in studies over large geographic areas that would normally be impossible for researchers to cover.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Phillip Krzeminski

In crow-raven conflict, crows are almost always the aggressor

For the average person, it’s usually hard to tell the...

Velvet ants may be invulnerable to attacks thanks to a trifecta of defense mechanisms that allows them to walk freely along the ground without fear of predators. 

A new study tried pitting potential predators against female velvet ants to see if any would be able to eat the ants, and the trials showed that the ants were no match for any of the other animals. Even from some lizards who are accustomed to eating difficult insect prey. 

Velvet ants belong to the family Mutillidae and are technically <a href="https://www.earth.com/?s=wasps">wasps</a>. The large hairy female velvet ants don’t have wings which is typical of females in the Mutillidae group and so to any casual observer they look like ants. 

The velvet ants have a series of defense mechanisms that ward away predators including a painful sting that, according to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5902541/Velvet-ants-basically-invincible-sting-painful-theyre-called-cow-killers.html">Daily Mail</a>, has earned the nickname “cow killer.” 

A tough outer skeleton that can’t be pierced and foul-smelling chemical excretions also work to prevent attacks. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.hanover.edu/">Hanover College</a> set out to see if predators that eat insect prey would be able to handle the wasps and conducted a new study using a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-toxic-lime-green-blood/">lizard</a>, shrew, mole, and American toad. 

Even though a few of the test predators attempted to attack or eat the ant, none of the animals succeeded except for the toad who then immediately stopped breathing shortly and refused any further ants. 

It appeared that one encounter with the ant was enough to keep the predators away. When the shrews tried to eat the velvet ants, its smelly excretions were enough to keep the shrews uninterested. 

“The research shows how a suite of defenses is almost always stronger than a single defense, even a single defense that is exceedingly powerful,” Justin Schmidt, an entomologist at the University of Arizona who was not involved in this study, told the Daily Mail. 

In the study, a mole that tried to the eat the wasp was stung and according to the researchers started thrashing about. 

Brian Gall, a member of the Hanover research team told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2172959-female-velvet-ants-are-so-scary-no-other-animal-dares-eat-them/">New Scientist</a> that the velvet ants defenses evolved to match their hunting patterns. 

Gall also explained that the ant walks on the ground and is visible during the day so a series of impenetrable defense mechanisms is crucial for the insect’s survival. 

In the velvet ant’s case, its defenses are so effective that it appears no predators are able to surpass them. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Velvet ants are essentially invincible due to effective defenses

Velvet ants may be invulnerable to attacks thanks to a...

Natural disasters are set to become even more inevitable as the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-risk-natural-disasters-doubled/">climate change</a> become more severe. While we prepare our homes, families, businesses and even pets for natural disasters, zoo animals should also be a priority when planning for the worst.

Zoo animals are particularly vulnerable to natural disasters. They are, after all, left in enclosures that are designed to prevent them from escaping. If these animals do escape out of their enclosures, they pose a public health risk as zoo animals are wild and often powerful creatures.

In June of this year, a bear escaped its enclosure after a German zoo experienced a flood. The high waters put pressure on the bear’s enclosure, breaking it. The bear was shot dead.

Thankfully, only the bear died as a result of the flooding, but there were originally fears that multiple big cats had escaped and citizens were told to stay indoors to avoid the animals. The big cats were later found in their enclosures.

Natural disasters can also pose an indirect threat to zoo animals. For example, some animals rely on fresh shipments of food everyday to survive. Others need electricity and running water. After Hurricane Katrina, most of the fish in the New Orleans Aquarium died because the facility lost power and the staff members evacuated the area.

Incidents such as these are why the<a href="https://www.aza.org/"> Association of Zoos and Aquariums</a> requires all of the animal care facilities they represent to practice an annual disaster preparedness drill annually in order to stay accredited.

The AZA even recently created the<a href="https://www.aza.org/zahp"> Zoo and Aquarium All Hazards Preparedness Response, and Recover Fusion Center</a> which connects the emergency management and wildlife sector. The center is funded by the United States Department of Agriculture and advances its five mission areas: prevention, protection, mitigation, response and recovery.

While the center works to create trainings and resources for zoos to handle natural disasters, zoos sometimes have to make judgment calls based on the weather conditions right ahead of an event.

