Wandering salamanders, also known as "skydiving salamanders," have fascinated scientists for years with their ability to jump and glide effortlessly through the towering canopies of coastal redwood forests. 



Despite their small size, these amphibians navigate high-altitude branches with precision, sticking their landings and taking off with ease. 



Until recently, the mechanics behind their remarkable acrobatic movement remained a mystery. Now, a new study reveals a surprising answer: blood-powered toes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salamanders-that-control-blood-flow">Salamanders that control blood flow</h2>



Researchers at Washington State University discovered that wandering salamanders (Aneides vagrans) can rapidly control the blood flow in their toe tips.



This ability allows them to grip, detach, and move through their arboreal environment with remarkable efficiency. 



The study not only sheds light on an unknown aspect of salamander physiology but also has potential implications for technological advances in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adhesives</a>, prosthetics, and robotic limbs.



The research team found that salamanders can fill, trap, and drain blood within their toe tips. 



This process helps them fine-tune their attachment and detachment from surfaces, providing the grip necessary for climbing and the release required for efficient movement.



The discovery challenges previous assumptions about the function of the visible red “lakes” of blood in their translucent toes. These structures were long thought to aid in oxygenation, but no scientific evidence supported that claim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-control">Advantages of the control</h2>



The study suggests that controlling blood flow in the toes allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-salamander-like-beast-gaiasia-jennyae-top-predator-before-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamanders</a> to adjust pressure asymmetrically.



 This fine-tuned control helps them navigate the irregular surfaces of tree bark. Surprisingly, the blood influx before “toe-off” does not aid in attachment but rather helps the salamanders detach. 



By slightly inflating their toe tips, they reduce the surface area in contact with the bark, minimizing the energy required to let go. This efficiency is crucial when gliding between branches and ensuring safe landings.



“Gecko-inspired adhesives already allow surfaces to be reused without losing stickiness,” said Christian Brown, lead author of the study, and a postdoctoral researcher in integrative physiology and neuroscience at <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a>.



“Understanding salamander toes could lead to similar breakthroughs in attachment technologies.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-documentary-shoot">A documentary shoot</h2>



The origins of this study trace back to an unexpected moment during the filming of the documentary The Americas, which will air on February 23, 2025 on NBC and Peacock.



Brown was assisting on set as a salamander expert when he noticed something unusual through the production team’s high-powered camera lenses.



Just before a wandering salamander took a step, blood appeared to rush into its toe tips. Brown and camera assistant William Goldenberg observed this phenomenon multiple times. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/salamandar-wandering_Aneides-vagrans_hindfoot_suction_blood-flow_credit-WSU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/salamandar-wandering_Aneides-vagrans_hindfoot_suction_blood-flow_credit-WSU_1s.webp" alt="The hindfoot of a live wandering salamander (Aneides vagrans). In the background, blood can be seen filling a toe tip. Photo: William P. Goldenberg/WSU" class="wp-image-1958372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hindfoot of a live wandering salamander (Aneides vagrans). In the background, blood can be seen filling a toe tip. Photo: William P. Goldenberg/WSU</figcaption></figure>



The repeated occurrence caught their attention. “We looked at each other like, ‘Did you see that?’” Brown related.



Although the documentary team moved on to other subjects, Brown’s curiosity lingered. After filming wrapped, he reached out to Goldenberg and proposed an experiment. 



Using high-resolution film equipment, they would investigate whether salamanders consistently displayed this blood-powered toe mechanism under controlled conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salamanders-regulating-their-blood-flow">Salamanders regulating their blood flow </h2>



The research team conducted detailed video trials and microscopic analysis at Washington State University’s <a href="https://fmic.wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Franceschi Microscopy &amp; Imaging Center</a>. 



Their findings confirmed that wandering salamanders regulate blood flow to each individual toe tip, which allows them to modify grip strength as needed.



This discovery provides insight into how salamanders navigate the complex terrain of the redwood canopy. The ability to release their grip efficiently is particularly significant. 



“If you’re climbing a redwood and have 18 toes gripping bark, being able to detach efficiently without damaging your toe tips makes a huge difference,” Brown said. 



The research suggests that this mechanism plays a crucial role in the salamanders’ ability to thrive in the towering heights of their natural habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-one-species">Implications beyond one species</h2>



While this study focused on&nbsp;Aneides vagrans, the findings could have broader implications. Other salamander species, including aquatic ones, also have vascularized toe structures. 



These structures may serve different purposes depending on the environment, from regulating grip on wet surfaces to enhancing movement across diverse landscapes.



The discovery could also inspire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-pushing-the-u-s-toward-an-unpredictable-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">innovations</a> beyond biology. Scientists studying bioinspired design are particularly interested in nature’s solutions to movement and adhesion problems.



By understanding how salamanders control their grip with blood-powered toe tips, researchers may be able to develop new adhesives and prosthetics that mimic this ability.



Brown and his colleagues plan to expand their research to investigate how similar mechanisms function in other salamander species. 



“This could redefine our understanding of how salamanders move across diverse habitats,” Brown said. The findings could help explain how different species adapt to their environments and refine our knowledge of biomechanics in amphibians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-salamander-movement">New perspective on salamander movement</h2>



The discovery of blood-powered toes in wandering salamanders challenges previous assumptions about their movement and grip strength. 



As scientists continue to study these remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, they may uncover even more secrets hidden within their physiology. 



For now, the ability of wandering salamanders to control their grip with precision remains an intriguing discovery in animal biomechanics.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmor.70026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Morphology</a>. 



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'Skydiving' salamanders can fully control blood flow in their toes

Wandering salamanders, also known as "skydiving salamanders," have fascinated scientists for years with their ability to jump and glide effortlessly through the towering canopies of coastal redwood forests. Despite their small size, these amphibians navigate high-altitude branches with precision, sticking their landings and taking off with ease. Until recently, the mechanics behind their remarkable acrobatic movement remained a mystery. Now, a new study reveals a surprising answer: blood-powered toes. Salamanders that control blood flow Researchers at Washington State University discovered that wandering salamanders (Aneides vagrans) can rapidly control...

In one of nature's most stunning examples of hiding in plain sight, a new species of fanged fighting frog has been discovered in the Philippines, quietly coexisting with its near-identical counterparts for decades.



Despite being collected numerous times, this elusive amphibian managed to avoid detection, blending seamlessly into the diverse frog population.



It's a fascinating story of how a creature can remain camouflaged not by its physical appearance, but by the long-held assumptions of human observers. 



Misidentifications over the years highlight just how much remains hidden in nature, waiting to be uncovered through deeper scientific exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fanged-frog-limnonectes-cassiopeia">Fanged frog Limnonectes cassiopeia</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://ku.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a> have made a groundbreaking discovery with the identification of a new species of fanged frog, Limnonectes cassiopeia, on the Philippine island of Luzon.



What makes this discovery remarkable is that specimens of the new species have been collected a dozen times over the last 20 years, but were mistakenly identified as juvenile versions of the well-known <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/frog_fighting-fang-toothed_luzon_credit-UKansas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luzon Giant Fanged Frog</a>.



“They’re called that because the males of some species have large, bony protuberances, like fangs, in their lower jaw -- it’s pretty unique,” said lead author Mark Herr, a doctoral student at KU’s Biodiversity Institute and Natural History Museum.



