Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp;



While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU) has compiled a reference framework of isotope compositions for modern reptiles. This dataset stands to improve our ability to identify the diets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient reptiles</a>, including dinosaurs.



“This reptile reference framework is a convenient toolbox that will enable us to better reconstruct the diet of extinct animals, such as dinosaurs,” Tütken explained. “A set of comparable data of this kind has not previously been available.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-diets-of-modern-reptiles">Diverse diets of modern reptiles </h2>



Today's reptiles showcase a remarkable range of diets, from strictly plant-based to exclusively carnivorous. Many also exhibit specialized feeding preferences, such as the marine iguana in the Galapagos, which eats only algae, or chameleons, which subsist solely on insects.&nbsp;



Gila monsters prefer eggs, while top predators like the saltwater crocodile and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/komodo-dragons-have-iron-tipped-teeth-to-rip-apart-flesh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragon</a> feed entirely on meat. “This diversity makes it difficult to reconstruct the nutritional habits of extinct animals,” Tütken said.



The oldest known ancestors of modern reptiles lived more than 300 million years ago; for instance, the 315-million-year-old Hylonomus resembled a lizard. These early reptiles often bore skulls, jaws, and teeth indicative of insectivory.&nbsp;



The point in geological history when they transitioned from insect-eating to purely carnivorous or herbivorous diets remains unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-geochemical-reference">Building a geochemical reference</h2>



In creating their new framework, Tütken’s team examined 28 modern reptile species by measuring calcium and strontium isotopes in their bones and teeth, which offer chemical clues about what these animals eat.&nbsp;



“To obtain a wide spectrum for comparison, we selected reptiles with pronounced herbivorous or carnivorous behavior, and we also included those with specialized dietary preferences,” Tütken noted. The list included alligators, monitor lizards, chameleons, and more.



Focusing on calcium isotopes, the researchers highlighted the ratio of calcium-44 to calcium-42. They observed a clear trend in which these isotope concentrations decreased at every step in the food chain.&nbsp;



“Overall, the values are highest in insectivorous reptiles, clearly differentiating these from animals with other feeding behaviors,” said lead author Michael Weber, a paleontologist at JGU.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-unique-feeding-patterns-nbsp">Detecting unique feeding patterns&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herbivores</a> showed lower isotope ratios, while carnivores presented the lowest levels. This approach even allowed them to detect unique feeding patterns, such as the algae diet of marine iguanas and the egg-based diet of other reptiles. The team also examined stable strontium-88 to strontium-86 ratios.&nbsp;



“We set up the first extensive reference system of stable strontium isotopes as a dietary proxy. The results for strontium are largely consistent with those for calcium isotopes in respect of the various nutritional forms,” explained study co-author and paleontologist Katrin Weber.&nbsp;



However, strontium is more vulnerable to alteration over time, making calcium isotopes the more reliable measure for extinct species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-reptiles-to-mammals">Comparing reptiles to mammals</h2>



In analyzing these isotopes, the researchers discovered that reptiles show greater calcium isotope variability than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, even under similar dietary regimes.&nbsp;



This phenomenon is believed to stem from physiological differences, and it illustrates why mammal-based data cannot directly determine the diets of prehistoric reptiles such as dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-wear-patterns-and-animal-diets">Teeth wear patterns and animal diets</h2>



Beyond chemical traces, the scientists also investigated the mechanical wear patterns on modern reptile teeth, collecting data in collaboration with Dr. Daniela Winkler at <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kiel University</a>.&nbsp;



Scratches on tooth surfaces reveal whether an animal consumed tough materials such as shells or bones, or softer foods.&nbsp;



When combined with isotope data, these wear patterns can distinguish faunivores that ingested abrasive substances from those relying on soft food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-diets-of-extinct-species">Discovering the diets of extinct species</h2>



“In order to understand and interpret the data for chemical and mechanical patterns of nutritional behavior from fossil finds, we first had to determine the corresponding information for related modern species with their known dietary preferences,” said Tütken.



“As a result, we now have a reference frame for comparison that enables the precise diet assessment and thus a more accurate reconstruction of the feeding habits of extinct species.”



