Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp;



While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU) has compiled a reference framework of isotope compositions for modern reptiles. This dataset stands to improve our ability to identify the diets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient reptiles</a>, including dinosaurs.



“This reptile reference framework is a convenient toolbox that will enable us to better reconstruct the diet of extinct animals, such as dinosaurs,” Tütken explained. “A set of comparable data of this kind has not previously been available.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-diets-of-modern-reptiles">Diverse diets of modern reptiles </h2>



Today's reptiles showcase a remarkable range of diets, from strictly plant-based to exclusively carnivorous. Many also exhibit specialized feeding preferences, such as the marine iguana in the Galapagos, which eats only algae, or chameleons, which subsist solely on insects.&nbsp;



Gila monsters prefer eggs, while top predators like the saltwater crocodile and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/komodo-dragons-have-iron-tipped-teeth-to-rip-apart-flesh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragon</a> feed entirely on meat. “This diversity makes it difficult to reconstruct the nutritional habits of extinct animals,” Tütken said.



The oldest known ancestors of modern reptiles lived more than 300 million years ago; for instance, the 315-million-year-old Hylonomus resembled a lizard. These early reptiles often bore skulls, jaws, and teeth indicative of insectivory.&nbsp;



The point in geological history when they transitioned from insect-eating to purely carnivorous or herbivorous diets remains unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-geochemical-reference">Building a geochemical reference</h2>



In creating their new framework, Tütken’s team examined 28 modern reptile species by measuring calcium and strontium isotopes in their bones and teeth, which offer chemical clues about what these animals eat.&nbsp;



“To obtain a wide spectrum for comparison, we selected reptiles with pronounced herbivorous or carnivorous behavior, and we also included those with specialized dietary preferences,” Tütken noted. The list included alligators, monitor lizards, chameleons, and more.



Focusing on calcium isotopes, the researchers highlighted the ratio of calcium-44 to calcium-42. They observed a clear trend in which these isotope concentrations decreased at every step in the food chain.&nbsp;



“Overall, the values are highest in insectivorous reptiles, clearly differentiating these from animals with other feeding behaviors,” said lead author Michael Weber, a paleontologist at JGU.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-unique-feeding-patterns-nbsp">Detecting unique feeding patterns&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herbivores</a> showed lower isotope ratios, while carnivores presented the lowest levels. This approach even allowed them to detect unique feeding patterns, such as the algae diet of marine iguanas and the egg-based diet of other reptiles. The team also examined stable strontium-88 to strontium-86 ratios.&nbsp;



“We set up the first extensive reference system of stable strontium isotopes as a dietary proxy. The results for strontium are largely consistent with those for calcium isotopes in respect of the various nutritional forms,” explained study co-author and paleontologist Katrin Weber.&nbsp;



However, strontium is more vulnerable to alteration over time, making calcium isotopes the more reliable measure for extinct species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-reptiles-to-mammals">Comparing reptiles to mammals</h2>



In analyzing these isotopes, the researchers discovered that reptiles show greater calcium isotope variability than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, even under similar dietary regimes.&nbsp;



This phenomenon is believed to stem from physiological differences, and it illustrates why mammal-based data cannot directly determine the diets of prehistoric reptiles such as dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-wear-patterns-and-animal-diets">Teeth wear patterns and animal diets</h2>



Beyond chemical traces, the scientists also investigated the mechanical wear patterns on modern reptile teeth, collecting data in collaboration with Dr. Daniela Winkler at <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kiel University</a>.&nbsp;



Scratches on tooth surfaces reveal whether an animal consumed tough materials such as shells or bones, or softer foods.&nbsp;



When combined with isotope data, these wear patterns can distinguish faunivores that ingested abrasive substances from those relying on soft food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-diets-of-extinct-species">Discovering the diets of extinct species</h2>



“In order to understand and interpret the data for chemical and mechanical patterns of nutritional behavior from fossil finds, we first had to determine the corresponding information for related modern species with their known dietary preferences,” said Tütken.



“As a result, we now have a reference frame for comparison that enables the precise diet assessment and thus a more accurate reconstruction of the feeding habits of extinct species.”



