Observers watching baboons in Namibia were impressed when they saw how the baboons responded to glowing spots shone onto their arms and legs. They poked and scratched at these bright areas with evident curiosity, hinting at a level of awareness about what appeared on their own bodies. 



However, the mood changed when those same spots were placed on baboon body parts that were only visible in a mirror.



Although they sometimes stared at their own reflection, the baboons showed no indication that they knew the marks in the mirror were on themselves.



Dr. Alecia Carter, affiliated with University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/anthropology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Anthropology</a>), led a field study tracking these baboons over several months. Her team documented how baboons interacted with laser marks and mirrors while in a wide-open habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-recognition-in-animals">Self-recognition in animals</h2>



The mirror test has long been used to examine whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> recognize a reflected image as their own. 



Psychologist Gordon Gallup was among the first to observe that some great apes touched paint marks on their heads when placed in front of mirrors.



Subsequent efforts revealed that <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC33317" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> and a few <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0608062103" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> also showed behavior suggesting they noticed marks on their bodies through reflection. 



These findings inspired further research into how different animals handle the challenge of seeing themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-baboons-were-chosen">Why baboons were chosen </h2>



Scientists wanted to see if wild baboons that had never been in captivity, would respond differently than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-monitoring-will-help-protect-endangered-spider-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> in controlled environments.



Many earlier studies used limited samples, often involving apes or monkeys that were kept in enclosures where mirrors might not be entirely new.



Chacma baboons flourish in Namibia’s drier areas and do not often encounter reflective surfaces. This made them good candidates for determining whether they would link the moving shapes in a mirror to their own bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-with-mirrors-and-laser-spots">Baboons with mirrors and laser spots</h2>



Researchers introduced small safety mirrors near spots where baboons congregate. They then used laser pointers to place harmless green or red marks on the baboons’ fur, targeting areas that were visible without a mirror and other places that were only visible when looking at a reflection.



Baboons frequently touched or scratched at marks they could see right away. Yet the animals showed no equivalent reaction to marks that were only apparent in a mirror.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-of-the-baboon-mirror-test">Results of the baboon mirror test</h2>



“The Chacma baboons we observed in Tsaobis Nature Park certainly enjoyed using the mirrors as a new toy, but throughout our study they didn’t quite understand that the mirror’s reflection represented their own bodies,” said Dr. Carter.



She and her collaborators believe it confirms a pattern seen in many monkey species that do not show full self-recognition in mirrors.



“Monkeys don’t spontaneously recognize themselves in a mirror,” noted corresponding author Esa A. Ahmad, who helped analyze the data. 



The experts explained that this latest work adds to a broader discussion about which mental abilities are needed to pass mirror tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-about-other-species">What about other species?</h2>



Some great apes, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, bonobos, and orangutans, have been documented to pass mirror mark tests. 



Researchers also mention bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, and certain birds, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2517622/">magpies</a>, that appear to notice a mark when seeing it in a reflection.



Domestic cats, dogs, and most monkeys typically fail to show convincing self-recognition. Scientists point out that these animals may rely more on other senses, so a mirror might not be the best measure of how they perceive themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-future-directions">Possible future directions</h2>



Some experts suggest that alternative experiments might capture different kinds of self-awareness in species that depend less on vision. 



Scent-based or social-behavior tasks could reveal that some animals are aware of their identity but do not prove it through mirror-based tests.



Meanwhile, wild baboon research highlights the role of age and temperament. Younger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> showed more interest in new objects or stimuli, while older ones often lost curiosity fast, which might influence how they respond to novel visual scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-animal-connections">Implications for human-animal connections</h2>



Understanding how self-awareness varies across species can shift how people view intelligence and cognition in non-human animals. 



These mirror-based observations open deeper questions about whether awareness looks the same in every creature, given that some use their visual sense more than others.



Many anthropologists see such findings as a window into evolutionary processes that shape thinking and perception. 



Insights from field studies add a fresh dimension, since animals roam and behave naturally, away from the artificial conditions of captivity.



The mirror test has drawn <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2023/04/fish-mirrors-animal-cognition-self-awareness-science/673718/">criticism</a> for its emphasis on the sense of sight. Yet, it remains a straightforward way to check if an animal perceives the reflection as an extension of itself.



The baboons gave scientists plenty to think about by investigating visible marks but ignoring those that only appeared in the mirror. Researchers plan to refine methods further and explore alternative signals of self-awareness out in the wild.