The study forms part of a larger initiative led by Tütken, who in 2016 received an ERC Consolidator Grant to examine the feeding habits of early land vertebrates.&nbsp;



By combining geochemical and mechanical evidence, Tütken’s team has created an essential resource for scientists to unravel the mystery of what ancient reptiles - and possibly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> - might have eaten, guiding us toward a deeper understanding of evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



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Reptiles provide new clues about the diets of extinct animals

Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp; While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp; Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU)...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/home">Lund University</a> in Sweden have found evidence that contradicts the theory that black and white stripes keep zebras cool in the hot sun.


The debate on the function of zebra stripes dates back to the time of Charles Darwin. Some experts have suggested that the stripes help zebras to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-camouflage/">camouflage</a> themselves.

Another theory is that the contrast in heat among the black and white areas of fur create small vortexes that circulate like a fan and cool the body.


To investigate this hypothesis, the research team filled metal barrels with water and covered them with colors to imitate skin, including black and white stripes, black, white, brown, and grey. 

After the barrels were exposed to the sun, the experts measured the temperature in each barrel. As expected, the black one was the hottest and the white one the coolest. The temperatures recorded in the striped and grey barrels were similar and were not substantially cooler.

“According to the hypothesis of regulating body temperature, zebra stripes are expected to cool the body by means of convective air eddies induced by temperature gradients over alternating black and white stripes,” said study co-author Susanne Åkesson.


She explained that this theory seems likely because black zebra stripes do get warmer in the sun as they absorb more light compared to the cooler white stripes.


Infrared imaging revealed that sunlit black stripes are, in fact, warmer than sunlit white stripes and that the difference rises with the temperature. On the other hand, the team found that the temperature differences are reversed at night, when black stripes become cooler than white ones.

“All these experimental findings provide evidence against the hypothesis of cooling effect of zebra stripes, because striped coats do not keep the core temperature of the body any cooler than homogeneous grey coats with a similar average whiteness,” said Åkesson. “The stripes didn't lower the temperature. It turns out stripes don't actually cool zebras.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stripes do not help zebras stay cool in the sun

Researchers at Lund University in Sweden have found evidence that...

A study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) has identified a new threat to monarch butterflies. The researchers have found that rising carbon dioxide levels diminish the medicinal properties of milkweed plants, which make the butterflies more resilient against disease.

For the investigation, the research team raised four milkweed species that have different levels of protective compounds known as cardenolides. 

While half of the plants were grown under typical carbon dioxide conditions, the other half were exposed to double the amount of atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-ocean-floor/">CO2</a>. The plants were then fed to hundreds of monarch caterpillars.

The study revealed that the most protective of the four milkweed species lost its medicinal properties when grown under elevated CO2, which substantially affected the monarch’s ability to endure a parasite and reduced its lifespan by a week.

“We discovered a previously unrecognized, indirect mechanism by which ongoing environmental change--in this case, rising levels of atmospheric CO2--can act on disease in monarch butterflies,” said study first author Leslie Decker.

“Our results emphasize that global environmental change may influence parasite-host interactions through changes in the medicinal properties of plants.”

Study co-author and ecologist Mark Hunter has studied monarchs at the U-M Biological Station, located in Michigan's Northern Peninsula, for more than a decade. He explained that the findings of the monarch study have broad implications. 

“If elevated carbon dioxide reduces the concentration of medicines in plants that monarchs use, it could be changing the concentration of drugs for all animals that self-medicate, including humans,” said Hunter.

“When we play Russian roulette with the concentration of atmospheric gases, we are playing Russian roulette with our ability to find new medicines in nature.”

The researchers were able to determine how changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels altered toxin concentrations in the four milkweed species and how the monarch's lifespan and disease susceptibility was affected.

The largest impacts were observed in monarchs that fed on A. curassavica, a milkweed species in which cardenolide production was lowered by nearly 25 percent when raised under elevated CO2 conditions.

In caterpillars that fed on A. curassavica milkweed grown under accelerated climate conditions, tolerance to the parasite declined by 77 percent when compared to caterpillars that fed on A. curassavica grown under typical levels of CO2. 