The study forms part of a larger initiative led by Tütken, who in 2016 received an ERC Consolidator Grant to examine the feeding habits of early land vertebrates.&nbsp;



By combining geochemical and mechanical evidence, Tütken’s team has created an essential resource for scientists to unravel the mystery of what ancient reptiles - and possibly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> - might have eaten, guiding us toward a deeper understanding of evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



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Reptiles provide new clues about the diets of extinct animals

Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp; While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp; Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU)...

Giant pandas are the subject of quite a lot of human attention these days. As one of the most popular members of the endangered species list, they’re even featured as the logo for the World Wildlife Fund. In the wild, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/giant-panda-calls-information/">pandas</a> can only be found in the understory of certain mountains in southwestern China, where these bears survive on a strict bamboo-only diet. Their ability to live off this diet is due to their specialized teeth, skill, and muscle characteristic, along with a special pseudo-thumb that allows them to hold onto the bamboo as they eat.

However, a new study published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> has found that extinct, ancient panda species likely did not live off bamboo alone. 

“It has been widely accepted that giant pandas have exclusively fed on bamboo for the last two million years,” says Fuwen Wei of <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>. "Our results showed the opposite.”

Although the researchers can’t know exactly what the extinct pandas ate, they gathered clues by analyzing the composition of stable isotopes in animal teeth, hair, and bones. These stable isotopic composition analyses of carbon and nitrogen from both modern panda and other modern mammal bone samples indicated three clear groups: carnivores, herbivores, and giant pandas. The giant pandas were distinctly unique, given their diet of only bamboo. 

The researchers then measured bone collagen isotopes of 12 ancient pandas collected from seven archaeological sites in China, and compared them to the patterns observed in modern giant pandas. Comparison of the data sets showed that ancient and modern pandas are isotopically distinct from one another, which points to differences in their diets. 

Furthermore, the research team found variation among three ancient panda species, which suggests that the niche they occupied was roughly three times wider than that of modern pandas. In other words, ancient pandas probably had a varied diet similar to the other mammalian species that live in that same time and location. 

In their study, the researchers suggest that pandas’ dietary habits evolved in two phases. The first phased occurred when they went from being meat eaters or omnivores to becoming only herbivores. The second phase would’ve been when the pandas specialized to only eating bamboo.

The goal now for this research team is to determine exactly when the pandas shifted to their present-day diet. In this endeavor, they plan on collecting and studying more panda samples from varying historical periods covering the last 5,000 years.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Fuwen Wei

Giant pandas didn’t always stick to a strict bamboo diet

Giant pandas are the subject of quite a lot of...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have discovered that endangered sharks are being sold as food in the UK. The experts tested samples from fishmongers and chip shops and found that hammerhead sharks are among the endangered species that are being served.

The majority of chip shop samples, which were sold under generic names like huss, rock salmon, and rock eel, were actually an endangered species of sharks known as spiny dogfish. Samples of shark fins collected from an Asian food wholesaler in the UK included scalloped hammerheads, which are threatened globally.

The researchers are calling for more accurate food labeling so people know what species they are actually eating.

“The discovery of endangered hammerhead sharks highlights how widespread the sale of declining species really is - even reaching Europe and the UK,” said Dr Andrew Griffiths. 

“Separate investigations focusing on Asia have commonly identified scalloped hammerhead in fin processing. Scalloped hammerhead can be imported under strict conditions, but the wholesaler had no idea what species the fin belonged to.”

The fins from the UK wholesaler, which were being distributed to Asian restaurants and supermarkets, also included other <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/endangered-whale-sharks-starvation/">threatened sharks</a> such as smalleye hammerheads.

“It's almost impossible for consumers to know what they are buying,” said study first author Catherine Hobbs. “People might think they're getting a sustainably sourced product when they're actually buying a threatened species.”

“There are also health issues. Knowing what species you are buying could be important in terms of allergies, toxins, mercury content and the growing concern over microplastics in the marine food chain. Our findings demonstrate the need for more informative and accurate seafood labelling.”

The team used “DNA barcoding” to analyze 78 samples from chip shops and 39 from fishmongers, mostly in southern England.

“Knowledge of shark species consumption in the UK, especially those of prohibited species and those of high conservation concern, enhances our ability to address the decline in shark populations,” said Hobbs.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People are unknowingly eating endangered sharks in the UK

Scientists at the University of Exeter have discovered that endangered...