“It’s still a bit of a mystery, but it’s become generally assumed that these fangs are used for male-to-male combat. The males’ fangs are much larger than the females'. These males have big heads, and a lot of these frogs can be huge -- some as large as chickens elsewhere in Southeast Asia.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-survey-leads-to-fanged-frog-discovery">Genetic survey leads to fanged frog discovery</h2>



The discovery of Limnonectes cassiopeia came amidst a comprehensive genetic survey of all Philippine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-tiniest-fanged-frogs-lay-their-eggs-on-leaves-and-guard-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fanged</a> frogs.



Herr’s genetic analysis revealed that this new species formed a distinct branch separate from two other known species of fanged frogs in Luzon. 



“I sequenced many of them to establish a good genetic dataset, allowing me to examine their patterns of relatedness,” said Herr. 



His findings prompted an intensive study of physical specimens to identify any distinguishing traits from the Luzon Giant Fanged Frog. One key physical trait emerged that set the new species apart: smaller, unpigmented white toe discs.



“The discs are important,” Herr said. “Statistically, in comparison to their body size, they may have smaller toe pads. Not only are the toe pads smaller, but they’re white. They’re pale, completely unpigmented, which sets them apart from Limnonectes macrocephalus, which has dark gray pigmented toe pads.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Unveiling Limnonectes cassiopeia</h2>



The discovery of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-fanged-frog-found-in-the-philippines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new species</a>, named Limnonectes cassiopeia after the five-star constellation, marks an exciting step forward in understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-biodiversity-affect-species-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> of the Philippines.



Herr also discovered that Limnonectes cassiopeia develops its characteristic large head and fangs earlier in its growth compared to Limnonectes macrocephalus, adding another layer to the complexity of its identification.



“Now that we know they're different, we can go out and watch them and study their natural history in detail,” Herr said. “Maybe they're doing something totally different in the wild, you know? That's exciting for me.”



This new revelation opens a door to further research on Limnonectes cassiopeia, offering fresh insights into its behavior, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darwins-frogs-are-breeding-in-highly-unusual-places/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding patterns</a>, and ecological role within Luzon’s unique ecosystem.



By understanding how this newly identified species interacts with its environment, scientists can gain a deeper appreciation of the region’s biodiversity and the evolutionary pressures that shaped the fanged frog’s development over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-limnonectes-cassiopeia">Future studies on Limnonectes cassiopeia</h2>



Now that Limnonectes cassiopeia has been formally identified, researchers are eager to study the fanged frog in its natural habitat.



Understanding how it interacts with its environment, its role in the local ecosystem, and its unique behavioral traits -- such as the use of fangs in combat -- could reveal even more about the species.



Herr and his team hope to track its behavior in the wild, studying its diet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-wave-their-hands-and-feet-to-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating habits</a>, and possible interactions with other fanged frog species.



This further research promises to shed light on how this elusive species has adapted to its environment, potentially uncovering new aspects of the fascinating fanged frogs of the Philippines.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/ichthyology-and-herpetology/volume-112/issue-2/h2022094/A-Long-Overlooked-New-Species-of-Fanged-Frog-Genus-Limnonectes/10.1643/h2022094.short" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ichthyology &amp; Herpetology</a>.



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New 'fanged fighting frog' species has been hiding in plain sight

In one of nature's most stunning examples of hiding in...

A new study reveals that bees and other pollinators are not just attracted to colorful petals or the sweet scent of nectar. The hidden bullseyes in the flower pattern play a significant role in attracting bees.



Hibiscus flowers, for instance, possess an invisible pre-pattern during the early stages of petal formation. This blueprint dictates the size of their bullseyes, a feature that directly impacts their attractiveness to pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-and-flower-patterns">Bees and flower patterns</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>'s Sainsbury Laboratory have unearthed some compelling findings. It turns out, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> are quite choosy. 



Bees have a clear preference for larger bullseyes and buzz faster towards artificial flower discs with larger bullseyes. This preference may enhance the efficiency of both bees and blossoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-patterns-the-making-of-bullseyes">Hidden patterns: The making of bullseyes</h2>



The researchers ventured into the mysterious world of petal designs. Using a small hibiscus plant as a model, they compared closely related plants with identical flower sizes but differently sized bullseyes.



Dr. Edwige Moyroud, a leading researcher at the Sainsbury Laboratory, has been studying the mechanisms underlying pattern formation in petals. She noted that a pre-pattern sets up on the petal surface early in the flower’s formation, long before any visible color shows up on the petal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-bullseye-patterns">Evolution of bullseye patterns</h2>



Study lead author Dr. Lucie Riglet further investigated how these bullseye patterns form and evolve. She discovered that the pre-pattern begins as a small, crescent-shaped region, even before the bullseye is visible on tiny petals that are less than 0.2mm in size.



"At the earliest stage we could dissect, the petals have around 700 cells and are still greenish in color, with no visible purple pigment and no difference in cell shape or size," noted Dr. Riglet.



"When the petal further develops to 4,000 cells, it still does not have any visible pigment, but we identified a specific region where the cells were larger than their surrounding neighbors.&nbsp;This is the pre-pattern.”&nbsp;



The cells that Dr Riglet studied are essential as they mark the position of the bullseye boundary, the line on the petal where the color changes from purple to white. And what happens without a boundary? No bullseye.



Dr. Argyris Zardilis developed a computational model that delivered additional insights. These models showed that hibiscus can change bullseye dimensions very early during the pre-patterning phase by adjusting cell expansion or division later in development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-patterns-from-a-bee-s-perspective">Flower patterns from a bee's perspective</h2>



Dr. Riglet explored the impact of the bullseye patterns on pollinators, using artificial flower discs that mimic the dimensions of the three different bullseyes.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> not only preferred the medium and larger bullseyes over the small bullseye, they were also 25% quicker visiting these larger flower discs," said Dr. Riglet.



"Foraging requires a lot of energy and so if a bee can visit 4 flowers rather than 3 flowers in the same time, then this is probably beneficial for the bee, and also the plants."



These pre-pattern strategies in flowers could have deep evolutionary roots, possibly influencing the diversity of flower patterns across different species. 



The research team, led by Dr. Edwige Moyroud, continues to dig into the signals that generate these early patterns and explore similar pre-patterning mechanisms in other plant organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture">Implications for agriculture</h2>



The newfound understanding of bullseye patterns' impact on pollinator behavior holds significant implications for both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation and agriculture</a>.



Enhancing our knowledge of these floral designs can aid in developing strategies to bolster pollinator visits, which is vital for the success of crops reliant on pollination. 



By aligning agricultural practices with these insights, farmers could potentially boost yields by modifying or selecting plant varieties with optimal bullseye patterns that are more attractive to pollinators, thereby improving pollination efficiency and crop production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-into-bullseye-patterns">Future research into bullseye patterns </h2>



The scope of research into bullseye patterns is set to expand, opening new avenues for discovery. Future studies may explore the genetic underpinnings that determine the formation and variability of these patterns in different floral species.



Unraveling the genetic and environmental factors that modulate bullseye dimensions can lead to unprecedented insights into plant-pollinator coevolution. 



Furthermore, exploring the application of computational models across diverse plant species could unveil universal principles of pattern formation, informing not only botanical science but also biomimetic design in technology and art.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-bullseyes-and-biodiversity">Bees, bullseyes, and biodiversity</h2>



This research not only advances our understanding of plant biology but also reinforces the intricate bonds between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-spring-flowers-can-save-bees-and-boost-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants and their environments</a>. 



The precision of natural designs plays a crucial role in species survival and evolution. The H. trionum, for example, with larger bullseye sizes, possibly attracts more pollinators, enhancing its reproductive success.