Furthermore, these insects lost seven days of their life span due to parasitic infection. Among monarchs that ate A. curassavica grown under ambient CO2 levels, parasites reduced their average lifespan by only two days.

“We've been able to show that a medicinal milkweed species loses its protective abilities under elevated carbon dioxide,” said Decker. “Our results suggest that rising CO2 will reduce the tolerance of monarch butterflies to their common parasite and will increase parasite virulence.”

“Habitat loss, problems during migration and climate change all contribute to monarch declines,” added Hunter. “Unfortunately, our results add to that list and suggest that parasite-infected monarchs will become steadily sicker if atmospheric concentrations of CO2 continue to rise.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Austin Thomason/Michigan Photography

Monarch butterflies facing new threats with rising CO2 levels

A study from the University of Michigan (U-M) has identified...

The world’s smallest dog, holding the Guinness record since 2012, has recently received a new world record for being cloned 49 times. 

She was given the name Miracle Milly because when the tiny Chihuahua was born it was believed that she would not survive, however she is thriving today despite weighing less than a pound. 

Milly has gained worldwide recognition and has thousands of fans, but her size and stature caught the attention of scientists from the <a href="http://en.sooam.com/dogcn/sub01.html">Sooam Biotech Research Foundation</a> in Seoul, Korea. 

Milly’s owners granted the Sooam Biotech Research Foundation permission to clone the dog. 

According to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5924809/Worlds-cloned-dog-Miracle-Milly-copied-record-breaking-49-times.html">Daily Mail</a>, cells extracted from Milly were then transplanted to a donor egg cell and later an embryo was placed into a surrogate. 

Twelve pups were born from that first litter of clones in August of 2017 and all of them live with Milly's family. 

Today Milly has been now cloned 49 times and researchers are hoping that the clones will provide clues to how Milly is able to thrive given her tiny stature. 

Besides slight size differences, according to Milly’s family, her first 12 clones have similar looks and personalities. 

“The original idea was to make ten clones in total, nine for research and one for us, but they decided to clone her more times,” Vanesa Semler, Milly’s owner, told the Daily Mail. “She was chosen for being the smallest dog in the world. They want to find out why she was so small and then study her genes to find out what makes her so tiny. It's amazing to be around all of her clones, they are so smart, very playful like Milly and have really similar personalities.” 

The research lab in Seoul is hoping to clone other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticated-dogs-lost-pack-mentality/">dogs</a> besides Milly and are offering $100,000 to owners willing to clone their pets. 

In Milly’s case, the research data on her clones will be compiled and analyzed and eventually published in a study which will hopefully reveal the secrets to her size.

“We will be working together with the Director as well as four specialists from the world renown Beijing Genomics Institute (BGI) as well as other collaborating scientists to characterize the genetic and epigenetic factors of the of the cloned Milly and the original Milly,” David Kim, from the Soaam, told the Daily Mail. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: AOWR, Caters News

World’s smallest dog is now also the world's most cloned dog

The world’s smallest dog, holding the Guinness record since 2012,...

Despite the fact that hundreds of millions of people and at least a quarter of all marine life depend on the world's corals for survival, we are losing these important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-protection/">reefs</a> at an alarming and unprecedented rate.

Dr. Caroline Palmer is a visiting researcher at the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a> who has been studying the immune health of corals for more than a decade. 


Dr. Palmer has discovered that corals with higher immune defenses are less likely to bleach or become diseased. She has recently authored a paper which suggests that focusing research on coral immunity could improve reef conservation efforts.

Dr. Palmer's latest work is based on a theory that explains how corals might coexist with specific microorganisms as a “holobiont,” while resisting infection and other threats.

She has also developed a model of coral susceptibility, and has found that investing in immunity enables coral to tolerate more damage before initiating an immune response. This model shows how corals may vary in their response to disturbances, such as bleaching events.

“There is no question that climate change is devastating coral reef systems. But if we are to conserve or restore them, we need to understand coral health - what drives tolerance and how can we promote it,” said Dr. Palmer. “If you have a strong immune system, and the energy to support it, you are more likely to be healthy and to survive adverse conditions.”


Bleaching has been the focus of most coral research and is often distinguished from coral immunity, but Dr. Palmer proposes that bleaching is actually a component of coral holobiont immunity. 