A 10-day research trip exploring caves in the Turks and Caicos Islands near the Bahamas has uncovered a potentially new species of remipede, a centipede-like crustacean known to inhabit<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cave-organisms-methane-gas/"> extreme underwater environments</a>. 

The trip was led by Brett C. Gonzalez, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian</a>, along with an international team of cave divers and marine biologists

Gonzalez was accompanied by Tom Iliffe, a professor at <a href="http://www.tamug.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University at Galveston </a>and an expert in underwater cave exploration. 

Iliffe has explored over 1,500 underwater caves over his 40-year career and discovered more than 350 new species in the process, according to a <a href="https://today.tamu.edu/2019/01/25/texas-am-led-team-of-cave-divers-discover-new-remipede-species-in-caribbean/">Texas A&amp;M report</a>. Now, Iliffe can add another species to his roster as it’s thought that this latest research mission has shed light on at least one new species of remipede. 

Remipedes are long with paddle-like limbs, and they are blind and colorless due to their dark habitats 

“We collected what we believe is a new remipede species, likely related to those found in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico,” Iliffe told Texas A&amp;M. “Other new species of cave and marine life will likely be found once further examination is complete.”

The goal of the research trip was to explore anchialine caves near the Turks and Caicos and collect specimens for future DNA sequencing in the hopes of better understanding how the rare species that live in the caves adapted and evolved. 

Anchialine caves are landlocked caves that contain saltwater pools. Many blind and colorless species have been discovered in the extreme anchialine cave environments, and the species discovered resemble those that live in deep-sea ecosystems. 

The researchers focused their efforts on scale worms and remipedes in the caves, both of which are top predators. 

“I plan to use DNA sequencing technology to investigate similarities between these specimens and those living in the deep sea. This will aid us to understand how animals can adapt and live in such lightless, food poor habitats,” Gonzalez told Texas A&amp;M. “Extreme environments like anchialine caves and the deep sea drive some scale worms into the water column, enabling them to survive as predatory swimmers.” 

The researchers are working against the clock as many caves like the ones explored in this study are being polluted or destroyed leaving little trace of life behind. 

 “Time is critical and running out for this research,” Iliffe said. “Many of these caves are in danger of pollution or destruction. One cave in which we found a rich assortment of marine animals on our last trip here, is now polluted and lifeless. If we don’t obtain this information now, it may be lost to us forever.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Texas A&amp;M

Cave diving exploration uncovers new species of remipede

A 10-day research trip exploring caves in the Turks and...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-graz.at/">Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz </a>in Austria may have discovered the explanation behind a seemingly counterintuitive act of cuckoldry that occurs in the animal kingdom, particularly among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/behavior-early-youth-influences-physical-body-traits/">cichlid fish</a>. 

Cuckoldry describes how some male cichlid fish mate with socially paired up females and end up fertilizing eggs in another male’s nest. This results in paternity loss and some parents end up caring for offspring that are not genetically their own. 

Evolutionarily speaking, this kind of behavior can be explained by the drive to pass on genetic material at any cost. 

However, upon closer inspection, the researchers discovered that the male cuckolders were choosing to fertilize eggs in the nest of a male relative and conducted a study to better understand this behavior. 

 “At first glance, this is evolutionarily puzzling because when males are related, we typically expect them to compete less with one another, not more,” said Kristina Sefc, the corresponding author of the study. “This ‘banding together’ of related males makes sense, however, when spawning events involve many males, including lots of unrelated males. Then, the male relatives essentially work together to compete against the host of unrelated males.”

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-018-0620-6">BMC Biology</a>.

The researchers tested the relationships between different male fish and their cuckolders by collecting and sampling offspring from 70 broods. 

Theoretical modeling and genetic testing allowed the researchers reconstruct 74 cuckolder genotypes. 

After analyzing and testing the offspring, the researchers realized that cuckolders sought out the nests of relatives more often than previously thought and there may be a good reason for this. 

Even though sharing the same DNA would dictate the fish go elsewhere to spread their genes, cuckoldry still ensures that the genes are passed on regardless of who fertilizes the eggs. 

Cuckoldry could also lessen the chances that other unrelated males will swoop in during spawning events. 

The researchers only tested one species of fish, but further studies may yield similar insights for other species in the animal kingdom. 