It may seem cruel to leave the animals at the zoos during a natural disaster instead of relocating them, but zoos have argued that leaving the animals in place can be less traumatic. When Hurricane Irma struck Florida last year, Zoo Miami decided to keep their animals at the zoo.

“We don't evacuate our animals since hurricanes can change direction at the last minute and you run the risk of evacuating to a more dangerous location. Furthermore, the stress of moving the animals can be more dangerous than riding out the storm,” Zoo Miami said on <a href="https://www.facebook.com/zoomiami/posts/1510738168948481">social media</a>. 

The zoo moved 3,000 animals to secure bunkers before the storm. In the end, multiple fish, a flamingo and a few other birds died from the storm.

It is hard to say whether less animals would have died if they were evacuated from the zoo completely. There is likely not always a safe place to secure over 3,000 wild and exotic animals right ahead of a severe storm. Additionally, many of the animals, such as the elephants who live at Zoo Miami, are very difficult to load and transfer.

Disaster preparedness plans can be made more difficult for zoos who house threatened and endangered species. While the zoo should protect all animals, these at-risk species should take priority.

The German zoo which had experienced a recent flood originally could not find their two tigers and authorities were on the search for these animals. Tigers are endangered and their populations are rapidly decreasing in the wild. It would be a huge tragedy for a healthy animal to die in captivity simply because proper planning was not put in place.

AZA-accredited zoos and the emergency management sector are taking positive steps forward to plan for disasters before they strike. Unfortunately, there are many backyard zoos in the United States who are not accredited and may not have any plans in place to prepare for the worst. The fate of the animals living in these zoos is unknown.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne,</a> <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What happens to zoo animals during a natural disaster?

Natural disasters are set to become even more inevitable as...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.sfn.org/">Society for Neuroscience</a> suggests that humans and birds process visual details in a much more similar way than what was previously realized. 

The ability to distinguish an object from its background is critical for species such as humans that rely heavily on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-vision-favors-social-signals/">eyesight</a> for their survival. 

Humans group different parts of a setting into “perceptual wholes” based on the similarity of their motion. This type of perceptual organization has been primarily studied in primates, which led scientists to wonder if such visual grouping is a key element of most visual systems.

The research team, led by neurophysiology expert Yoram Gutfreund, set out to investigate by analyzing the behavior of barn owls as they tracked dark dots against the gray background of a computer screen.

“In humans, motion homogeneity provides a strong cue for grouping, yet, it is unknown to what extent this occurs in non-primate species,” wrote the researchers. “To explore this question, we studied the effects of visual motion homogeneity in barn owls of both genders, at the behavioral as well as the neural level.”

A wireless “Owl-Cam” monitored the visual search behavior of the owls in one trial, and the neural activity in the main visual processor of non-mammalian vertebrates - the optic tectum - was monitored in another trial.

The experts found evidence of perceptual grouping among the barn owls, which indicates that this ability evolved and was conserved before the development of the human neocortex.

“The novel findings of these visual effects in an avian species, which lacks neocortical structure, suggest that our basic visual perception shares more universal principles across species than presently thought, and shed light on possible brain mechanisms for perceptual grouping,” wrote the study authors.

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Owls and humans utilize the same visual processing strategy

A new study from the Society for Neuroscience suggests that...

A new study led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> (WSU) has identified the underlying mechanism that drives short or long wing development in the brown planthopper, one of the most destructive rice pests in the world. The experts have discovered that the quality of the host plant is responsible for wing growth and migratory behavior among these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-attacks-from-parasites-have-big-impacts-on-insects/">insects</a>.


According to WSU Professor Laura Lavine, wing size determines whether the planthoppers feed locally or migrate over long distances to reach new rice plants.

“It's all about the amount of glucose, or sugar, in the plant,” said Lavine. “Rice plants with higher glucose levels are older and dying. That increase in glucose causes adolescent brown planthoppers to develop into the long-winged adults. The plant really is telling the insect how to grow.”


There is a shift in the ratio of sugars to amino acids over the course of a rice plant’s  life. Young rice plants are ideal for feeding insects because they have relatively low glucose levels and provide plenty of nutrition. With no need to seek out additional food sources, the brown planthoppers grow short wings and the females grow large ovaries.