Dr. Palmer also believes that an immunological model could help increase the tolerance of corals, preparing them for adverse conditions and future warming.

“Coral biologists are racing to conserve coral reefs before it's too late. There is currently a lot of interest in creating more tolerant corals through genetic engineering and of restoring reefs by targeting more resilient corals. I fully support these approaches, but believe understanding what drives coral health will be key to their success.”

Dr Palmer is currently the lead scientist on the Seeking Survivors project, which is focused on coral health in Costa Rica.

The study is published in the Nature Research journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/about">Communications Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Caroline Palmer / <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a>

Immune health may be key to saving the world’s corals

Despite the fact that hundreds of millions of people and...

A group of poachers got an unexpected surprise when they were attacked by a pride of lions after breaking into the Sibuya Game Reserve in South Africa to hunt rhinoceroses earlier this week.

According to <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/">Newsweek</a>, reserve owner Nick Fox said that there was evidence the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-vibrations-elephants-poachers/">hunters</a> had been eaten alive by the lions between Sunday night and early Monday morning.

A trained guard on the reserve, who was equipped with a dog that is specially trained to detect poachers, was alerted to commotion coming from the lions about 4:30 in the morning on Monday. The activity was dismissed because this is a time when the lions are usually active, and officials believe this is when the hunters were killed.


“The only body part we found was one skull and one bit of pelvis, everything else was completely gone,” Fox told Newsweek. “There is so little left that they don’t know exactly how many people were killed, we suspect three because we found three sets of shoes and three sets of gloves.” 

The police also recovered the team’s hunting gear in thick, thorny brush near the group of lions, including a high-powered rifle with a silencer and an ax, which was presumably for removing the horns of rhinos after killing them. In addition, officials found food, water, and wire cutters.

The lions were shot with tranquilizer darts to protect reserve employees and police who were involved in the recovery effort on Wednesday. Fox told <a href="https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/">Sowetan Live</a>, “The remains were scattered over a very wide area making it difficult to comb the scene and get all the evidence.”

Poaching has become a serious problem in the Eastern Cape. According to <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/">The South African</a>, there have already been nine rhinos killed this year in the Eastern Cape alone, and investigators have reason to believe that there are two groups of poachers responsible for the killings.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rhino poachers killed by lions at a South African game reserve

A group of poachers got an unexpected surprise when they...

Goats were one of the first animals that early humans domesticated, kept close as a source of meat, milk, and hides. They have been a partner animal since 8,500 BC, with the earliest evidence of domestic goats being found in the Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia – the area where crop farming and animal herding first began. Now, a team of international scientists has sequenced the genomes of ancient goat bones found in this region, and their results give great detail into the 10,000-year history of local farmer practices involving genetic exchange between wild and domesticated herds, as well as selection by early farmers.

Prior to herding, local hunters would go after wild goats – known as bezoar – which ultimately led to the start of goat management and livestock keeping. But determining how early farmers practiced domestication is difficult due to thousands of years of migration and mixture.

“Just like humans, modern goat ancestry is a tangled web of different ancestral strands,” explains Dan Bradley, a professor at <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/">Trinity College Dublin</a> and lead investigator of the study. “The only way to unravel these and reach reliably into the past is to sequence genomes from actual ancient animals; a kind of molecular time travel.”

The researchers used genetic data from more than 80 ancient wild and domestic goats, charting the initial patterns of domestication, and finding a surprising amount of genetic differentiation between goats throughout the Fertile Crescent and surrounding areas. 

“Goat domestication was a mosaic rather than a singular process with continuous recruitment from local wild populations,” says Pierpaolo Maisano Delser, a research fellow at Trinity and joint first author of the paper. “This process generated a distinctive genetic pool which evolved across time and still characterizes the different goat populations of Asia, Europe and Africa today.”

This study was the earliest genetic discovery of the domestication process in human history. The findings show that – like modern breeders – early farmers were interested in animal appearance. “Whole genome sequences from the past allowed us directly analyze some of the earliest goat herds,” says Kevin Daly, a PhD researcher at Trinity and first author of the paper. “We found evidence that at least as far back as 8,000 years ago herders were interested in or valued the coat color of their animals, based on selection signals at pigmentation genes.”