So, the next time you admire a flower, remember there's more to it than meets the eye. Beneath the surface beauty, there's a world of complex, precise patterns - nature's very own masterpiece.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp5574" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bees prefer flowers with large bullseyes

A new study reveals that bees and other pollinators are...

Antarctica’s rapidly shrinking sea ice could have a significant impact on the food supply of seabirds that breed far from the continent, according to new research. 



Most of the world’s albatrosses and their relatives, the petrels, breed on islands in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica. These seabirds rely on the nutrient-rich waters affected by the seasonal sea ice for feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-movement-of-seabirds">Monitoring the movement of seabirds</h2>



A study led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS) used satellite tracking technology to monitor the movements of these birds. 



The researchers discovered that albatrosses and petrels travel vast distances to reach areas affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-low-antarctic-sea-ice-and-rapid-melting-pace-stuns-climate-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a>, known as the Antarctic seasonal sea ice zone. 



This is where they either feed in the nutrient-dense waters left behind after the ice melts each summer or, in the case of southern giant petrels, scavenge for seals found on the ice itself.



Historically, Antarctica had not experienced the dramatic loss of sea ice seen in the Arctic. However, in the past five years, Antarctic sea ice has begun to retreat more rapidly.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-may-struggle-to-find-food">Seabirds may struggle to find food</h2>



The study suggests that as sea ice continues to decline, seabirds may be forced to fly further from their breeding grounds in search of food, or they may encounter shifts in where their food sources are located. This, in turn, could disrupt the ecosystems to which these seabirds belong.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2024.10333" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Progress in Oceanography</a>, the study provides new insight into how these changes in sea ice could affect bird populations that breed far from the continent. 



Study lead author Ewan Wakefield is a scientist from Durham University’s Department of Geography.



“Every winter, the sea freezes around Antarctica, with sea ice covering tens of millions of square miles. We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-uncovers-4000-years-of-foraging-behavior-among-albatrosses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">albatrosses</a> and large petrels travel hundreds of miles, some far into the area covered by this sea ice, and we think that they do this to feed,” said Wakefield. 



“In that case, Antarctica’s receding sea ice, driven by climate change, could affect not just the penguins, familiar to many people, that breed on the continent, but also huge numbers of seabirds breeding hundreds or thousands of miles away.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-species-rely-on-sea-ice">Many species rely on sea ice</h2>



The experts analyzed the movements of seven species of albatross and large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-snowstorms-impact-breeding-success-of-petrels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">petrel</a>, including northern and southern giant petrels, white-chinned petrels, and several species of albatross. 



Using satellite data collected between 1992 and 2023, the researchers tracked 2,497 foraging trips by 1,289 seabirds from South Georgia, a sub-Antarctic island about 1,000 miles from Antarctica. The research revealed that all seven species used sea ice-affected waters, though in different ways.&nbsp;



For example, albatrosses largely avoided ice-covered areas, likely because of the difficulty in flying or landing on the ice. Instead, they fed in regions where the ice had melted and released concentrated nutrients.&nbsp;



Southern giant petrels, on the other hand, ventured hundreds of miles into the pack ice during spring, likely scavenging for seals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-sea-ice-levels">Shrinking sea ice levels</h2>



The researchers also observed a seasonal pattern, with birds moving north and south in sync with plankton blooms in the oceans - a phenomenon known as green wave surfing.



During the period when the satellite data was recorded, Antarctic sea ice was relatively stable. However, recent summers have seen earlier retreats and record-low levels of seasonal sea ice.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalating-impacts-on-seabirds-nbsp">Escalating impacts on seabirds&nbsp;</h2>



According to Richard Phillips, co-author and leader of the Higher Predators and Conservation Group at BAS, these declines in sea ice, exacerbated by climate change, could worsen the already unsustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human impacts</a> on seabird populations.



While the study sheds light on how seabirds interact with sea ice-affected habitats, researchers acknowledge some limitations. They do not yet know exactly what the birds are eating in these areas, which future tracking and dietary studies aim to reveal.&nbsp;



Additionally, the resolution of the tracking data wasn’t fine enough to show exactly how birds interact with sea ice on a small scale. Finally, the study didn’t cover the entire breeding period for several species, so it remains unclear how they might use these habitats during other times of the year.



Despite these limitations, the study underscores the importance of understanding how Antarctic sea ice dynamics influence not only the continent’s wildlife but also the seabirds that breed far away in the Southern Ocean.



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Shrinking sea ice makes it harder for seabirds to find food

Antarctica’s rapidly shrinking sea ice could have a significant impact...

Fish, of all the creatures, have discovered the power of introspection. "Mirror, mirror on the wall, who's the fairest fish of all?" seems to be the question on every bluestreak cleaner wrasse's mind, according to an intriguing new study.



Imagine stumbling upon a fish meticulously gauging its size in the mirror before deciding if it should attack another fish. 



That is precisely the kind of behavior that was observed in the bluestreak cleaner wrasse, a brilliantly colored finger-sized coral reef fish.



This finding, which is the first of its kind, dethrones the belief that such levels of self-awareness are exclusive to higher mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mirror-test-of-fishes">Mirror test of fishes</h2>



Scientists have used the "mirror test" as a classic indicator of an animal's self-awareness, measuring whether the creature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recognizes its reflection</a> as its own. This new study shows that the cleaner wrasse doesn't just recognize itself, it's also sizing itself up. 



The research group, including <a href="https://www.omu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka Metropolitan University</a> Graduate School of Science student Taiga Kobayashi, set up a series of tests.



The tests were designed to assess the fish’s propensity to attack when faced with an image of another fish, either 10% larger or smaller than themselves.



"Regardless of the size of the fish in the photo, the real ones attacked," reported the researchers. 



But, here's where it gets interesting. The presence of a mirror influenced the decision of whether to attack or not. After checking their reflection, the fish opted to lock fins with the smaller fish's image and steered clear of the larger one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-level-of-self-awareness">Surprising level of self-awareness </h2>



This study raises several intriguing questions. Chief among them - how did the bluestreak cleaner wrasse, living in a world devoid of mirrors, evolve to use its reflection as a decision-making tool?



One possible theory points to the benefits of sizing themselves against a potential threat before attacking.



"These findings suggest that cleaner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-fish-can-walk-and-thrive-on-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> likely possess two mental states: a mental image of their body and internal standards for comparing body size," said Kobayashi.



Could the survival instincts have led to the development of this surprising level of self-awareness?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-recognition-in-fish">Self-recognition in fish</h2>



The discovery of the bluestreak cleaner wrasse's ability to engage in self-reflection prompts a reevaluation of evolutionary theories regarding self-recognition.



Traditionally, self-awareness has been considered an advanced cognitive trait emerging in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> with complex social structures and large brains. However, the relatively small-brained cleaner wrasse challenges these assumptions.



This revelation invites scientists to explore alternative evolutionary pathways that may have led to the development of self-awareness in fish. 



Could it be that ecological demands, such as complex social interactions within the reef environment, have driven the evolution of this cognitive skill? 



These questions highlight the broader implications of this study, offering a new lens through which to investigate the cognitive lives of aquatic species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-conservation-efforts">Broader conservation efforts</h2>



Extending the insights gained from this study beyond the realm of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, the compelling evidence of advanced cognitive abilities in the bluestreak cleaner wrasse encourages a broader examination of animal cognition.



By highlighting the sophistication of fish intelligence, this research may pave the way for a more inclusive understanding of biodiversity, emphasizing the cognitive capacities across various species. 