The study was published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1933" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Baboons don't pass the 'self-aware' mirror test, yet many other land and sea animals do

Observers watching baboons in Namibia were impressed when they saw how the baboons responded to glowing spots shone onto their arms and legs. They poked and scratched at these bright areas with evident curiosity, hinting at a level of awareness about what appeared on their own bodies. However, the mood changed when those same spots were placed on baboon body parts that were only visible in a mirror. Although they sometimes stared at their own reflection, the baboons showed no indication that they knew the marks in...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en">University of Groningen</a> shows that the wildlife in Africa’s Serengeti-Mara ecosystem is being “squeezed” to the core by increasing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-shrink-natural-habitats-species/">human activity</a>. After analyzing 40 years worth of data, researchers realized that, in some areas within the Serengeti-Mara region, there has been a 400% increase in human population and a 75% decrease in Kenyan wildlife populations in a single decade.

"This finding alters our view on what is needed to protect biodiversity,” said lead author Dr. Michiel Veldhuis, via the study published in <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

Although the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, which spans 40,000 square kilometers, is protected, human activity around the protected area borders has a negative impact on plants, animals, and soils. Human population growth and increase in livestock within the buffer zones between protected and unprotected land has limited the space for wildebeest, zebra, and gazelle migration. Therefore, these larger species are spending more time grazing less nutritious grasses than in decades past, thus changing the vegetation, occurrence of natural fires, and changing grazing habits of other native species.

[caption id="attachment_1870410" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/border-of-Maswa-Game-Reserve.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870410" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/border-of-Maswa-Game-Reserve.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> The border of the Maswa Game Reserve, Image Credit: Michiel Veldhuis, University of Groningen[/caption]

"The intense compression of a large protected area, such as the Serengeti-Mara, should ring alarm bells because most other protected areas are far smaller in size and therefore experience even more intense pressures from human activities impinging on their borders,” said contributing researcher Dr. Joseph Ogutu from the <a href="https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/en/english">University of Hohenheim</a>. “In countries where far more wildlife are still found outside than inside protected areas, such as Kenya where more than 65% of wildlife occur outside protected areas, expanding human population size, livestock and human activities pose serious and unprecedented threats to wildlife populations."

The effects of human population increase trickle down the entire natural food chain, and has the potential to damage microorganisms that help the ecosystem absorb nutrients necessary to fight the effects of climate change, such as drought.

[caption id="attachment_1870411" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Wildebeest-in-the-Serengeti-National-Park-Tanzania.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870411" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Wildebeest-in-the-Serengeti-National-Park-Tanzania.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> Wildebeest in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, Image Credit: James Probert, University of Liverpool[/caption]

"There is an urgent need to rethink how we manage the boundaries of protected areas to be able to conserve biodiversity,” Dr. Veldhuis said. “The future of the world's most iconic protected area and their associated human population may depend on it."

"We should rethink our protected area strategy, making sure that conservation efforts do not stop at protected area boundaries,” added contributing researcher Dr. Simon Mduma.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Han Olff, University of Groningen

The iconic Serengeti-Mara ecosystem is being stifled by human activity

A new study from the University of Groningen shows that...

After rusty crayfish were introduced into lakes in northern Wisconsin as live bait decades ago, they eventually took over the lake bottoms and began destroying native plants and animals. A team of scientists from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> set out to investigate why crayfish populations are still thriving in some of these lakes, yet sharply declining in others.

“Some researchers have long proposed that invasive species should experience periods of population growth followed by periods of population decline, but very few have documented declines and even fewer have suggested a reason,” explained lead author Professor Eric Larson.

Study co-author David M. Lodge, the director of the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future at Cornell University, has been monitoring the rusty crayfish in northern Wisconsin lakes since 1983.

“This analysis would have been impossible without our many years of data collection, highlighting how essential long term studies are for describing and ultimately understanding environmental changes,” said Lodge.

The team examined population trends in 17 lakes from 1972 to 2017 and found that about half were experiencing population declines. 

In the mid-2000s, the researchers deployed cameras to characterize the bottom of each <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/lakes-green-environment/">lake</a>. They discovered that rusty crayfish populations declined only in lakes with mucky and sandy bottoms. Across lakes with rocks, the crayfish populations flourished.

“The rusty crayfish wants to be in rocky substrate,” said Larson. “It uses that rock to avoid predation by fish or even wading birds, river otters, or raccoons. If it doesn't have that rock, it uses aquatic plants as secondary habitat as shelters to avoid predators.”