Additionally, they found distinct but parallel patterns of this selection in various early herds, which shows that this was a repeated phenomenon. Other evidence points towards animals being selected for liver enzymes that gave better tolerance to toxins, potentially from fungus growing on food, as well as production traits such as fertility and size.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Marjan Mashkour

Goat genome reveals oldest genetic discovery of domestication

Goats were one of the first animals that early humans...

Researchers have developed a new way to identify the best sites for lion conservation activities. The international team of scientists, which was led by Samuel Cushman of the U.S. Forest Service, analyzed the movement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lion-africa-still-threatened/">lions</a> using GPS collar data.


Lions are now distributed across a range that is less than 10 percent of its past size, primarily due to human conflict and land use changes. 

Experts agree that conservation efforts must integrate the preservation of core habitat areas and the paths that link them with the mitigation of human-wildlife conflict. Up until now, however, few efforts have made all three of these factors a priority.


For the current investigation, the research team took two approaches to spatial modeling known as “resistant kernel” and “factorial least cost path.” These strategies were used to analyze GPS collar data captured from lions in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), which spans more than 520,000 square kilometers in four countries.


The scientists identified nine key regions where lions can move freely between breeding sites, enabling them to maintain a level of genetic diversity that supports healthy lion populations. The experts also identified 27 corridors linking these core areas, as well as 27 potential sites for human-lion conflict.

Overall, the team pinpointed three dispersal areas as being critical for continued lion conservation, four strategic corridors that must be protected for the safe movement of lions, and four locations with the greatest risk of human-lion conflict that require action.


The location-ranking system used in this study could be used to improve upon conservation strategies for others species as well.


“The next decade is a critical time for lion conservation given the rapid pace of population growth and land use change across Africa,” said Cushman. “It is critical that landscape conservation designs based on rigorous analysis identify and prioritize the most important places for protection.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Karen Arnold

Scientists name the top locations for lion conservation in Africa

Researchers have developed a new way to identify the best...

The world’s most critically endangered species, the northern white rhino, is in such peril that currently only two females remain. 

After the last male northern white rhino died in Kenya, all that is left are his daughter and granddaughter, and researchers are concerned that the species may die off with them. 

Poaching and habitat destruction have brought the rhinos to the brink of extinction, but there may be hope for recovery as researchers have recently created hybrid embryos and developed them to the point that they are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-white-rhinos-extinction/">ready to be implanted in a surrogate</a>. 

Researchers have been looking into in vitro fertilization (IVF) alternatives as possibilities to conserve and protect northern white rhinos but now for the first time, those efforts could soon come to fruition. 

The hybrid embryos were developed by a team of researchers from the <a href="http://www.izw-berlin.de/welcome.html">Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a> and in order to create an embryo ready for implantation, eggs from southern white rhinos were used. 

The eggs were then fertilized with frozen northern white rhino sperm. Southern white rhinos are closely related to northern white rhinos and so their genetic pairing is ideal for potential IFV. 

The embryo was developed to the blastocyst stage, according to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5914471/Hybrid-embryos-doomed-northern-white-rhino-created-lab.html">Daily Mail</a> who reported on the breakthrough. 

If the embryos are to be implanted in a surrogate, the researchers stated that southern white rhinos would carry the new rhino hybrids to term. 

There are concerns that because only two northern white rhinos remain it will create a limited gene pool and future rhinos will be at risk for a wide array of health problems linked to inbreeding and lack of genetic diversity. 

Yet, the new embryos are a good jumping off point and offer at least a glimmer of hope for the species.

The new embryos shouldn’t take away from other conservation efforts, and the <a href="https://www.savetherhino.org/">Save the Rhino</a> group states that the focus should be on protecting natural habitats and other critically endangered rhino species as well. 

“The real fight for the survival of northern white rhinos in their natural habitat was lost over a decade ago,” said Jo Shaw, an African rhino expert with the WWF conservation group, told the <a href="https://www.ap.org/">Associated Press</a> in March. “Large mammals, like rhinos, should be seen as symbols of large functioning ecosystems and we must focus our efforts and energy on their protection and ongoing survival within these vital landscapes around the globe.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Could IVF bring white rhinos back from the edge of extinction?