“This study has the potential to change our contemporary view of cuckoldry and paternity loss. Paternity loss is widespread across the animal kingdom, but outside of animals that live in close-knit family groups, relatedness between males and their cuckolders is often assumed to be zero,” said Aneesh Bose, the co-author of the study. “Here, we show that males can be related to their cuckolders and it will be exciting to see how widespread this phenomenon is in other species.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why some male fish fertilize eggs in their male relative’s nests

Researchers from the Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz in Austria may have discovered...

In a study of animals washed up on Britain's shores, experts have found <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-ingest-microplastics/">microplastics</a> in the guts of every single mammal they examined. A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and <a href="https://www.pml.ac.uk/">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a> (PML) analyzed the remains of 50 animals from 10 species of dolphins, seals, and whales.

The study revealed that 84 percent of the particles were synthetic fibers, which originate in many different sources including clothes, fishing nets, and toothbrushes. The rest of the particles were fragments of food packaging and plastic bottles.

“It's shocking - but not surprising - that every animal had ingested microplastics,” said study lead author Sarah Nelms. “The number of particles in each animal was relatively low (average of 5.5 particles per animal), suggesting they eventually pass through the digestive system, or are regurgitated.”

“We don't yet know what effects the microplastics, or the chemicals on and in them, might have on marine mammals. More research is needed to better understand the potential impacts on animal health.”

The animals examined for the study had died of a variety of causes, but the researchers noted that those who died from infectious diseases had a higher number of particles than those who died from other causes.

“We can't draw any firm conclusions on the potential biological significance of this observation,” said study co-author Professor Brendan Godley. “We are at the very early stages of understanding this ubiquitous pollutant.”

“We now have a benchmark that future studies can be compared with. Marine mammals are ideal sentinels of our impacts on the marine environment, as they are generally long lived and many feed high up in the food chain. Our findings are not good news.”

Dr. Penelope Lindeque is the head of the Marine Plastics research group at Plymouth Marine Laboratory. 

“It is disconcerting that we have found microplastic in the gut of every single animal we have investigated in this study,” said Dr. Lindeque. “Indeed, from our work over the years we have found microplastic in nearly all the species of marine animals we have looked at; from tiny zooplankton at the base of the marine food web to fish larvae, turtles and now dolphins, seals and whales.”

“We don't yet know the effects of these particles on marine mammals. Their small size means they may easily be expelled, but while microplastics are unlikely to be the main threat to these species, we are still concerned by the impact of the bacteria, viruses and contaminants carried on the plastic.”

“This study provides more evidence that we all need to help reduce the amount of plastic waste released to our seas and maintain clean, healthy and productive oceans for future generations.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.


--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a>  Staff Writer

Image Credit: Frazer Hodgkins &amp; CSIP

Microplastics found in every mammal washed up on Britain’s shores

In a study of animals washed up on Britain's shores,...

Scientists have identified a previously unknown relative of the dinosaurs that existed in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-increase-ice-mass-loss/">Antarctica</a> about 250 million years ago. The iguana-sized reptile has been given the name Antarctanax shackletoni, which means “Antarctic King.”

Study lead author Brandon Peecook is a researcher at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>.

“This new animal was an archosaur, an early relative of crocodiles and dinosaurs,” said Peecook. “On its own, it just looks a little like a lizard, but evolutionarily, it's one of the first members of that big group. It tells us how dinosaurs and their closest relatives evolved and spread.”

Based on its similarities to other fossil animals, the experts believe that Antarctanax was a carnivore that hunted bugs, early mammal relatives, and amphibians.

“The more we find out about prehistoric Antarctica, the weirder it is,” said Peecook. “We thought that Antarctic animals would be similar to the ones that were living in southern Africa, since those landmasses were joined back then. But we're finding that Antarctica's wildlife is surprisingly unique.”

Two million years before Antarctanax existed, the biggest mass extinction in the history of the Earth killed off 90 percent of all animals. New groups of animals began to emerge and archosaurs, including dinosaurs, flourished. 

“The more different kinds of animals we find, the more we learn about the pattern of archosaurs taking over after the mass extinction,” said Peecook.