As the crayfish forage and burrow, they constantly uproot plants and turn over rocks. With millions of crayfish in a single lake, they had nearly wiped out all of the plants in some study areas.

“From a condition decades ago where 50-60 percent of our trap locations in some lakes had plants, it's now about 5 percent. It's a pretty big reduction of coverage,” said Larson.

The crayfish in lakes without rocks had inadvertently removed their only shelter from predators by destroying the aquatic plants. On the other hand, Larson emphasized that the underlying cause of the sharp population declines may be more complex than just rock versus muck.

“Other mechanisms besides habitat quality could be contributing. We'd like to know what impact parasites and predatory fish are having. We'd also like to study more of the effects of climate on these crayfish from year to year through lake temperatures, drought, and duration of ice cover.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19399170/">Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Eric Larson, University of Illinois

Invasive rusty crayfish may be responsible for their own demise

After rusty crayfish were introduced into lakes in northern Wisconsin...

From West Nile virus to Malaria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-populations-control/#.XJvY7ihKhPY">mosquito-borne diseases</a> continue to plague many countries around the world and cause millions of deaths each year. 

To prevent the spread of mosquito-borne diseases, scientists must first understand how mosquitoes seek out and choose their hosts. 

In a new study published in the journal<a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(19)30215-5"> Current Biology</a>, researchers from the <a href="https://www.fiu.edu/">Florida International University of Miami</a> discovered which olfactory receptors help female mosquitoes pick up the scent of human sweat, or more specifically, the acidic volatiles present in human sweat. 

Mosquitoes can sense a wide range of cues to help find a suitable host including carbon dioxide emissions, body odor, body heat, moisture, and visual cues. 

The researchers expanded on previous studies that found that by disrupting a mosquito’s olfactory receptor, the mosquito had a harder time telling the difference between humans and animals. 

The researchers focused on an olfactory coreceptor called Ir8a, which is found in the antenna of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, and used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to disrupt the receptor’s abilities.  

The gene-edited mosquitoes carrying a mutant version of Ir8a weren’t drawn to the lactic acid found in sweat and were not able to pick other acidic volatiles in human odors. 

Modifying the receptor did not change a mosquito’s sensitivity to CO2, but it did reduce the mosquito’s ability to seek out human hosts. 

“Removing the function of Ir8a removes approximately 50 percent of host-seeking activity,” said Matthew DeGennaro, a senior author of the study.  “Odors that mask the IR8a pathway could be found that could enhance the efficacy of current repellents like DEET or picaridin. In this way, our discovery may help make people disappear as potential hosts for mosquitoes.”

The study could help pave the way for the development of innovative mosquito repellents that tackle the underlying mechanisms driving host-seeking behavior. 

“The transmission of diseases like dengue, yellow fever, Zika, and malaria can be blocked if we stop these mosquitoes from biting us,” said DeGennaro. “In order to find new solutions to prevent mosquito bites, we need to focus on understanding the molecular basis of mosquito behavior.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Alex Wild

Modifying a mosquitoes sense of smell can help prevent spread of disease

From West Nile virus to Malaria, mosquito-borne diseases continue to...

The human understanding of death has always been closely tied to religion.  What other human activity claims to have any sort of control over death than a system of worship?  The oldest evidence for any sort of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prehistoric-religion">spiritual or religious belief</a> comes from the remains of ceremonial burials dating back to the Paleolithic Era.  The burials include human corpses interred with tools and flowers. It seems that from the beginning, religions were about the business of asserting control over the aspect of life most impossible to control or come to terms with – death.  Religions ever since have seemed obsessed with death and the hope for human immortality.

The Ancient Egyptians built enormous stone monuments with slave labor and created elaborate embalming rituals as evidence of their fear of death.  Christians and other monotheistic religions make Heaven and Hell as major tenets of the faith. Other religions focus on reincarnation as a way to escape the brevity of human existence.  Considering the obsession with death, it’s not surprising that worship would turn towards animals that can kill. 

Few animals inspire as much fear as crocodilians.  <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-hide-caves/">Crocodiles</a> and their relatives seem to have ambivalence towards humans, occasionally eating them and showing no obvious outward fear for us.  