The world’s most critically endangered species, the northern white rhino,...

Arrival of European dogs almost wiped out ancient American dogs. Many popular dog breeds today like pugs, chihuahuas, and labradors can be traced back Eurasian breeds, but the dogs that were native to the Americas were completely wiped out with the arrival of Europeans in the 15th century. 

Now, the only remaining lineage of ancient dogs native to North America is a transmissible cancer, according to a new archeological study. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>, the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, <a href="https://qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University</a>, and <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/">Durham University</a> studied American ancient dog remains and discovered that only living relative of the dogs is the cancer. 

The results were published in the journal Science and shed light on how some diseases and cancer genomes can evolve and spread even if their roots have long since gone. 

For the study, the researchers analyzed genetic information from 71 archeological canine remains from North America and Siberia. 

The researchers were able to show that the native American dogs arrived with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-migration-different-route/">earliest human migrations</a> to North and South America 10,000 years ago. 

Early native dogs were not like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticated-dogs-lost-pack-mentality/">dogs</a> we see today and the researchers found that the genetic information of the remains was different from any other dog elsewhere in the world. 

The dogs did not descend from North American wolves but rather from Siberia. 

“Archaeological evidence has long suggested that ancient dogs had a dynamic history in the Americas, but the fate of these pre-contact dogs and their relationship to modern American dog populations was largely unknown,” said Angela Perri, a co-first author of the study. “Our study confirms that they likely originated in Siberia, crossing the Bering Strait during initial human migrations."

After comparing modern and ancient canine genomes, the researchers were able to determine that the native American dogs disappeared when the first Europeans arrived 

“This study demonstrates that the history of humans is mirrored in our domestic animals,” said Greger Larson, the study’s senior author. “People in Europe and the Americas were genetically distinct, and so were their dogs. And just as indigenous people in the Americas were displaced by European colonists, the same is true of their dogs.”

Even though native or “pre-contact” dogs were quickly wiped out, their genome closely matches a kind of venereal disease that causes canine transmissible venereal tumors (CTVT). 

CTVT originated in one dog that lived several thousand years ago and the researchers discovered that the first “CTVT founder dog” was a close relative of early American dogs and that the cancer is still spread through breeds today. 

The researchers were surprised to find that the only link to pre-contact dogs today is a cancer caused by venereal disease, but the study adds to archaeology's understanding of early human migrations, the impacts of Europeans settling in America, and canine history. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arrival of European dogs almost wiped out ancient American dogs

Arrival of European dogs almost wiped out ancient American dogs....

Researchers have found that air movement is not needed to catapult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-spiders-assess-weather-conditions/">spiders</a> over hundreds of miles through the air. While it was previously believed that this ballooning behavior was promoted by the force of wind, new research has determined that electrical fields can not only cause ballooning, but can also provide lift without the influence of air movement.

“We don't yet know whether electric fields are required to allow spider ballooning,” said study author Erica Morley from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. “We do, however, know that they are sufficient.”


The idea that atmospheric electric fields could play a role in spider ballooning actually dates back to the 1800s, but the theory has never been tested.

Morley explained that an electric circuit between the Earth and the ionosphere that is maintained by thunderstorms, known as the atmospheric potential gradient (APG), is ever-present around the world. However, the strength of the APG varies greatly between a stormy day or a calm day with clear skies.

The team investigated using trials that were focused on Linyphiid spiders in the absence of air movement. 

The study revealed that there was a significant increase in ballooning when electric fields were switched on, confirming that spiders adjusted their behavior when they detected APG-like electric fields and responded by ballooning.

Once they were airborne, switching the electric field on and off led the spiders to move upward or downward. In addition, sensory hairs called trichobothria on the surface of the spiders' exoskeletons were found to move in response to electric fields. 


Among spiders, there are days when thousands of them are lifted into the air in a mass ballooning event, while other days no spiders are involved in ballooning. The researchers explained that these ballooning patterns are difficult to predict.