On the other hand, planthoppers that feed on aging plants are exposed to rising levels of glucose. They must prepare to migrate, developing long wings and smaller ovaries.

“It's a one-time decision,” said Lavine. “If the decision to stay and reproduce or migrate and fly away is incorrect, the brown planthopper is in trouble. Grow short wings when long wings are needed to move away and they die. Grow long wings when they could manage with short wings and they're leaving a healthy food source and have to needlessly search for another home.”


Levine explained that the insects cannot change their body structure once they reach adulthood. The researchers hope that the findings of this study will lead to the development of a technique to manipulate planthoppers to grow long wings.

“The results of this study will hopefully allow scientists a new way to figure out how to trick the brown planthopper into developing into the wrong form so that they die before they become pests,” said Lavine.

The researchers were surprised to find that glucose was the sole factor driving wing growth among brown planthoppers.

“It has been difficult to isolate environmental signals that influence insect morphology and behavior,” said Lavine. “But it's not for the brown planthopper. The plant's glucose level is the signal on whether they stay or go.”


The study is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Xinda Lin, <a href="http://english.cjlu.edu.cn/">Jiliang University</a>

Destructive insects grow wings after cues from their host plant

A new study led by Washington State University (WSU) has...

A team of 54 scientists from 29 different institutions across seven countries has just made a major scientific breakthrough, sequencing the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-likely-to-turn-up-heat-on-koalas/">koala</a> genome. The Australian led research team published their findings in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ng/">Nature Genetics</a>, outlining the most complete marsupial genome ever sequenced. It is believed that this new, highly accurate genomic data will provide scientists with information that could help with conservation efforts, aid in the treatment of diseases, and prolong the survival of this species.

“The Koala Genome Consortium has been an ambitious journey affording us great insights into the genetic building blocks that make up a koala - one of Australia’s, as well as the world’s, most charismatic and iconic mammals,” says Rebecca Johnson, director of the <a href="https://australianmuseum.net.au/amri">Australian Museum Research Institute</a>. “This milestone has come from our vision to use genomics to conserve this species. The genetic blueprint has not only unearthed a wealth of data regarding the koalas unusual and highly specialized diet of eucalyptus leaves, but also provides important insights into their immune system, population diversity and the evolution of koalas.”

The research group sequenced over 3.4 billion base pairs and more than 26,000 genes within the koala genome – significantly more than are present in the human genome. “The genome enables a holistic and scientifically grounded approach to koala conservation,” says Johnson. “Australia has the highest mammal extinction record of any country during the Anthropocene. Koala numbers have plummeted in northern parts of its range since European settlement, but have increased in some southern parts, notably in Victoria and South Australia.”

Notably, researchers from the <a href="http://www.earlham.ac.uk/">Earlham Institute</a> in the UK identified that koalas have two large expansions in a gene family known to be integral to detoxification – the Cytochrome P450 gene family of metabolic enzymes. The expression of these genes in many koala tissues – particularly in the liver – indicate they have an important role in detoxification, likely allowing this species to become dietary specialists. “This probably helped them to find their niche to survive, as they could rely on a food source that would have less competition from other species who were not able to detoxify as effectively,” explains Johnson.

Another discovery was the characterization of the composition of koala milk. All marsupials do the majority of their development in the mother’s pouch, and koalas are no different. They are born without an immune system after 34-36 days of gestation, and spend about six months developing in the pouch. “We characterized the main components of the mothers’ milk - which is crucial for koala joeys - born the size of a kidney bean and weighing half of one gram,” says Katherine Belov of the <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>. “We identified genes that allow the koala to fine tune milk protein composition across the stages of lactation, to meet the changing needs of their young.”

Using the genome, the team discovered and analyzed koala-specific milk proteins that are necessary for various stages of koala development. They also determined these proteins may have an antimicrobial role, as they showed activity across a range of bacterial and fungal species, including one that is known to cause ocular and reproductive disease in koalas. Chlamydia has severely impacted koala populations in Australia, causing both infertility and blindness. Scientists hope to use this new information to develop a vaccine to fight this disease.

The koala is an internationally recognized species, and quite important to the ecosystems in which the species exists. This new research can help aid the survival of these marsupials, as well as the continued health of their habitats. 