In ancient Egypt, there were many cults surrounding different deities associated with animals both wild and domesticated.  Ibises, cats and jackals have been found mummified. One of the most fascinating cults focusing around an animal deity is the ancient Egyptian crocodile cult.  Hundreds of mummified crocodiles, both those killed very young and those that died of old age, have been found. It’s not entirely clear what the exact role of the crocodiles were in these cults, but they were associated with temples to Sobek, a crocodile headed god and other lesser gods as well.  There are breeding facilities found with striking similarity to modern crocodile or alligator captive rearing facilities from the Graeco-Roman period of ancient Egypt. It seems that especially docile crocodiles were kept alive in temples where they were venerated in life. Other parts of the African region also show adoration for crocodiles.

In Madagascar, <a href="https://www.madamagazine.com/en/der-see-der-krokodile/">there is a myth</a> associated with a particular village. The myth says that long ago, an old man came to the village and walked around asking for water.  Instead of granting him this simple request, the villagers shut their doors and ignored the old man’s thirst. Only one woman gave the old man water and so the old man told her, “When your child cries tonight, take your children and leave the village”.

That night, it rained heavily in the village and the woman’s young child started crying.  Remembering the old man’s advice, the woman took her children and left her home, walking away from the village in the rain.  The next day the woman returned to the village to find it under a lake. In the lake swam the villagers who had been magically transformed into crocodiles.  The old man had been a sorcerer and this was his revenge. 

Today, a village in Madagascar still holds this myth to mean that crocodiles in a local lake represent the embodiment of their ancestors.  When the villagers have a need of assistance, they sing a prayer which brings the crocodiles to the edge of the lake where they’re given an offering of zebu (a type of cow) meat.  If a crocodile accepts the meat, it means the prayer will be answered. If the meat is ignored, it means the prayer will be ignored as well. It’s hard to know how old such a tradition may be.  Since Madagascar had its first human inhabitants arrive as late as 2,000 years ago, the crocodile worship in Madagascar can’t be older than Christianity. It’s possible that the worship at a particular lake in Madagascar is associated with a much older tradition.  

In India, there’s a worshipful affection for crocodiles as well. <a href="https://www.indiatimes.com/news/weird/meet-babiya-the-vegetarian-crocodile-who-guards-a-temple-in-kerala-245392.html">India Times</a> reports that there’s a temple in India guarded by a crocodile claimed to be vegetarian.  The crocodile lives in a pond near the temple where he’s fed daily by priests. It’s said that a crocodile living in the pond was once shot by a British soldier who then died of a snake bite as part of cosmic justice.  Another crocodile is said to have miraculously replaced the previous animal, leading to the idea that as soon as one crocodile dies, another replaces it. <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/130-year-old-crocodile-dies-villagers-mourn/article25970924.ece">The Hindu</a> reports on another venerated crocodile that was said to have lived to be 130 years old.  When the crocodile was found dead in its lake, local villagers mourned the deceased reptilian, even refusing to cook meals for the day.  Being eaten by a crocodile is also thought by some Hindus to be a good death. 

In Australia, crocodiles are used as totem, associated with certain aboriginal groups and honored as such.  <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/local/audio/2012/07/02/3536791.htm">ABC Darwin Radio</a> reports that the Larrakia people of northern Australia respect the crocodile, called ‘Dungalaba’ in their language.  The word is an important one, as it’s remembered as part of a language that is no longer spoken fluently by anyone. The crocodile is recognized as dangerous, but also the people desire it to live in its native habitat near them.  The relationship is similar to that of anyone who loves wild animals that can sometimes also be dangerous. 

It’s easy to imagine that the mythology, worship and respect surrounding crocodiles in so many different cultures is an important way to face fear. Other dangerous animals and phenomena are traditionally worshiped or respected; things such as thunder, bears and so on all have their deities and myths.

When you can be literally eaten by a crocodile, it’s comforting to understand the animal and perhaps even the death of someone eaten by it in a mythological way.  By making crocodiles part of mythology, they become more sensible as does death. This imbues the crocodile and its prey with meaning otherwise lacking in an uncaring world.  When you can be eaten, it’s comforting to feel it means more than just a snack. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

In a number of different cultures, crocodiles are worshipped

The human understanding of death has always been closely tied...

The Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and Exercising human behavior and performance Skills (CAVES) is a <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> astronaut training course that takes place in a cave environment. One CAVES team has discovered a previously unknown species of crustaceans that once lived in the water, moved to land, and has now returned to the water again. 

According to a report from ESA, the creatures are just under one centimeter long and belong to a group commonly known as woodlice. While most <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/crustaceans-renewable-energy-wood/">crustaceans</a> such as shrimp live in the water, woodlice are the only group that can live on land.