These findings on fish using mirrors could influence conservation efforts by advocating for the preservation of species that display complex behavioral traits.



Recognizing the mental worlds of creatures like the cleaner wrasse might inspire a wave of appreciation and protection for marine life, prompting further studies to uncover the depths of animal cognition nestled within the world's oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-understanding-of-self-awareness">A new understanding of self-awareness</h2>



The cleaner wrasse's behavior broadens our understanding of self-awareness, not just in animals, but also in humans. 



Can we draw parallels between human and animal self-awareness? Could this fishy behavior shed light on how self-awareness evolved over time?



"The results that fish can use the mirror as a tool can help clarify the similarities between human and non-human animal self-awareness and provide important clues to elucidate how self-awareness has evolved," said Kobayashi.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-70138-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Fish sizes itself up in a mirror before going into combat

Fish, of all the creatures, have discovered the power of...

If you've ever wondered how paleontologists figure out what animals from millions of years ago ate, their secret lies in the extraordinary fossils they find. Recently, they stumbled upon a fascinating discovery that shattered a long-standing hypothesis. Fossilized fruit seeds in the stomachs of ancient dinosaur birds with sharp teeth.



It's the first evidence that contradicts a widely held notion that this particular bird species, called Longipteryx chaoyangensis, feasted on fish or insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longipteryx-chaoyangensis">Longipteryx chaoyangensis</h2>



Longipteryx chaoyangensis, the fruit-eater, lived 120 million years ago in present-day northeastern China. With a long skull and teeth only at the tip of its beak, this bluejay-sized bird is a favorite amongst paleontologists for its peculiar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-bird-may-soon-go-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">features</a>.



Alex Clark is a PhD student at the Field Museum and the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and a co-author of the paper.



“Tooth enamel is the hardest substance in the body, and&nbsp;Longipteryx’s tooth enamel is 50 microns thick. That’s the same thickness of the enamel on enormous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predatory dinosaurs</a> like&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;that weighed 4,000 pounds, but&nbsp;Longipteryx&nbsp;is the size of a bluejay,” said Clark. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-diet-of-a-bird-with-sharp-teeth">Fruit diet of a bird with sharp teeth</h2>



Upon its discovery in 2000, the Longipteryx, with its kingfisher-like elongated skull, was thought to be a fish hunter. 



Study lead author Jingmai O’Connor, associate curator of fossil reptiles in the Field Museum’s Neguanee Integrative Research Center (<a href="https://nirc.fieldmuseum.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRC</a>), examined two Longipteryx specimens and found fossilized food in their stomachs.



A colleague confirmed these to be seeds from the fruits of an ancient tree, thus contradicting the previous hunting hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-feasters-with-mysterious-teeth">Fruit feasters with mysterious teeth</h2>



Living in a temperate climate, Longipteryx probably feasted on fruits seasonally, turning to insects when fruits weren't available.



This discovery is significant as it marks the first time stomach contents from an Enantiornithine - the larger group of prehistoric birds that Longipteryx belonged to - have been found.



"Although diet is directly documented in several early-diverging avian lineages, only a single specimen preserves evidence of diet in Enantiornithes, the dominant group of terrestrial Cretaceous birds," noted the researchers.



With the diet question resolved, a new mystery arose: what was the purpose of the Longipteryx's weapon-like teeth? 



The experts hypothesized that these strong teeth and beak evolved under social or sexual selection, serving as a weapon during combats. 



Interestingly, modern hummingbirds exhibit similar behavior, using keratinous projections on their beaks to compete for resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-capabilities-of-longipteryx">Flight capabilities of Longipteryx</h2>



The structural anatomy of Longipteryx suggests that it possessed remarkable flight capabilities for its time. 



Comparative analysis with other avian species indicates that Longipteryx had a robust wing architecture, which likely helped it maneuver dense forested areas.



The researchers theorize that the bird's elongated wings and specialized shoulder joints allowed for rapid bursts of speed, essential for evading predators or catching fast-moving prey like insects during periods of fruit scarcity.



With these traits, Longipteryx exemplifies an evolutionary advantage in its niche, combining versatility in diet with physical adeptness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-avian-evolution">Implications for avian evolution</h2>



The recent findings on Longipteryx's fruit diet and teeth morphology contribute significantly to our understanding of bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, particularly in the Cretaceous period. 



The discovery of fruit consumption challenges the homogeneity of early avian diets, suggesting a diversification that could have been key in the adaptive success of birds. 



Furthermore, the dual-purpose nature of Longipteryx's beak - both for feeding and potential combat - highlights the complexity of evolutionary pressures on early birds.



These insights prompt a re-evaluation of the ecological roles that such prehistoric species played, providing a richer context for how modern avians might have inherited and adapted these ancestral traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-animal-behaviors-beyond-diet">Complex animal behaviors beyond diet</h2>



This discovery is a significant step for paleontologists, challenging their reliance on physical characteristics as the sole indicators of an animal's behavior and lifestyle. O’Connor emphasizes the need to consider complex behaviors beyond diet when examining structures like beaks.



By reconstructing Longipteryx's lifestyle, we now know that it was a fruit-feasting bird with a beak full of weaponized teeth, quite possibly used for interspecies combat. This bird may have enjoyed a peaceful meal of fruits but when needed, it wasn't afraid to show its teeth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01124-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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This ancient bird ate fruit, so why did it have teeth like a carnivore?

If you've ever wondered how paleontologists figure out what animals...

Have you ever paused to consider the hidden world of insect communication? For over 30 years, a scientist named Rex Cocroft has dedicated his career to understanding this fascinating arena. 



With a background in music and biology, Cocroft's work has been recognized across the globe, earning him a feature in a BBC documentary series and even inspiring fellow researchers to name a new species of treehoppers, Cladonota rex, in his honor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treehoppers-communicate-using-vibrations">Treehoppers communicate using vibrations</h2>



Treehoppers are tiny insects that inhabit every continent except Antarctica. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small creatures</a> have advanced communication systems that are as intriguing as they are mysterious. 



The insects communicate by sending vibrations through a plant’s leaves and stem, almost like a silent symphony that humans cannot detect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sending-messages-through-vibrations">Sending messages through vibrations</h2>



"Treehoppers have vibration sensors that detect when their legs move up and down, and they are extremely sensitive to that kind of motion," explained Cocroft, who is a biologist at the <a href="https://missouri.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a>.



These vibrations work much like our sense of sound, allowing treehoppers to convey messages and signals. But remember, what we perceive as silence, is a robust conversation for treehoppers.



Cocroft uses unique sensors that function like guitar amplifiers. "Piezoelectric materials produce an electrical current when under mechanical stress," he noted. 



So, by using a piezo disk, the vibrations become an electrical signal that can be amplified, allowing him to tune into the chat between the bugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treehoppers-diverse-way-of-communicating">Treehoppers' diverse way of communicating</h2>



Treehoppers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communicate</a> by vibrating different parts of their bodies, which transmits vibrations via their legs to the plant stem. 



Interestingly, these creatures can also mimic cicadas by creating a clicking sound, and some can even create song-like sounds that vary in pitch, tone, and volume.



"Treehoppers typically have several different types of signals in their repertoire, and they are good at distinguishing between those and responding appropriately," explained Cocroft. It might not be what we usually associate with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beneficial-insects-are-severely-impacted-by-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> sounds, but the mechanics of producing and transmitting these sounds are unique.