“Our next efforts must be in the application of these findings to genetically manage koala populations, advance the treatment of the diseases affecting koalas, with the goal of conserving this very important species,” concludes Johnson.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Koala genome sequencing will help survival rates for the species

A team of 54 scientists from 29 different institutions across...

“We need the tonic of wildness...At the same time that we are earnest to explore and learn all things, we require that all things be mysterious and unexplorable, that land and sea be indefinitely wild, unsurveyed and unfathomed by us because unfathomable. We can never have enough of nature.”
-Walden, Henry David Thoreau
Often misquoted, Thoreau said, “In Wildness is the preservation of the world”.  Take note, wildness not wilderness.  What are both wildness and wilderness though?  I think it’s easier to conceptualize wilderness.  Wilderness is to most a place where humans play little to no role in the environment.  A desolate place of wild animals, that’s wilderness for most. According to Fredrick Nash, in his classic book, Wilderness and the American Mind, the view of wilderness as a desolate place first entered into American thought through the Bible.  

Through this Biblical usage the concept of a treeless wasteland became so closely associated with wilderness that Samuel Johnson defined it in 1755 in his Dictionary of the English Language as, “a desert; a tract of solitude and savageness.”

Today dictionaries define wilderness as uncultivated and otherwise undeveloped land.  The absence of men and the presence of wild animals is assumed. Any place in which a person feels stripped of guidance, lost and perplexed may be called a wilderness.

The whole idea of wilderness in this sense seems to emphasize separation between humans and wilderness and indeed wildness.  Others have put forward a much more flattering view of wilderness. Edward Abbey often refers to wild places as an Eden, using the biblical metaphor to its fullest extent.  In this treatment, wilderness becomes a place that humans in their ‘fallen’ state no longer deserve. Wilderness is a place we can only pollute or defile.

These views of wilderness are of a place humans have no part in, at best we can be visitors passing lightly over a wild place, not tarrying long.  This view is at odds with Thoreau. In my opinion, these views are also at odds with the nature of wilderness. 

In his book, The Abstract Wild, Jack Turner defines wilderness as a self-willed land.  Going further, Turner says that wilderness is about a relationship with the land, a relationship humans can be a part of.  The key in Jack Turner’s view seems to be to relinquish control, even submitting and becoming a part of a greater autonomy.  In The Abstract Wild he writes,  

“The important point is that whatever kind of autonomy is in question – human freedom, self-willed land, self-ordering systems, self-organizing, autopoiesis- all are incompatible with external control.  To take wildness seriously is to take the issue of control seriously…” 

In his novel, Ishmael, Daniel Quinn echoes the same idea, using gods instead of natural forces, cycles or orders, the concept is exactly the same.  Quinn highlights the illusory quality of our control and the dangerous hubris of it, looking broader than what we call wilderness to view the whole of our civilizations.  This passage is a good representation of his view, 

“…When will you finally be safe?”  “When we’ve taken the whole world out of the hands of the gods.”…All the power will be in our hands and we’ll be free at last.”   

This view makes sense if one is to take a cursory look at the places we call wild.  The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mining-deforestation-amazon-rainforest/">Amazon Rainforest</a>, The Kalahari Desert, and the Tibetan Plateau all have long histories of human habitation.  North America was full of different indigenous groups of people with unique cultures and civilizations when Europeans arrive.  If we persist on viewing wilderness as a place without humans or human influence, we are left only with remote islands and perhaps (before research stations were built) Antarctica.  

If on the other hand, we can accept the view of wilderness as a place of self-willed land and that humans may be included in that land, as a part but not an external control, wilderness is a different place.  We are left with the view that perhaps a ruin like Mesa Verde was more of a wilderness when it was a small thriving village than now as it is managed by the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/">National Park Service</a>.  It is the exertion of control in the form of wildlife management, carefully constructed trails and fences that is slowly choking the wild out of our ‘wilderness’.

The Wilderness Act of 1964 is ambitious, and in an excerpt cited by the US Forest Service’s website it states the purpose of the act as: 

“In order to assure that an increasing population, accompanied by expanding settlement and growing mechanization, does not occupy and modify all areas within the United States and its possessions, leaving no lands designated for preservation and protection in their natural condition, it is hereby declared to be the policy of the Congress to secure for the American people of present and future generations the benefits of an enduring resource of wilderness.”  