Variation in the APG might help to shed new light on this type of behavior in spiders and also in other ballooning animals such as caterpillars and mites, according to the study authors.

The research is published in journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Michael Hutchinson

Electricity helps spiders balloon through the air

Researchers have found that air movement is not needed to...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> has investigated what caused the extinction of brown bears in Britain. The analysis was also focused on determining when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brown-bears-communicate-feet/">bears</a> went extinct and whether remains that have been found belong to native or imported bears.

“The brown bear was Britain's largest carnivore, yet we know surprisingly little about its history, both as a wild animal and in its relation to humans,” said study author Dr. Hannah O'Regan.

“There has never been a comprehensive review of the evidence of brown bears in Britain, and I believe what we are looking at could show that they were sadly killed off earlier than we previously thought.”

Dr. O'Regan analyzed the remains of brown bears, the sites where they were found, and the dating evidence to establish the origin of the bears and also to estimate when they vanished.

The study revealed that the bears became extinct in the late Neolithic or Bronze Age or in the early medieval period.

“Most of the remains that have been discovered from the Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon (early medieval) periods relate to skins that were included in burials,” said Dr O'Regan.

“Whilst there were live animals present during the Roman, medieval and post-medieval periods (when they were used for entertainment), these were most certainly imported, rather than native animals.”


It is particularly difficult to track the origin and movement of brown bears because both the live animals and their fur were traded for many years across long distances.

The remains of bears found in Britain range from full skeletons to isolated toes or claws, and the recovery sites range from caves to human cremations.

“At present the question of when and why the brown bear became extinct is impossible to answer, as there is still much that we don't know about its distribution,” said Dr O'Regan. “There are 57 sites across Britain where clear dates have been determined, but there are an additional 25 that are thought to be Holocene, but have no further information.”

“There is also a gap in radiocarbon dates of some 4,000 years from the Mesolithic to the Bronze Age. Some of this gap is filled with specimens from archaeological sites, but further research is needed to establish bear distribution in the past."

“Whilst we can speculate on when the bear became extinct based on existing evidence, more research, particularly on the many undated specimens from caves and fens is needed before a clearer patterns of where brown bear distribution and extinction in Britain emerges.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652907">Mammal Review</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why did brown bears go extinct in Britain?

A new study from the University of Nottingham has investigated...

New research has created family trees for Northern Spotted owl populations to examine the extent of inbreeding among the species and its effect on health, reproduction, and adaptability. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/fresc">United States Geological Survey Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center</a> and published in the journal The Auk: Ornithological Advances. 

The researchers surveyed 14,200 Northern Snow Owls over 30 years and used different field statistical methods to create family trees for owls living in California, Oregon, and Washington.

Understanding the prevalence of inbreeding in species is important as inbreeding can increase species decline, cause birth defects, decrease healthy reproduction, and reduce rates of adaptability. 

All of these impacts were observed in the populations that the researchers monitored, and the results show that conservation efforts must address owl breeding as well as habitat preservation. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-work-increase-genetic-diversity-yellowstone-bison/">Genetic diversity</a> is key to a thriving family tree in any species and the researchers say that in order to prevent future population declines, increases in genetic diversity among snowy owls are a must. 

The researchers were able to estimate how often inbreeding occurs for the different Northern Snowy Owl populations and identified 14 types of mating pairs involving relatives. Half and full siblings were the most common pairings observed. 

Inbreeding occurs frequently among Northern Snowy Owls in the Washington Cascades and the researchers discovered that around 15 percent of individuals are inbred. 

In Northern California, inbreeding was at the lowest and only approximately 2.7 owls were inbred. 

One reason for this inconsistency with inbreeding in different states is the range of threats facing populations across habitats. Habitat loss and competition may be worse in some states than others which also shows how important it is to focus conservation efforts on breeding.

“Long-term studies, similar to the one described in this paper, are key to understanding how common or rare inbreeding is in natural populations,” said Mark Miller, the lead author of the study. “An understanding of the extent of inbreeding can help resource managers better identify appropriate measures to conserve threatened and endangered species.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Alan Dyck

Inbreeding of Northern Spotted Owls driving population declines

New research has created family trees for Northern Spotted owl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...