"With more than 3,000 species of treehoppers worldwide, every species has different songs, so you don’t know what you’re going to hear until you begin to listen," said Cocroft.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musician-turned-biologist">Musician turned biologist</h2>



Having been drawn to the piano during his high school days, Cocroft initially pursued a degree in music in college. 



But the call of biology, a childhood passion, was too strong for him to ignore. After a stint as a research assistant at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Cocroft's interest in animal communication took flight, a journey that led him to the fascinating world of treehoppers. 



"Communication is such a key part of the behavior of any animal,” said Cocroft, who embodies a unique blend of passion, curiosity, and dedication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-for-survival">Communication for survival</h2>



One might wonder, what evolutionary advantage does such complex communication provide to treehoppers? These small insects are not just engaging in idle chatter; their communication is essential for survival and reproduction. 



Through vibrational signals, treehoppers can relay alarms about potential predators, coordinate collective movements, and even engage in mating duets, where males and females signal back and forth to evaluate compatibility. 



Such intricate layers of communication have likely evolved to ensure that treehoppers can efficiently interact with their environment and make adaptive decisions critical for their biodiversity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-insect-communication">Secrets of insect communication</h2>



Reflecting on decades of research, Cocroft is optimistic about the future of studying insect communication. 



With advancing technology, researchers are poised to uncover even more secrets about how treehoppers and other insects communicate. 



Innovations in sensor technology and computational analysis promise to deepen the understanding of vibrational ecology and its implications across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. 



Cocroft envisions a future where these insights could impact agriculture, conservation, and even robotics, by emulating the efficient communication systems found in nature. 



"We are just scratching the surface of what these tiny creatures can teach us about communication and adaptation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-sounds-of-treehoppers">Subtle sounds of treehoppers </h2>



As we appreciate the subtle sounds of treehoppers, we witness the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nighttime-buzz-insect-activity-increases-by-31-4-at-night/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boundless wonders</a> that nature has to offer.



For over 30 years, Cocroft has studied these insects and their unique communication strategies, bringing closer to us a world that's often overlooked. 



And even as we marvel at these discoveries, it's clear that there's still much left to be understood. "I’ve always liked the exploration side of natural history, and there’s a lot we can still discover about how insects like treehoppers communicate," said Cocroft.



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Treehoppers secretly communicate by making plants vibrate

Have you ever paused to consider the hidden world of...

The Amazon rainforest is a unique biodiversity hotspot, home to an astonishing array of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Many of these species are restricted to specific regions, but the reasons behind this have long puzzled scientists. 



Now, a new international study, led by the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Center for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> (UKCEH), offers fresh insights into the Amazon's evolution during the last Ice Age, between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-ecosystems-of-the-amazon">Fragile ecosystems of the Amazon</h2>



The research challenges long-standing beliefs about how the Amazon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> responded to climatic changes during the Ice Age. 



The findings suggest that the Amazon is far more sensitive to environmental fluctuations than previously thought, providing yet another reminder of the dangers posed by rapid, human-induced climate change and large-scale land use shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interconnected-refuge-for-specialized-species">Interconnected refuge for specialized species</h2>



For years, scientists have debated whether, during the Ice Age, the Amazon was divided into isolated “forest islands” known as refugia, or whether the forest remained continuous, similar to its current expanse.&nbsp;



The UKCEH-led study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44185-024-00056-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biodiversity</a>, offers a new perspective: while forest islands existed, they were connected by woodlands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazons-rainforests-are-at-risk-of-transforming-into-dry-grassy-savannas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">savannas</a>. This allowed certain adaptable animals to move between different habitats, while acting as a barrier for more specialized species that rely on specific ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-of-the-amazon">Biodiversity of the Amazon</h2>



The vegetation and climate of a region play a key role in natural evolution. As environmental conditions changed, animals across the Amazon adapted, leading to the emergence of new species in different areas. This process explains why the Amazon hosts such a diverse range of life today.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate changes</a> in the past played a huge role in shaping how the Amazon forest looked and where it grew. Similar changes are coming very soon and much faster,” said lead author Douglas Kelley, a land surface modeler at UKCEH. 



“Previously, fluctuations in climate took thousands of years to happen, enabling plants and animals to adapt, but now significant global warming is happening within decades due to increasing human-driven greenhouse gas emissions.”



The research team included scientists from institutions such as the <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/forest-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ontario Forest Research Institute</a>, Kiel University in Germany, the UK’s Met Office, and the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-biodiversity-of-the-ice-age-nbsp">Amazon biodiversity of the Ice Age&nbsp;</h2>



By combining advanced climate and vegetation modeling with fossilized pollen records from sediment, the experts were able to create detailed predictions of the types of plants that thrived in the Amazon during the Ice Age. Previous research had largely relied on single techniques, but this study incorporated a broader range of data and methods.



Crucially, the researchers considered the gaps between areas where fossilized pollen has been found and analyzed whether animals could have moved between these habitats.&nbsp;



Computer and statistical models predicted what types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-vegetation-database-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> likely existed in these in-between areas, verifying the team's predictions with the plant types recorded in adjacent regions.



During the Ice Age, the Amazon’s forest cover was dramatically reduced due to the colder, drier climate. Lower levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, along with dry conditions, limited tree growth and led to more frequent wildfires, which destroyed large portions of the forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-nature-of-the-research-nbsp">Innovative nature of the research&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Dr. Hiromitsu Sato of the Ontario Forest Research Institute highlighted the innovative nature of the team's approach.&nbsp;



“We believe our study, involving integrated modeling methods, provides the best evidence to date on the origins of the rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-impact-of-fire-on-amazon-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in the Amazon,” said Dr. Sato.



“Using land surface modeling to provide crucial information on biodiversity is a new and very exciting innovation that could be used in future to investigate the history of species where there is a shortage of data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-amazon-diversity-of-the-past">Understanding Amazon diversity of the past</h2>



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to explore how various groups of Amazonian species - such as monkeys, frogs, antbirds, butterflies, and lianas - diverged over thousands of years in response to changing environments.&nbsp;



By continuing to investigate the intricate relationship between climate, vegetation, and species evolution, the team hopes to gain a deeper understanding of the Amazon’s past - and how this knowledge can inform efforts to protect its future in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.



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How the Amazon became a biodiversity hotspot

The Amazon rainforest is a unique biodiversity hotspot, home to...

Our relationship with dogs is far from being just about master and pet. We are linked on a deep, neuronal level, where the hum of our minds becomes synchronized. This was confirmed in a recent study that opens a new chapter in our understanding of human-dog interactions and pain symptoms.



The research shows that during joyful moments of mutual gaze and petting, our brainwaves synchronize with those of our canine companions. What is especially intriguing is the occurrence of this synchronization in the brain's frontal and parietal regions, closely linked with attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-dog-interactions-and-synchronization">Human-dog interactions and synchronization </h2>



The synchronization is not quick. It takes a five-day period to increase its intensity, suggesting that growing familiarity strengthens this bond. But the leadership in this intricate process doesn't fall into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-provide-insight-into-human-cognition-and-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paws of our furry friends</a>. Tests indicate that it's us humans who lead, with dogs graciously following our steps.



Scientists have also found something unexpected - dogs with genetic mutations causing social impairment symptoms, similar to autism spectrum disorder characteristics, show a marked loss of synchronization. Yet, a single treatment with LSD can reverse these anomalies.