“Before the mass extinction, archosaurs were only found around the Equator, but after it, they were everywhere. And Antarctica had a combination of these brand-new animals and stragglers of animals that were already extinct in most places--what paleontologists call ‘dead clades walking.’ You've got tomorrow's animals and yesterday's animals, cohabiting in a cool place.”

The discovery of Antarctanax confirms the theory that Antarctica experienced rapid evolution and diversification after the mass extinction.

“Antarctica is one of those places on Earth, like the bottom of the sea, where we're still in the very early stages of exploration. Antarctanax is our little part of discovering the history of Antarctica.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujvp20">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a>  Staff Writer

Image (c) Adrienne Stroup, Field Museum

New iguana-sized reptile species found in Antarctica

Scientists have identified a previously unknown relative of the dinosaurs...

Between 2013 and 2015, the sunflower starfish, a predator within the waters of the North Pacific, experienced a massive population drop. Citizen science diving surveys show that the sunflower starfish could not grapple with a serious disease that took hold of the North Pacific during these two years. 

Now, the authors of a new study, put forth by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, have reported a link between the decline of sunflower star population within shallow waters and warmer sea surface temperatures.

The sea star wasting disease (SSWD) killed off a large amount of starfish along the west coast of North America, from Alaska to Mexico, between 2013 and 2015. The disease was carried by a sea star-associated densovirus and wreaked havoc in the intertidal zone. However, the effects of the North Pacific SSWD in the subtidal zone was unclear, except for the fact that scientists knew the sunflower starfish had dramatically declined in abundance.

Drew Harvell and his colleagues recruited divers between California and British Columbia to help report sunflower star population change. 10,956 diver surveys of shallow waters completed between 2006 and 2017 have shown a decrease in sunflower star abundance. Between 2006 and 2014, divers reported seeing an average of 100 sunflower stars during their dives. However, after 2014, 60-100% of diver surveys between California and Oregon reported zero to one sunflower star sightings per shallow water dive.

Authors further predict, based on 8,968 bottom trawls from California to Washington from 2004 to 2016, that the sunflower star’s biomass in deep offshore water has decreased 100% between 2013 and 2015 within this region. This decline matched up with the timeline of abnormally <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-increase-extreme-storms/">warm sea surface temperatures</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Ed Gullekson

Warm waters, disease responsible for predator sea star decline

Between 2013 and 2015, the sunflower starfish, a predator within...

Australia is extremely protective of its bees, and for a good reason. It’s the only country that doesn’t have to deal with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/varroa-mites-honey-bees/">Varroa mite</a>, a parasitic mite that feeds off of honey bees and has been linked to the transmission of the deadly Deformed Wing Virus. 

No bee products that could contain or spread the virus are allowed into Australia and beekeepers work hard with legislatures to protect their bee colonies from the virus.

But a new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> has found that the mite and virus relationship has been largely misunderstood and Deformed Wing Virus doesn’t pose as much of a threat as previously thought.

It was believed that the Varroa mite transmitted extremely virulent strains of the Deformed Wing Virus, but it turns out this is not the case.

Instead, the researchers found that the mite is far more dangerous and efforts to protect Australia’s bees should incorporate new ways to ready bees for potential infestations as it’s only a matter of time before the mite invades Australia’s. 

“The prevailing wisdom is that the mite selects for very virulent strains of the virus,” said Madeleine Beekman, a member of the research team. “For that reason, the virus is now known as a very dangerous virus, and the Australian beekeepers are adamant this virus should not get into the country. But our work shows that the virus is more likely to be an innocent bystander.”

The researchers published their new findings in the journal Proceedings of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

For the study, the team injected honey bee pupae with large quantities of the virus and tracked the transmission of the virus as it spread throughout the colony, looking specifically for any changes in the severity or virulence of the virus that could be explained by this transmission.

Typically, the mite will go from bee to bee and spread the virus. However, the researchers found that contrary to popular belief, the mite chooses a transmission route that selects against more dangerous and virulent viruses.

The virus that remains, the Deformed Wing Virus, is also not deadly.

“Our work therefore changes our understanding of the effect Varroa has on Deformed Wing Virus and the health of honey bee colonies,” said Beekman. “It means we don't have to be scared of the virus. Instead, we need to focus on eliminating the mite and reducing its numbers.”