Scientists have named the new species Alpioniscus Sideralis from the latin word for “stellar” in honor of the astronauts who spotted the blind, colorless creatures on the Italian island of Sardinia. The discovery was made during a 2012 CAVES expedition when the astronauts noticed the crustaceans in a small pond.

“I asked the astronauts to take some specimens. When we analyzed them under the microscope we quickly understood that they were an extraordinary type of aquatic species,” said zoologist Paolo Marcia from the University of Sassari.


During CAVES, astronauts and scientists collaborate to study terrestrial and aquatic fauna, and Marcia is responsible for the biology experiments. “Finding new species is not only crucial to understand these habitats, but also to protect them,” said Marcia. 

The cave experience helps to train astronauts in alien worlds, placing them in situations that will prepare them for space exploration.


“I would like to think that when humans land on Mars and explore its caves, this experience will help them to look for other species knowing that life has few limits and can develop in the most inhospitable places.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/">ZooKeys</a>.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: ESA–M. Fincke

Astronauts discover a new species of crustaceans deep in an Italian cave

The Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and Exercising human behavior and...

Scientists have found 53 alien marine species that have made the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-islands-ban-fireworks/">Galápagos</a><a href="http://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-islands-ban-fireworks/"> Islands</a> their home. Prior to this study, published in <a href="http://www.aquaticinvasions.net/">Aquatic Invasions</a>, only five species were previously documented.

"This increase in alien species is a stunning discovery, especially since only a small fraction of the Galápagos Islands was examined in this initial study," said coauthor Greg Ruiz, a marine biologist with the <a href="https://serc.si.edu/">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a>.

"This is the greatest reported increase in the recognition of alien species for any tropical marine region in the world," added lead author James Carlton, an emeritus professor of the <a href="https://mystic.williams.edu/">Maritime Studies Program of Williams College-Mystic Seaport</a>.

Ruiz and Carlton began their study in 2015 with field surveys of Santa Cruz and Baltra — two of the larger Galápagos Islands. The pair, along with Inti Keith of the <a href="https://www.darwinfoundation.org/en/">Charles Darwin Foundation</a>, hung settlement plates from docks one meter underwater to see what species would begin to grow. The team also took samples from mangrove roots, floating docks and other coastal debris, as well as scanned records to see if identified marine species had been previously overlooked.

The researchers identified 30 new alien species believed to have been on the islands for decades, yet went unnoticed. Another 17 non-native species were previously falsely identified as native, however Ruiz, Carlton, and Keith found that they were actually alien. And a final alien species, called the bryozoan Watersipora subtorquata, was discovered in 1987, yet remained unidentified until now.

[caption id="attachment_1870371" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Amathia-verticillata.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870371" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Amathia-verticillata.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Amathia verticillata, Image Credit: Dan Minchin/Marine Organism Investigations[/caption]

According to the research, most of the non-native species found were sea squirts, marine worms, and moss animals (bryozoans), and they all arrived on ships traveling from distant tropical locations, the team believes. 

Some of these alien species are invasive. The the bryozoan Amathia verticillata, for example, is known to damage pipes and fishing gear, as well as killing native seagrasses. And the date mussel Leiosolenus aristatus has already begun to attach itself to Galápagos coral.

"This discovery resets how we think about what's natural in the ocean around the Galápagos, and what the impacts may be on these high-value conservation areas," said Carlton.

Although the Galápagos have a very strict biosecurity program, instated to protect the native species of the islands by way of employing divers to inspect and turn away incoming marine vessels for inadvertently carrying non-native species, the risk for alien species invasion remains high.

The researchers say that the expansion of the Panama Canal in 2015 could cause the the predatory lionfish to the Galápagos, where it could wreak havoc on the native fish species. As could the invasive Indo-Pacific snowflake coral, which has already brought death to native coral in South America.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Galápagos Islands have far more invasive species than previously thought

Scientists have found 53 alien marine species that have made...

The hawksbill sea turtle is known for its beautiful shell, which has been admired by animal-lovers and exploited by poachers for decades. 

“The beauty of tortoiseshell has been the hawksbill’s curse,” says Dr. Emily Miller, an assistant research scientist at the <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> and first author of a new study published in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>. Her research involved analyzing 150 years of tortoiseshell trade records and using realistic harvest models to explore the trade of endangered hawksbill sea turtles.

Hawksbills are critically endangered, and are mainly being <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/conservationists-brand-tortoise-shells/">killed for their shells</a>, which are used to make translucent, semi-precious material called tortoiseshell. This material has been carved into items such as sunglasses, bracelets, guitar picks, and combs. 