“There are two implications of the present study: one is that the disrupted inter-brain synchronization might be used as a biomarker for autism, and the other is LSD or its derivatives might ameliorate the social symptoms of autism,” said corresponding author Yong Q. Zhang, PhD, of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, in Beijing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-comfort-in-times-of-pain">Dog comfort in times of pain</h2>



Life is full of ups and downs, and naturally, we seek the comfort of loved ones in hard times. But did you know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> companions might be a better option for recovery than our human counterparts?



A study led by Dr. Heidi Mauersberger from Humboldt University's Department of Psychology presents the soothing power of dogs in a new light.



The compelling findings suggest that the mere presence of a dog, or even a comforting cuddle, can reduce feelings of pain post-recovery more effectively than a human's presence.



Dr. Mauersberger and her team conducted two separate experiments, focusing solely on physical pain. Interestingly, the experiments revealed that participants reported less pain and showed less pain behavior, like grimacing or complaining, in the presence of a dog compared to when a fellow human was around.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-quality-of-pain-patients">Life quality of pain patients</h2>



So, why are dogs potentially better at comforting us in times of pain? Dogs provide unconditional, non-evaluative support, unlike humans, who may unintentionally judge or demand socially. 



The presence of a dog could just be the soothing balm one needs, minus the pressure of living up to any social expectations.



Despite the study being focused on the perception of pain, the findings indicate that dogs could play a vital role in improving the quality of life for pain patients by reducing pain-related disability and depressiveness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonding-between-dogs-and-humans">Bonding between dogs and humans</h2>



Dogs possess a unique ability to tap into the neurochemical orchestra that governs our emotions and bonding behaviors. 



Scientific investigations have unveiled the role of oxytocin, often dubbed the "love hormone," in fortifying human-dog relationships. When humans and dogs interact through gazing or physical affection, there is a reciprocal increase in oxytocin levels, promoting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-understand-that-some-words-refer-to-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tighter bond</a>. 



This hormonal response not only deepens our attachment but may also contribute to reduced stress levels and enhanced emotional well-being. 



Such findings highlight the complexity of interspecies interaction, suggesting that dogs can be instrumental in augmenting human quality of life through both psychological and physiological avenues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-directions">Implications and future directions</h2>



Given the burgeoning evidence of the benefits associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interactions-with-dogs-relieve-stress-and-heighten-concentration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-dog interactions</a>, particularly in therapeutic contexts, there is a need to explore innovative applications. 



Therapy dogs are already making their mark in various healthcare settings - offering companionship to the elderly, aiding in emotional recovery for trauma survivors, and supporting individuals with mental health conditions.



Future research directions could focus on quantifying these benefits across different demographics and ailments, potentially leading to the development of new treatments that leverage the strength of the human-canine bond.



Ultimately, acknowledging and harnessing this profound connection could pave the way for transformative advances in both individual and communal health paradigms.



Our relationship with dogs runs deep, beyond simple companionship. From synchronized brainwave patterns to the comforting presence in times of pain, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medium-sized-dogs-have-a-greater-risk-of-developing-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> have shown their profound influence on our neurological and psychological states.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202402493" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Science</a>.



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Interacting with dogs can ease physical pain

Our relationship with dogs is far from being just about...

The first genetic evidence of feline coronavirus (FCoV) transmission between a captive wild and a domestic cat has been uncovered by researchers at the Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine.



This breakthrough, made possible by an innovative hybridization-capture next-generation sequencing technique, could have significant implications for addressing feline coronavirus and other diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transmission-pathways-of-feline-coronavirus">Transmission pathways of feline coronavirus</h2>



Gary Whittaker is the James Law Professor of Virology at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> and corresponding author of the study. “We don't fully know what FCoV is capable of and how it transmits,” noted Professor Whittaker.&nbsp;



This new research sheds light on the transmission pathways of feline coronavirus and its potential consequences for both domestic and wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-learn-the-names-of-their-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a>.



Study first author Ximena Olarte Castillo is a postdoctoral associate in the lab of co-author Laura Goodman, assistant professor in the Department of Public and Ecosystem Health and the Baker Institute for Animal Health.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-distinct-types-of-feline-coronavirus-nbsp">Two distinct types of feline coronavirus&nbsp;</h2>



Together, the experts investigated the transmission dynamics of feline coronavirus, focusing on two distinct genotypes of the virus, types 1 and 2. These genotypes are distinguished by their spike (S) protein, which influences the kinds of cells the virus can infect.&nbsp;



Specific mutations in either version of feline coronavirus can cause the virus to transition from a low pathogenic form to a highly pathogenic one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feline-infectious-peritonitis">Feline infectious peritonitis</h2>



While feline coronavirus generally causes mild symptoms in most domestic cats and can persist for years without major problems, some strains mutate and lead to feline infectious peritonitis (FIP).&nbsp;



First described in 1963 by Jean Holzworth, feline infectious peritonitis is a severe disease that often results in systemic and neurological issues.&nbsp;



Until the recent development of antiviral treatments, including the compound GS-441524, feline infectious peritonitis was almost always fatal. Currently, there is no effective vaccine to prevent FIP in cats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transmission-risks-for-wild-cats">Transmission risks for wild cats</h2>



Due to their genetic proximity to domestic cats, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-wildcats-avoided-breeding-with-domestic-cats-for-2000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild felids</a> may also be vulnerable to feline coronavirus infections and feline infectious peritonitis.&nbsp;



Wild cats are at risk of contracting diseases like feline coronavirus when they come into contact with food meant for stray domestic cats, increasing the likelihood of transmission.&nbsp;



Recently, Professor Whittaker and other researchers have been investigating a new outbreak of FCoV-2 among feral, stray, and free-roaming cats in Cyprus, where there has been a sharp rise in virus-related deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-feline-coronavirus-spreads">How feline coronavirus spreads</h2>



The study also revisits a 2008 case of FCoV-1 transmission between a domestic cat and a young Pallas’ cat at a U.S. zoo. Both animals shared a room and died from feline infectious peritonitis.&nbsp;



Using frozen tissue samples from both cats, the researchers sought to uncover more about how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-have-eyes-and-ears-on-their-hosts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> spreads between species.



“By using a semi-targeted approach - known as hybridization capture - together with next-generation sequencing, we were able to detect and sequence the whole genome of FCoV-1 in both the domestic cat and the Pallas' cat tissues,” said Olarte Castillo.&nbsp;



This advanced technique allowed the researchers to overcome the challenges of sequencing the highly variable S gene, which had previously hindered efforts to understand feline coronavirus in wild felids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-outbreaks-nbsp">Preparing for future outbreaks&nbsp;</h2>



This retrospective study demonstrated the power of hybridization-capture sequencing as a tool for outbreak response.&nbsp;



Now that the technology has proven effective, Professor Whittaker and his team are better prepared for future outbreaks. The <a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Feline Health Center</a> (FHC) recently funded the acquisition of a NextSeq 1000 sequencer, which is housed in the <a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/baker-institute" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baker Institute</a>’s labs, enabling rapid responses to emerging viral strains.



“The FHC made a big investment so that - in the case of a future outbreak - we can be ready and very quick to determine what strain we're dealing with,” said Goodman. This rapid response capability will allow clinicians to swiftly respond to new threats and contain outbreaks more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-feline-coronavirus-surveillance">Improving feline coronavirus surveillance  </h2>



“This study is highly impactful in that it not only provides the first evidence of transmission of FCoV-1 between a domestic cat and a wild felid, but also because it does so utilizing cutting-edge technology that can be applied to improve surveillance efforts for FCoV and other pathogens in both domestic and wild feline species worldwide,” said Bruce Kornreich, director of the FHC.