The researchers say that more must be done to protect the bees against the mite as this is not the biggest threat to Australia’s bee populations.

“If we want to protect the bees, it now no longer seems to make sense to try to combat the virus," said  Beekman. “Instead, there needs to be a renewed focus on ensuring the number of mites in honey bee colonies remain low.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Pixabay

Bee virus is not as dangerous as the mite that carries it

Australia is extremely protective of its bees, and for a...

In the world of household pests, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cockroaches-survive-anything/">cockroaches</a> are among the most common – and most revolting – unwelcome guests you may find in your home. Not only are they unsightly and unsanitary, but their almost-herculean ability to avoid destruction has spawned myths of these insects surviving the radiation of nuclear blasts. 

With this in mind, it’s not surprising a new study from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has found that the total release foggers (more commonly known as “bug bombs”) used to kill cockroaches indoors are actually quite ineffective. 

“There’s been a general assumption that bug bombs work to eliminate cockroaches indoors, but no one had conducted a formal assessment of their efficacy and any exposure risks,” says Zachary DeVries, an NC State postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study, published in <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Public Health</a>. “We’ve done that simultaneously in this study.”

The researchers tested four commercially available bug bombs with various insecticide active ingredients in five different apartment complexes with severe infestations of German cockroaches (Blattella germanica). After setting off the bug bombs, the team monitored cockroach populations two weeks and one month after detonation. The results; no decline from pre-bomb roach populations. “The bug-bomb products did absolutely nothing to control cockroach populations in these homes,” says DeVries. 

In order to further test the effectiveness of the bug bombs, the researchers also put cages filled with roaches from the lab and roaches capture in the homes into the studied homes during the use of the bug bombs. “The lab roaches, which are not hardy, had high mortality, as expected,” explains DeVries. “The roaches captured in the homes and then brought back, however, had far lower mortality rates than you would expect from direct exposure to bug bombs, confirming the ineffectiveness of these products when used for German cockroach control.”

Even more concerning, by swabbing the floors and kitchen surfaces of the homes prior to and after bug bomb deployment, the team found that insecticide levels increased on these surfaces 600 times baseline levels four to six hours after they went off. When the surfaces were swabbed again one month later, 34 percent still had higher insecticide residue levels than the baseline.

“Bug bombs are not killing cockroaches; they’re putting pesticides in places where the cockroaches aren’t; they’re not putting pesticides in places where cockroaches are and they’re increasing pesticide levels in the home,” DeVries said. “In a cost-benefit analysis, you’re getting all costs and no benefits.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Matt Bertone

Trying get rid of roaches? Bug bombs are probably not the answer

In the world of household pests, cockroaches are among the...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/roslin">University of Edinburgh's Roslin Institute</a>, the same institute responsible for <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/dolly-cloned-sheep-anniversary/">Dolly the cloned sheep</a>, have genetically modified chickens to produce eggs that contain human proteins in the hopes of developing new, cost-effective cancer treatments. 

Protein-based drugs are commonly used for cancer treatment and are designed to bind and target cancer cells, preventing the spread of the disease. 

Researchers have found that genetically modified goats and rabbits can produce certain protein therapies in their milk, but using chicken eggs is more efficient, according to their new study published in the journal BMC Biotechnology. 

The Roslin Institute genetically modified chickens to produce high-quality cancer drugs in the whites of their eggs which can later be recovered without harming the chickens. The proteins are encoded as part of the chicken’s DNA. 

Currently, proteins extracted from chicken eggs could be valuable for cancer research and later could be used to develop successful treatments for cancer patients. 

“We are not yet producing medicines for people, but this study shows that chickens are commercially viable for producing proteins suitable for drug discovery studies and other applications in biotechnology,” said Helen Sang, a professor at the Roslin Institute. 

The researchers modified chickens to produce two proteins, both of which play a key role in the immune system. The first is a protein called IFNalpha2a, known for its antiviral properties, while the second is a protein called macrophage-CSF, which helps encourage tissue repair. 

Three eggs were all that was needed to extract enough of the proteins to create a clinical dose of a potential drug. Because chickens lay so many eggs every year, this new approach is not only cost-effective but also beats current methods being used to produce similar treatments. 