The last bit calling wilderness a resource is telling.  A resource is not something you can be a participant in, it’s inert, dead, a utility, something to be used.  According to <a href="https://www.wilderness.net/">Wilderness.net</a>, about 5% of the total US is protected as wilderness under the Wilderness Act, which amounts to 109,982,783 acres.  Alaska contains a little more than half of this ‘wilderness’ and the contiguous US contains only 2.7%, an area Wilderness.net reminds us is about the size of Minnesota.  

The problem isn’t whether we’re trying to protect wilderness.  The problem is that for it to truly be wild and that be of ‘value’ to us, we must strive for our own wildness.  How wild is a Bison reintroduced from a breeding program in the Bronx to an extremely large, fenced in ‘wild’ area in South Dakota and fed supplemental hay?  How wild is a hiker in the Bitter Roots with a smart phone connected to a satellite to post pictures on Facebook immediately? How wild is a wilderness area with fire, recreation, wildlife, trails and fences all carefully managed?  

I love wilderness areas.  I’ve been to many of different types from caves to prairie to mountains and deserts.  It’s impossible to manage wild into a place though. It’s easy to pass laws, it’s harder sometimes to pull your hands away and let the control fall to the hands of the gods.  Wildlife and conservation biology are all about control and in this way we fight fire with fire. We try to control our world by building cities and luxury and then try to maintain pockets of wilderness by exerting more control.  What does it benefit in the end if we create enormous museum like amusement parks and lose ourselves to our own illusion? Governments and nonprofits can’t save the smallest wildness in you or wilderness in the world. That task falls to you.                  

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Government and the difference between wildness and wilderness

“We need the tonic of wildness...At the same time that...

Lemurs can smell weakness in their opponents. Researchers at <a href="https://www.duke.edu/">Duke University</a> have found that lemurs can pick up on weakness in others through their natural scent. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smarter-lemurs-friends/">lemurs</a> investigate the smell that is left behind by fellow lemurs, and act aggressively when the smell is not right.

Study co-author Christine Drea is a professor of Evolutionary Anthropology.


“Our study shows that physical injury from peers dampens an animal's scent signature, and in a way that its counterparts can detect," said Professor Drea.

Both male and female ring-tailed lemurs have scent glands on their genitals that secrete an ill-smelling substance which contains a signature of up to 300 chemicals. They intentionally leave this substance on twigs and branches across their territory, which indicates to others when they are ready to mate.

Study co-author Rachael Harris described the odor as being “quite pungent and musky.” 

“It's not something you'd want to get a big whiff of!” said Harris.


Lemurs use fighting as a way to determine who is in charge and who gets to mate. Lunging at each other, biting, swatting, and even ripping out each other's fur is normal behavior for lemurs, often leaving them wounded.

The team collected scent samples from 23 ring-tailed lemurs at the Duke Lemur Center while the animals were receiving veterinary treatment for wounds or other injuries.

Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry testing, the researchers found that injury altered the chemicals that make up the lemurs’ signature scent. While the animals were wounded, the number of compounds in the scent decreased by 10 percent. 

In particular, the natural musk was not detectable when they lemurs had been wounded during mating season.

“The breeding season is a period of heightened stress,” said Professor Drea. She said that males who are injured during this time are unable to sustain their olfactory signals. Their natural fragrance is not produced to its full potential because scent signals are energetically costly.

Behavioral tests revealed that male lemurs paid much more attention to wooden rods that had been rubbed with the scents collected from injured lemurs, sniffing and marking them more frequently and for longer periods of time. The males marked over the odors from injured animals using extra scent glands on the insides of their wrists to show their dominance.

According to the researchers, the lemurs may be using scent to detect changes in the fighting ability of their competitors, acting more aggressively when they smell weakness.

“They respond more competitively when they could easily have the upper hand,” said Professor Drea. 

“These animals constantly monitor the physical condition of their competitors and respond quickly to any opportunity to climb the social ladder,” added Harris.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: David Haring, Duke Lemur Center

Lemurs can smell weakness in their opponents

Lemurs can smell weakness in their opponents. Researchers at Duke...

A new study led by the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found that the first animals on Earth caused a global warming event by making small changes to the seafloor.