Looking ahead, the researchers aim to use sequencing to better understand the potential of feline coronavirus for drug resistance, particularly as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/willow-bark-may-contain-life-saving-antiviral-medications/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antiviral treatments</a> for FIP become more common.&nbsp;



Additionally, the findings will contribute to future conservation and management strategies to protect both domestic and wild cat populations.



“We need to get baseline knowledge to figure out what kind of stewardship is needed looking into the future,” Whittaker concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.00061-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbiology Spectrum</a>.



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Feline coronavirus is passed between domestic and wild cats

The first genetic evidence of feline coronavirus (FCoV) transmission between...

Viruses are expert parasites, having evolved to infect a variety of host species. Some viruses, known as arboviruses, use insects to spread their infections to other hosts, such as humans and animals.&nbsp;



Understanding how these viruses move through insect hosts could provide key insights for blocking their transmission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virus-movement-within-insects">Virus movement within insects</h2>



A recent study published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.00540-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Virology</a> sheds light on how viruses strategically move within their insect hosts, and how this movement aids in the spread of infection to other animals. 



This knowledge is especially important for addressing viruses like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-zika-transmit-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zika</a>, dengue, and West Nile virus, which are transmitted from insects to humans and livestock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-specific-routes">Navigating specific routes</h2>



“Viruses that use insects as hosts must navigate specific routes through different insect tissues to complete their life cycles. The routes may differ substantially depending on the life cycle of the virus,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;



“Both insect pathogenic viruses and insect-vectored viruses must navigate through the polarized cells of the midgut epithelium to establish a systemic infection. In addition, insect-vectored viruses must also navigate through the polarized salivary gland epithelium for transmission.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-paths-of-proteins-nbsp">Tracing the paths of proteins&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate viral movement, the researchers used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-travel-six-million-times-their-body-length/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a> as a model to trace the paths of proteins from two different viruses. One virus was insect-specific, while the other could infect both insects and animals, including humans.&nbsp;



By studying these viral proteins, the team gained a better understanding of how they navigate through insect hosts to facilitate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-could-promote-the-spread-of-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission</a>.



“Using Drosophila as a model to examine tissue-specific polarized trafficking of these viral envelope proteins, we identified one of the virus-encoded signals and several host proteins associated with regulating the polarized trafficking in the midgut epithelium,” explained the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precise-movement-of-viruses-nbsp">Precise movement of viruses&nbsp;</h2>



Gary Blissard is a professor at the <a href="https://btiscience.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> and co-lead author of the study.



“Even when expressed on their own, without the rest of the virus, these proteins moved to precisely the correct locations in the insect cells,” said Professor Blissard.



In the insect’s gut, the viral proteins migrated to the bottom of the cells, positioning themselves to move into the insect’s body cavity. This movement set the stage for the viruses to spread further.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-behavior-of-the-viral-proteins-nbsp">Varying behavior of the viral proteins&nbsp;</h2>



In the salivary glands, however, the two viral proteins behaved differently. While the protein from the insect-only virus still moved to the cell's bottom, the protein from the virus capable of infecting animals often shifted to the top of the cells. 



This is an ideal location for assembling new virus particles and releasing them into the saliva, ready to infect another animal host.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-gps-signals-nbsp">Guided by “GPS” signals&nbsp;</h2>



This precise positioning is critical to the viruses’ life cycles and ability to spread. It’s almost as if the viral proteins have an internal “GPS” guiding them to the right locations within the insect host.&nbsp;



The study revealed that this “GPS” is made up of amino acid sequence signals encoded in the viral proteins themselves.



These signals are recognized by the host insect’s own protein transport systems, which help direct the viral proteins to their target destinations. The researchers also identified parts of the insect's cellular machinery that the viral proteins hijack to reach their final locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-the-movement-of-viruses">Disrupting the movement of viruses</h2>



This discovery opens the door to potential new strategies for combating virus transmission. 



If scientists can find a way to disrupt the viral proteins' GPS or the cellular machinery they rely on, it may be possible to prevent the viruses from reaching or leaving the salivary glands of the insect. 



This could effectively block the virus from using the insect as a vector, halting its spread to new hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



“Our research highlights the incredible adaptations viruses have evolved to navigate through complex biological systems such as insects,” said Nicolas Buchon, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>’s Department of Entomology and co-lead author of the study.&nbsp;



“It's a reminder of the continuous evolutionary arms race between viruses and their hosts and the importance of basic research in understanding these intricate biological processes.”



By uncovering the molecular mechanisms behind viral movement within insects, this research paves the way for new approaches to controlling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect-borne diseases</a>. 



This knowledge could also have applications in managing agricultural pests, ultimately leading to better public health measures and improved crop protection in the future.



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Viruses use ‘GPS’ to move precisely within insects 

Viruses are expert parasites, having evolved to infect a variety...

Islands, with their limited resources yet reduced competition, create a milieu of unique survival challenges. Isolated from their mainland brethren, island-dwelling animals adapt in fascinating ways to squeeze out a living.&nbsp;



These evolutionary adaptations can range from changes in physical size, termed as island dwarfism or gigantism, to alterations in behaviors and metabolic rates. 



But what happens when these slow-paced island inhabitants encounter rapid, human-induced changes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-vs-mainland-animals">Island vs mainland animals</h2>



The scientific community, till now, didn't have much clarity about how the metabolic rates of island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/island-bird-communities-are-changing-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> differ from those on the mainland.



Dr. Roberto Rozzi of <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a>, along with his team of researchers from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> and the <a href="https://ic.sicau.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sichuan Agricultural University</a>, aimed to fill this knowledge gap. 



Through a comprehensive analysis of data from 2,813 vertebrate species, encompassing both warm-blooded creatures like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and mammals and cold-blooded ones such as reptiles and amphibians, they made some intriguing observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-pace-of-island-life">Slow pace of island life</h2>



After sifting through the data, it appeared that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-on-islands-loses-diversity-when-humans-arrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and mammals living on islands tend to have slower metabolism than their counterparts on the mainland.&nbsp;



This slow pace extends to their reproductive cycles too, with these animals producing offspring at a later stage.&nbsp;



According to Rozzi, these adaptations are all about maximizing chances of survival and reproduction in island environments, where resources can be limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-achilles-heel-of-island-animals">Achilles heel of island animals</h2>



This slow pace of life, while beneficial in untouched island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>, becomes a vulnerability when faced with rapid changes -- mainly those induced by human activities. 



Island dwellers already stand out due to their unique sizes, but their slow metabolism and delayed reproduction make them particularly susceptible to external threats.&nbsp;



They become easy targets for non-native predators, including humans, and struggle to recover swiftly from environmental disturbances such as invasive species introduction or habitat loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-island-species">Saving island species</h2>



The findings from this study are crucial in identifying and protecting vulnerable island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-birds-use-sophisticated-thermoregulation-strategies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.&nbsp;



Taking cue from Rozzi's conclusion, conservation efforts should consider the unique physiological differences between these animals and their mainland counterparts, and not just their peculiar sizes.&nbsp;



The secret to their survival lies in understanding their slower pace of life and factoring that into their protection measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-climate-change">Role of climate change</h2>



Climate change poses an additional layer of threat to island ecosystems, exacerbating the challenges faced by their inhabitants.&nbsp;



Rising sea levels, shifting weather patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events can drastically alter the delicate balance of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isolated environments</a>.&nbsp;



For instance, saltwater intrusion into freshwater habitats can lead to profound ecological shifts, while changes in temperature may disrupt breeding and feeding patterns of native species.&nbsp;



The interplay between these climate-driven changes and the unique adaptations of island fauna must be closely examined to better forecast potential impacts and devise effective conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-research-on-island-animal-conservation">Bridging research on island animal conservation</h2>



Turning scientific discoveries into effective conservation strategies is all about teamwork. It takes researchers, policymakers, and local communities working hand in hand. 