Prior estimates of the global tortoiseshell trade relied on data that only went as far back as 1950, but scientists know that these turtles have been hunted for centuries. The team at the Monterey Bay Aquarium collected archival import records from dozens of countries going back to 1844 for this study. These new records showed that over half a million kilograms of tortoiseshell were traded before 1950. From this data, the authors estimated that this correlated to over 880,000 turtles killed.

The study found that roughly nine million turtles were harvested for shells over 150 years across a range that includes tropical Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean waters. These findings are more than six times previous estimates. 

Miller used archival records to identify the top tortoiseshell exporters, finding a significant connection with modern IUU fishing patterns. Trade from Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Fiji, and Thailand combined to account for more than half of the historical exports.

“The fact that the tortoiseshell trade patterns and the IUU fishing patterns overlap so strongly suggests that social and economic factors are driving them,” Miller explains. “These drivers are issues of governance and longstanding trade relationships that form complex and opaque trade networks.”

By establishing the link between contemporary IUU fishing and long-standing tortoiseshell trade routes, this new research may be able to inform improved monitoring of other illegal trafficking of narcotics, guns, and humans. While the study has shed light on the illicit tortoiseshell trade, it has also shown how connected these activities are, and potentially given us a better idea of how to stop them.

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kyle Van Houtan/NOAA

History of tortoiseshell trade sheds light on other illegal trafficking

The hawksbill sea turtle is known for its beautiful shell,...

photopanel resize

If you’ve ever read about ants, it’s likely you know that many ant colonies are rigidly structured – each ant has a specialized role within the colony that differs from the roles of other groups of ants. But a new study published in <a href="https://www.plos.org/">PLOS ONE</a> has found that it’s not just the jobs that differ, but the neurobiology of an individual may differ significantly according to their role within the colony.

Darcy Greer Gordon of <a href="http://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> and colleagues studied turtle ant (Cephalotes varians) colonies, which are socially organized into multiple castes that are behaviorally and phenotypically different. Ants in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ants-colony-working-together/">colony</a> are either sterile minor works (who perform most of the colony tasks), soldiers (who use their plate-shaped heads to defend the colony, acting as “living doors” in the entrances), or gynes (reproductive females that have the same head shape as soldiers, which they use for defense in early colony foundation).

The study was to determine whether turtle ant neurobiology is caste-specific. In the red mangrove stands of the Florida Keys, the researchers collected both queened colonies and colony fragments, which are made up on only winged gynes, soldiers, and workers. The team dissected out the ants’ brains, imaged them, and then analyzed brain structures.

They found that gynes had significantly larger overall brain volume than soldiers and minor workers, whose brain volumes were similar. It was also determined that gynes and soldiers tended to have significantly larger visual-processing regions than minor workers. When compared to gynes and soldiers, minor work brains were larger in regions generally linked with processing capabilities, which may help them with performing their diverse tasks.

When the researchers examined synaptic structure in regions associated with cognitive processing, they found differences across castes. Minors had fewer and larger synaptic complexes than both gynes and soldiers, which were similar to each other. The soldier brains were intermediate to the worker and gyne features in this respect, which may offer insight into their evolutionary origin.

“Ant societies show extraordinary division of labor where only queens reproduce, and sterile workers, sometimes strikingly different in size and shape, specialize on tasks such as nursing, foraging, housekeeping, and defense,” says Gordon. “In the turtle ant, Cephalotes varians, differences in the size and structure of the brain, which are detected using computational neuroimaging, reflect task specializations across queens, soldiers, and workers.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Alexander Wild, 2019

The role an ant plays in its colony is reflected in its neurobiology

If you’ve ever read about ants, it’s likely you know...

New research has found that one-third of all bee species native to the UK are declining, which could have a huge impact on the country’s agricultural industry.

Populations of both bees and hoverflies, considered key pollinators, are dropping and without pollinators doing their job, crops don’t get pollinated.

Only 34 percent of crop pollination in the UK is done by bees in apiaries which leaves a large majority of pollination for wild bees and hoverflies.

In the United States, farmers face similar challenges as bee colonies continue to decline due to colony collapse disorder, climate change, invasive pests and diseases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weed-killer-declining-bee-populations/#.XJuVaihKhPZ">harmful pesticides</a>, and habitat degradation.

It’s estimated that the economic value of pollinators in the UK is 690 million pounds per year, according to the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6852437/Decline-native-UK-bee-population-numbers-spell-disaster-pollinating-crops.html">Daily Mail</a>.