“These recent findings provide a promising proof of concept for future drug discovery and potential for developing more economical protein-based drugs,” said Ceri Lyn-Adams, the Head of Science Strategy, Bioscience for Health with the <a href="https://bbsrc.ukri.org/">Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetically modified chickens can help create cancer therapies

Researchers from the University of Edinburgh's Roslin Institute, the same...

A growing collection of studies has documented methane emissions from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-cattle-feed-methane-emissions/">cattle</a> and other grazing animals, but these animals actually emit other greenhouse gases as well.

Researchers at the <a href="https://ciat.cgiar.org/">International Center for Tropical Agriculture</a> (CIAT) investigated nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, which are released from cattle urine, and found that these emissions can be significantly limited by keeping cattle pastures healthy.

The team collected urine from cattle at research sites in five countries across Latin America and the Caribbean. They distributed the urine samples on pairs of cattle fields that were classified as degraded or healthy based on vegetation coverage. The study revealed that degraded pastures emitted up to three times as much nitrous oxide, which has an even greater influence on global warming than carbon dioxide.

“Degraded pastures are bad in so many ways,” said study lead author Ngonidzashe Chirinda. “This study adds to the case for land restoration. Degraded pastures not only affect food security and the livelihood of farmers today, but affects the livelihood of future farmers because they emit more gases that cause global warming.”

The findings highlight the urgency of global land restoration agreements like Initiative 20x20, which aims to restore 20 million hectares of land in Latin America by 2020, among other targets. 


Degraded livestock land is characterized by overgrazing, soil compaction, loss of organic material, and low levels of nutrients and soil carbon. Chirinda estimates that there are 150 million hectares of degraded land in Latin America, with 80 million hectares of degraded pasture in Brazil alone.

Large-scale projects that restore grazing land with improved forage grasses and add new shrubs and trees could significantly mitigate the negative climate effects produced by degradation. In addition to reducing N2O emissions, restored landscapes can store more carbon, have healthier soils, and promote the growth of more productive livestock.

“This study highlights the importance of avoiding land degradation in the first place,” said study co-author Todd Rosenstock. “Maintaining healthy pastures appears to reinforce goals of both the United Nations' Framework Convention on Climate Change and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification simultaneously.”


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Neil Palmer/CIAT

Healthy cattle pastures can limit harmful greenhouse gas emissions

A growing collection of studies has documented methane emissions from...

Anyone who has spent a long time in the warm and wet neotropics has probably had the experience of stingless Halictid bees, of the family Halictidae, crawling over them in a painless yet annoying search for sweat.  Bees and other insects like butterflies get plenty of sugar from flower nectar. One thing they get little of is salt, a mineral required for creating eggs among other important functions. Eating sweat from a human or wildlife as a way for an insect to fulfill its salt requirements is a widespread phenomenon. According to <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304356604577341683875011896">The Wall Street Journal</a>, a new species of sweat bee was even found in Brooklyn, New York as late as 2010.    

Another way to meet salt requirements is to gather tears from unsuspecting animals.  A 2009 study published in the <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2317/JKES0811.17.1">Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society</a> described bees found in Thailand that drink tears from both humans and wildlife.  Bees in two families were described as drinking tears. In this case, the researchers suggest that higher protein levels found in tears compared to pollen or nectar drives the tear consumption rather than salt.  

The bees described also seemed to rarely visit flowers, potentially being adapted to exclusively or mainly tear harvesting behavior.  The potential of bees transmitting disease from one eye to another is also raised. <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2018/09/moths-drink-birds-tears-amazon-animals/">National Geographic</a> reports that it isn’t just bees eating tears either, other groups of insects due as well. 

Birds sleeping in the Brazilian Amazon have to worry not only about blood sucking insects and tree hunting snakes but a moth eating their tears as they slumber.  What’s interesting is that biologists observed a moth, Gorgone macarea, eating the tears of an ant bird in a region of the Amazon where salt is readily available in the surrounding soil.  Another moth in Madagascar also consumes the tears of sleeping birds with a hooked proboscis. It may be that both of these moths obtain salt or more likely proteins from the bird tears.  Little is known as to whether eating tears harms birds, but it’s suspected that they may transmit diseases to livestock such as cattle when they eat their tears. Butterflies also eat tears, although not always from sleeping birds.