When we engage island communities in these efforts, we not only create a sense of ownership but also weave in their traditional ecological knowledge with modern practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-funding-insights">Funding insights</h2>



By bringing together experts from various fields like ecology, climate science, and social science, we can tackle the tough challenges that island ecosystems face. 



Bridging the gap between research and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> allows us to develop thoughtful, culturally sensitive ways to protect these unique wildlife populations and their habitats for future generations. Let's work together to make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



"In order to better protect the remaining island species, conservation efforts would benefit from taking into account the unique morphological and physiological differences between these animals and their mainland counterparts," concludes Rozzi.



In a nutshell, the slow pace of island life, once an evolutionary advantage, is now a vulnerability in the face of rapid, human-induced changes.



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This important research was facilitated by funds from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation), the Scientific Research Foundation, and National Natural Science Foundation in China.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adm8240" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Slower pace of 'island life' is as true for animals as it is for humans

Islands, with their limited resources yet reduced competition, create a...

A recent discovery of dinosaur tracks along Australia’s southern coast, dating back to the Early Cretaceous when the continent was still connected to Antarctica, suggests that large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flesh-eating-theropods-were-extremely-fast/">theropod</a> dinosaurs thrived in this polar environment. 



These carnivorous dinosaurs roamed the river floodplains during the summers when the ice thawed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-theropods-thriving-in-polar-regions">Evidence of theropods thriving in polar regions</h2>



The experts recently published an analysis of the dinosaur tracks, found in the Wonthaggi Formation, located south of Melbourne. 



The tracks, made between 120 and 128 million years ago, include 18 belonging to theropods, alongside four from ornithopods, small herbivorous dinosaurs that may have been prey for the theropods.



“These numerous tracks are the best evidence yet that these former polar environments supported large carnivores,” said Anthony Martin, lead author of the study and a professor at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a>’s Department of Environmental Sciences. 



“The large theropods would likely have fed on prey such as smaller dinosaurs, fish, and turtles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traces-of-ancient-life">Traces of ancient life</h2>



Theropods, meaning “wild beast foot” in Greek, are a clade of bipedal dinosaurs with three clawed toes. They belong to the same evolutionary group as famous species like Allosaurus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/were-there-three-distinct-species-of-tyrannosaurus-rex/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>, and Velociraptor.



The largest theropod track in this discovery measures 18.5 inches in length. “The hip height of that theropod would have been about the same as the full height of a tall, modern-day human - or a bit more than six feet tall,” Martin said.



Martin is a geologist and paleontologist with a particular focus on ichnology - the study of traces left behind by ancient life, such as tracks, burrows, nests, and tooth marks.



The research team also included Patricia Vickers-Rich, a paleontology professor at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, and Thomas Rich, a vertebrate paleontology curator at <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a>. Since the 1970s, the couple has spearheaded efforts to uncover fossils in Victoria, Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-polar-winters">Extreme polar winters</h2>



Victoria’s coastal rock layers mark where Gondwana, the ancient supercontinent, began to break apart roughly 100 million years ago, separating Australia from Antarctica. At that time, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-polar-regions-changing-fundamental-alarming-ways/">polar environment</a> was a rift valley crisscrossed by braided rivers.&nbsp;



Although the average air temperature was warmer during the Cretaceous, the polar winters experienced freezing temperatures and months of darkness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-dinosaur-fossils-nbsp">Polar dinosaur fossils&nbsp;</h2>



The Wonthaggi Formation is one of the richest sources of polar dinosaur fossils in the Southern Hemisphere, though most finds have been small fragments of bones and teeth, likely transported by spring floods before burial.



“Our find of so many theropod tracks, however, confirms that a variety of dinosaurs actually lived and walked on the ground where their bones were found,” Martin noted. “Dinosaur tracks are actually much more common at the site than we previously realized.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-theropod-tracks">Discovery of the theropod tracks</h2>



In 2007, Martin and his colleagues announced the discovery of three theropod tracks in the Wonthaggi Formation. However, it wasn’t until the social disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic that more tracks were uncovered, thanks to the dedication of co-author Melissa Lowery.&nbsp;



A volunteer fossil hunter for Monash University, Lowery, often referred to as “the doyenne of dinosaur discovery,” has made hundreds of finds over the years.



“Melissa had a lot more time to go prospecting during the height of the pandemic,” Martin said. 



“While many of us were home watching reruns of Jurassic Park, she was out finding dinosaur tracks. She has this incredible eye that allows her to pick out distinctive patterns from surrounding materials. I call it ‘ichno-vision.’ It’s her superpower.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-identifying-the-tracks">Challenges in identifying the tracks</h2>



The newly discovered tracks likely formed when the dinosaurs walked on wet sand or mud in the floodplain. 



Mud, being soft and malleable, can collapse into fresh footprints, often creating messy fossil tracks that might be missing a toe or other identifiable features, making them harder to spot.



“Another problem with identifying these tracks is that many of them are underwater twice in a 24-hour period when the tide comes in,” Martin said. “All sorts of modern marine life, including algae, tube worms, barnacles, and clams, have encrusted on, and partially eroded, some of the tracks.”



Of the 24 tracks detailed in the paper, 18 belong to theropods, ranging in size from seven to 18.5 inches. These tracks are recognized by their relatively thin toes ending in sharp claws.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-ornithopod-tracks">Discovery of ornithopod tracks</h2>



Four tracks, ranging in size from four to seven inches, were made by ornithopods - the first such tracks found in the Wonthaggi Formation.



Ornithopods, whose name comes from the Greek for “bird feet,” were small herbivorous dinosaurs with thicker toes capped by blunt claws. These bipedal creatures grew to about three feet in length.



To preserve the newly discovered track specimens, Peter Swinkels, a taxidermist at Museums Victoria Research Institute, made field moldings and casts. Martin conducted further analysis at the site in May 2022 after pandemic travel restrictions were lifted.



Helping with data collection and mapping of the tracks was Doris Seegets-Villiers, a paleontologist from <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/">Swinburne University of Technology</a> in Victoria. Additionally, John Broomfield, media production manager at Museums Victoria, created 3D digital images of the tracks for further analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-movement-during-the-polar-summer-nbsp">Dinosaur movement during the polar summer&nbsp;</h2>



The tracks were preserved in floodplain deposits near channel sandstones, suggesting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/">dinosaurs</a> traveled through the area after spring-thaw flooding during the polar summer.



“Were the dinosaurs living in this environment during the winter? We don’t know,” Martin said. “It would have been frozen over and dinosaurs walking on ice don’t leave tracks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The variation in track sizes hints at a mix of juvenile and adult theropods and ornithopods, leading Martin to believe that some dinosaurs may have nested and raised their young in these polar environments.



This paper follows a 2023 report by the same authors documenting bird tracks from the Early Cretaceous at the same site, which represents the oldest-known evidence of birds so far south.



“We’re continuing to discover more tracks in the area. The more we find, the clearer picture we hope to get of these ancient polar ecosystems,” Martin concluded.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03115518.2024.2392498">Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Paleontology</a>.



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Large theropod dinosaurs thrived in polar environments

A recent discovery of dinosaur tracks along Australia’s southern coast,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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