Animal life evolved in the ocean around 520 million years ago. At this time, the animals began breaking down organic material on the ocean floor, releasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dioxide-record-broken/">carbon dioxide</a> and diminishing levels of oxygen.


The conditions on the planet became much harsher over the next hundred million years as ocean oxygen levels continued to drop and carbon dioxide triggered global warming.

“Like worms in a garden, tiny creatures on the seabed disturb, mix and recycle dead organic material - a process known as bioturbation,” said study co-author Professor Tim Lenton.

“Because the effect of animals burrowing is so big, you would expect to see big changes in the environment when the whole ocean floor changes from an undisturbed state to a bioturbated state.”

Professor Filip Meysman from the <a href="https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/">University of Antwerp</a> said: “We did indeed see a decrease in oxygen levels in the ocean around 520 million years ago. But evidence from the rock record showed sediment was only a little disturbed.”


According to Professor Simon Poulton, this meant that the animals living in the seafloor at that time were not very active, and did not move very deep into the seabed.

“At first sight, these two observations did not seem to add up,” he said.

Study lead author Dr. Sebastiaan van de Velde explained, “The critical factor was to realize that the biggest changes happen at the lowest levels of animal activity. This meant that the first bioturbators had a massive impact.”

The researchers said that this realization was the “missing piece of the puzzle” which enabled them to construct a mathematical model of Earth at the time of the earliest life forms and examine the changes that they made to the planet.

“When we ran our model, we were surprised by what we saw,” said Dr. Benjamin Mills. “The evolution of these small animals did indeed decrease the oxygen in the ocean and atmosphere, but also increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels to such an extent that it caused a global warming event.”

"We knew that warming occurred at this point in Earth history, but did not realize it could be driven by animals."

Global warming made conditions far worse for the animals, and possibly contributed to several mass extinction events that occurred during the first 100 million years of animal evolution.

“There is an interesting parallel between the earliest animals changing their world in a way that was bad for them, and what we human animals are doing to the planet now,” said Professor Lenton.

“We are creating a hotter world with expanding ocean anoxia which is bad for us and a lot of other creatures we share the planet with.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth’s earliest animals triggered a global warming event

A new study led by the University of Exeter has...

If you find yourself hiking in Queensland and hear the distinctive rattle of a deadly snake, don’t panic. Rattlesnakes aren’t native to Australia. Instead, it’s probably the rattlesnake tarantula, and it sounds much scarier than it is.

Which doesn’t mean you should ignore its rattle. The rattlesnake tarantula uses its fangs much the same way a western diamondback uses its rattle – to warn humans and other animals to back off or face the consequences.

But unlike American snakes, a bite from the giant spider from Down Under isn’t fatal. Just very painful.

“The spider is found in central Queensland. They are a rare species and the rattling sound is thought to be used to deter predators,” said <a href="https://www.instagram.com/nvolpe.wild/">Nick Volpe</a>, a wildlife photographer who recently created a video of the noisy tarantula, also called the whistling tarantula or barking spider.

He gently poked a captive spider with a pencil – careful not to harm it – until it made the rattling noise as part of its threat display. 

The spiders will bite if predators don’t get the message, but their bites aren’t deadly. Instead, a nip will just cause swelling at the site, pain and general nausea, Volpe told the <a href="http://dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a>. At least, to humans – the bite can be fatal to dogs and cats.

The rattlesnake tarantula has more going for it than a creepy warning sound and a nasty bite: it’s also the largest tarantula in Australia, with a body ranging from a little over 2 to 3 ½ inches in length – and that’s before you add on eight fuzzy legs.

Native to the east coast of Queensland, the spiders live in natural burrows widened to their own comfort and stay close to home. Males live about eight years, while females can live up to 30.

While the threat of hours of pain and vomiting might make most people run for safety, Volpe’s reaction to hearing the spider was different.

“When I first had the chance to see one and it started displaying and emitting the harsh sound I was blown away,” he told the Daily Mail.

He’s not alone. The biggest threat to the rattlesnake tarantula is poachers removing them from the wild for the pet trade, where they’re surprisingly popular.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Robert Whyte, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenocosmia_crassipes#/media/File:Selenocosmia_crassipes.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>

Rattlesnake tarantula is mostly bark – but still packs a bite

If you find yourself hiking in Queensland and hear the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...