To get a better idea of how severe bee declines have become, researchers reviewed and analyzed 715,392 biological records of bee populations that were collected from citizen scientists between 1980 and 2013.

In that time frame, bees and hoverflies covered 25 percent less geographic area and, in some regions, population declines were recorded between 25 and 55 percent.

Along with these drastic declines, the researchers also noticed a slight increase in some wild bee populations, but these trends were not enough to outweigh the overall trends in species loss.

“In many respects it is a worrying trend, which could have an impact on the UK’s food supply,” Gary Powney, from the Centre of Ecology and Hydrology in Wallingford told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6852437/Decline-native-UK-bee-population-numbers-spell-disaster-pollinating-crops.html">Daily Mail</a>. “A huge proportion of species are decreasing.”

To help slow bee declines, experts recommend leaving a portion of your yard or garden untamed. Flower boxes filled with plants like lavender could also be useful in urban areas where gardens are infeasible due to space restrictions.

“This new paper provides further evidence, were it needed, that our pollinators are in trouble and that the health of our environment and food supply cannot be taken for granted,” Matt Shardlow, chief executive of conservation charity Buglife, told the Daily Mail. “Solitary bees, rare bees and bees, and hoverflies that live in the uplands are in particular trouble and need urgent help.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

One third of wild bees in the UK are suffering declining populations

New research has found that one-third of all bee species...

Antlions are notorious for being some of the fiercest predators in the insect kingdom. After trapping other insects in their pits, antlions use their razor sharp jaws to drain the bodily fluids of their victims within minutes. A study led by experts at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has now uncovered new details about how they build their deadly traps.

While it was known that antlions meticulously line their traps with fine grains of sand and toss out larger debris, the researchers were amazed to find just how methodical these insects actually are. 

During their work in the field, the experts performed an experiment in which they gave antlions a mixture of large and small sand grains. When they captured and separated all of the grains thrown out of the pit, the researchers found that antlions were discarding grains of sand that were only slightly larger than the grains being used for construction. 

“It is almost like a conjuring trick - many more large grains are ejected than seems possible,” said Professor Nigel Franks. “One answer is that the antlion is ‘interrogating’ much more sand to find and eject large grains than just the volume of sand that has to be removed to form the final pit.”

The researchers collaborated with physicists at Imperial College London to get more insight about the properties of granular mixtures. The team developed a computational model that simulated an antlion digging in granular mixtures to investigate how and why the insects use spiral digging.


“This technique is a superbly efficient time-saving method that literally enables antlions to plough through a large volume of sand such that the small avalanches they create cause large sand grains differentially to cascade to the bottom of the construction trench where they can be preferentially ejected during pit construction,” said Professor Franks. 

Lining the pits with fine <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sand-crabs-comets/">sand</a> grains makes them extremely avalanche-prone. 

“Any prey item that ventures into the pit will ride an avalanche down to the deadly antlion at the bottom of the pit. Such pits are an intriguing example of the ever-present force of natural selection that shapes biology,” said Professor Franks.

The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How antlions construct death traps for their victims

Antlions are notorious for being some of the fiercest predators...

Rauhhautfledermaus (Pipistrellus nathusii)

When the sun goes down, we all instinctively reach for the lamps and light switches in our homes, attempting to prolong the light hours and continue our work (or maybe just brighten our current Netflix binge). And while these <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-causes-spring-to-come-early/">artificial lights</a> are of major benefit to our lives, they can be a hindrance to the lives of nocturnal animals – particularly in cities, where light is almost constant. However, the effects of artificial light likely varies across species, seasons, and types of light.

Now, a recent study published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a> from the <a href="http://www.izw-berlin.de/">Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a> (IZW) has revealed new evidence of how exactly UV light emitting and non-UV emitting street lamps affect the activity of bats in the Berlin metropolitan area. The study also investigates if tree cover could mitigate the effects of this light pollution.

The researchers found that bat responses to light pollution were complex. “We observed a higher activity of two pipistrelle bat species, the common pipistrelle and Nathusius' pipistrelle, in areas with high numbers of UV emitting street lamps,” says Tanja Straka, a scientist at the IZW's Department of Evolutionary Ecology and first author of the study. This may be because these bats are taking advantage of the insects that are attracted to UV emitting lamps. “However, all other species were less active at and even repelled by the lamps, irrespective of whether the light they emitted did or did not contain UV light,” Straka explains. 