<a href="https://www.livescience.com/63092-butterflies-drink-turtle-tears.html">Live Science</a> reported earlier this year that Phil Torres, a tropical entomologist, recently recorded butterflies consuming tears from turtles on the Tambopata River in Peru.  In a <a href="https://youtu.be/4Dj78JCKlPU">video</a>, Torres shows eight species of butterflies from three families as well as bees landing on turtles of a species unable to retract their heads.  The only way the turtles can discourage the pesky insects is to shake their heads, which doesn’t work well. Torres chalks the consumption of turtle tears up to a butterfly’s need for sodium but it’s possible that there are other nutrients the butterflies need as well.  Torres compares the consumption of turtle tears to ‘mud puddling’ (gathering salt left in mud) and eating dung both common butterfly behaviors. In 2014, Carlos de la Rosa, an aquatic ecologist and longtime tropical researcher, observed similar behavior with butterflies and caimans.

Caimans are a subfamily of alligatoroid, their closest relatives being alligators.  In the wetter parts of the Central and South American tropics, there are six species of caiman.  The Yacare Caiman is found in Brazil’s Pantanal region, where the population numbers up to ten million individuals, possibly the largest population of single species crocodilian in the world, according to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2013/07/yacare-caiman/">National Geographic</a>.  On quiet boat rides at night on remote Neotropical rivers, it’s usually easy to spot the orange-ish glowing balls of caiman eyes reflected in a flashlight.  Caimans are interesting not only in their own right but also as an intrinsic part of some of the most fascinating ecosystems on Earth. Butterflies are also part of that ecosystem. 

<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/butterflies-and-bees-get-their-nutrient-fix-crocodile-tears-180951350/">Smithsonian Magazine</a> reported on Carlos de la Rosa’s observation of butterflies and bees feeding on caiman tears.  Interestingly crocodilians, including caiman, tear up when eating. This is where the common phrase ‘crocodile tears’ come from, comparing a crocodile crying over the death of its prey while still eating to false sympathy.  It’s not clear why caimans would cry while eating but it seemed the butterflies enjoyed the tears of the crocodilian that de la Rosa observed on the Río Puerto Viejo in Costa Rica. The caiman didn’t seem to mind the butterflies and bees eating its tears like turtles that sometimes shake their heads to discourage the pesky insects.  Interestingly with butterflies, it doesn’t stop at sweat and tears.

Blood drinking in insects is of course most famous in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/malarial-mosquitoes-cattle-decoys/">mosquitoes</a> but blood offers a treasure trove of nutrients, enough that some animals like vampire bats and some leeches can subsist entirely off blood.  The nutrients from blood can be sometimes hard to resist for butterflies and other less-typical blood drinking insects as well. Most butterflies only drink blood when the opportunity arises. You sometimes see a dead animal flocked with butterflies gathering nutrient rich material, including blood.  This even happens if a living animal happens to bleed. The vampire moth is a different animal from most of its kin, though.

<a href="https://entomologytoday.org/2015/10/30/vampire-moths-suck-the-blood-of-vertebrates-including-humans/">Entomology Today</a> reports that vampire moth proboscises are actually evolved to pierce fruit and suck out juices.  The second purpose seems to be to suck blood from vertebrate animals, including humans. Because the moths don’t use blood as a necessary food source, they may be easier to overlook than mosquitoes.  The vampire moths are also not as widespread as mosquitoes, found only in the old world from Southeastern Asia to Eastern Europe, from Africa to Siberia. There are 17 species in the vampire moth genus Calyptra, in which eight species are known to suck blood from mammals (including humans).  There is a strange difference between vampire moths and mosquitoes.

In mosquitoes, only the female insects drink blood.  The straightforward reason is that they require more nutrients to make healthy eggs.  Male mosquitoes might also benefit from a bit of blood nutrition but in their case the risks of death seem to outweigh the benefits.  Strangely in vampire moths, it is only the males that drink blood. The hypothesis behind this strategy is also related to reproduction.  It is thought that perhaps males pass the extra nutrients gained from blood to females through their sperm. In that way, the female vampire moth could gain more nutrients for her offspring without risking death by swatting.  It seems that to insects, blood, sweat and tears are incredibly valuable resources. 

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Blood, sweat and tears: The bizarre eating habits of insects

Anyone who has spent a long time in the warm...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...