In this study, the research team considered these effects in relation to tree cover. Bats use trees as shelter during the day, but at night when the street lamps come on, the trees can still provide shade for bats in lighted areas. The researchers’ goal was to determine how tree cover influences bat responses to artificial light.

Results showed that bat response to artificial light was intensified in areas with more tree cover. This may be due to increased tree presence also leading to more insects attracted to the vegetation. But mouse-eared bats were found to be present less in areas with lots of street lamps as well as denser tree cover. It seems that this species is more light sensitive, and avoids illuminated areas even when there is tree cover.

The researchers also observed that high-flying insectivorous bats were more active in areas when light emission from LED street lamps was mitigated by high tree coverage, compared to areas where LED lamps were present with fewer trees. Unlike UV lights, LED lights do no attract insects and so they’re likely less attractive as a foraging area for these bats. 

The team collected all of this information through analysis of over 11,000 bat calls recorded at 22 sites in the Berlin metropolitan area. They could identify species through the calls, and used this to calculate the activity of each species at each site. 

“The bottom line is that for bats the relation between artificial light and vegetation is complex and it varies between species, yet overall artificial light at night has negative consequences for bats,” explains Christian Voigt, the Head of Department. “Even those species that may hunt at street lamps opportunistically will suffer on the long run from the constant drain of insects dying at street lamps. Trees are important for urban bats, not only as a shelter but also as a source for prey insects. Hence artificial light should be avoided in habitats with many trees.”

Some solutions to reducing the negative effects of artificial lights on these species would be to add trees to the more brightly lit areas, or turn off the lights when the area is not in use. While these lights may be useful for our purposes, we have to remember that we share these areas with species that thrive in the dark.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Christian Giese

Street lamps and tree cover influence urban bat activity

When the sun goes down, we all instinctively reach for...

Nearly one-third of Asian elephants in India, Myanmar, and Thailand live in captivity, either as working elephants in the timber industry or in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-sanctuary-attractions-inhumane/#.XJpcgihKhPY">tourism</a>. 

Myanmar alone has the largest population of captive elephants in the world, but given that captive elephant populations are particularly vulnerable to decline, endangered elephants are usually captured from the wild to help sustain captive worker populations. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield </a>and the <a href="http://www.utu.fi/welcome">University of Turku</a>, along with the <a href="http://www.myanmatimber.com.mm/">Myanmar Timber Enterprise</a> as part of the <a href="http://elephant-project.science/">Myanmar Timber Elephant Project</a>, are currently working on reducing this dependence on wild elephants while still boosting captive populations. 

Captive populations and endangered wild elephants are tightly linked. according to the researchers, and even though conservation of wild elephants is a priority, captive elephants are just as important to ensuring the future survival of the species. 

“The dependence of captive elephant populations on capture from the wild in the past is truly alarming,” said Virpi Lummaa, the leader of the study. “The problem with elephants is that they take so long to grow and reproduce and have very complex social lives, making them vulnerable to population declines when disturbed.” 

In a new study, published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, researchers examined trends in elephant capture and the impact elephant capture had on the 3,500 working elephants over 54 years. 

The researchers analyzed birth and death rates of captive populations and found that young captive elephants have a higher risk of early death, especially when separated from their mothers to start training. 

If handlers and logging companies could work to improve the wellbeing and lifespan of young elephants, captive elephant populations would stand a better chance at sustaining their numbers without the capture wild elephants. 

At four years of age, juvenile elephants are separated from their mothers and trained to work. 

This is stressful for the young elephants, as elephants are highly social animals with complex familial bonds. These relationships need to be taken into account when working on improving the welfare of captive elephants. 

“Our model suggests we may see declines in captive elephants for up to 50 years so we must now work to ensure that the captive population is sustainable,” said John Jackson, the lead author of the paper. “With so many Asian elephants in captivity, we must safeguard both captive and wild elephant populations and the people living and working alongside them for the future of the species.” 

The researchers also say that identifying a pregnant female early on in her pregnancy could help as handlers can then ensure that the mother has what she needs to care for and bond with her calf. These small steps would go a long way in helping captive populations, according to the study. 

“One hopeful result is that we may see improvements in population growth if we are able to improve the survival of young elephants by just 10 per cent,” said Jackson. “This shows we can really make a difference by improving welfare for these vulnerable individuals in captivity.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How to boost captive elephant numbers without taking more from the wild?

Nearly one-third of Asian elephants in India, Myanmar, and Thailand...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...