Nature often surprises us with its ingenious adaptations, and the cricket frog is no exception. Native to Virginia and North Carolina, these tiny frogs display an ability that seems almost magical: moving across water as if it were solid ground. 



Known as “skittering,” this behavior has intrigued scientists and inspired visions of futuristic technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capabilities-of-cricket-frogs">Capabilities of cricket frogs</h2>



Jake Socha, a professor of mechanical engineering, and his research team at <a href="https://www.vt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> have examined this phenomenon.



“The humble cricket <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> lives nearby, and yet it still surprised us with its capabilities, further motivating our curiosity to understand the living world,” said Professor Socha.



The research, published in the&nbsp;Journal of Experimental Biology, challenges popular notions about how frogs traverse water.



“Skittering is not actually a well-defined word for this behavior. Part of this research is not only studying this behavior in cricket frogs but to try and give ‘skittering’ a more precise, scientific definition,” explained study lead author and graduate researcher Talia Weiss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cricket-frogs-don-t-walk-on-water">Cricket frogs don’t walk on water</h2>



Using high-speed cameras shooting at 500 frames per second, the team captured the frogs’ motions in astonishing detail. 



Contrary to the idea that these frogs glide effortlessly across water, the footage revealed something unexpected: the frogs sink between each leap.



“It’s fascinating how easily we can be fooled by fast animal movements,” said Professor Socha. “Here, we’re fooled by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> that appears like a skipping stone, but is actually jumping and dunking multiple times in a row.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaping-frogs-resemble-dolphins-jumping">Leaping frogs resemble dolphins jumping</h2>



The movement of cricket frogs, often mistaken for walking on water, is better described as "porpoising," a motion similar to the way dolphins leap in and out of the water. 



Unlike true walking, this behavior involves distinct stages within each jump cycle, which researchers broke down into four key phases:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Takeoff: The frog begins completely submerged in water. Using its powerful hind legs, it pushes off against the water, propelling its body upward and into the air. This explosive motion provides the energy needed for the leap.</li>



<li>Aerial: While in mid-air, the frog's legs remain extended, providing balance and stability during its short flight. This phase gives the impression that the frog is gracefully skipping across the water.</li>



<li>Re-entry: The frog's front legs are the first to contact the water as it descends. The rest of the body follows, creating a splash and breaking the water's surface as it sinks back under.</li>



<li>Recovery: Once submerged, the frog rapidly retracts its legs to prepare for the next jump. This resetting phase ensures the frog is ready to push off again almost immediately.</li>
</ol>



Each of these phases occurs in less than a second, allowing the frog to perform up to eight consecutive jumps in quick succession. This rapid, repetitive motion creates the illusion that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-economic-strategy-could-save-endangered-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> is walking or skipping on water, though it is actually sinking and leaping continuously. 



The efficiency and speed of these movements highlight the cricket frog’s unique adaptations for this behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-movement-inspires-robots">Frog movement inspires robots</h2>



Understanding the mechanics of skittering has implications far beyond biology. This unique locomotion could inspire innovations in robotics and engineering. For instance, amphibious drones designed for water testing or rescue missions might mimic the cricket frog’s efficient movements.



“Frogs are great jumpers, but most of them don’t exhibit this porpoising behavior, and we still don’t know why,” noted Professor Socha. “Is there something special about the frog’s leap, or is it simply a matter of small body size?”



This research highlights how studying even the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/puddle-frogs-have-a-secret-weapon-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smallest creatures</a> can lead to big discoveries. The cricket frog’s seemingly simple movement holds secrets that may shape the future of technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cricket-frogs-built-for-skittering-on-water">Cricket frogs: Built for skittering on water</h2>



Cricket frogs may be small, but their anatomy is a masterpiece of adaptation. Their ability to skitter across water is no accident; it’s the result of finely tuned physical traits that allow them to excel at leaping, sinking, and jumping again.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-hind-legs">Powerful hind legs</h3>



The cricket frog’s hind legs are disproportionately long and muscular for its tiny body. These legs provide the explosive force needed to propel the frog both on land and through water. 



Their large, well-developed muscles allow for rapid extension and retraction, making it possible to perform consecutive jumps in quick succession.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightweight-body">Lightweight body</h3>



Weighing less than many other frogs, cricket frogs benefit from a lightweight frame. This reduces resistance when they re-enter the water after a jump, helping them maintain momentum. Their small size also means they create minimal drag during movement.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-joints">Flexible joints</h3>



Their joints, particularly in the hind legs, are highly flexible. This flexibility enables the frogs to fully extend their legs during the takeoff phase and then rapidly retract them underwater to reset for the next leap.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlined-body-shape">Streamlined body shape</h3>



The cricket frog’s body is slightly flattened, which may help reduce resistance during re-entry into the water. This streamlined shape allows for smoother transitions between aerial and submerged phases of their movement.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-adaptations">Skin adaptations</h3>



The frog’s skin plays a subtle but critical role. Smooth and water-resistant, it minimizes friction as the frog moves in and out of the water. This feature also helps maintain buoyancy and allows for quicker movement beneath the surface.



Ultimately, the cricket frog’s body is a perfect example of how evolution tailors physical traits to meet specific survival needs. Each aspect of the frogs' anatomy, from powerful legs to streamlined bodies, contributes to their ability to skitter on water.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article-abstract/227/22/jeb249403/363001/Skittering-locomotion-in-cricket-frogs-a-form-of?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Walking on water? Cricket frogs redefine aquatic locomotion

Nature often surprises us with its ingenious adaptations, and the cricket frog is no exception. Native to Virginia and North Carolina, these tiny frogs display an ability that seems almost magical: moving across water as if it were solid ground. Known as “skittering,” this behavior has intrigued scientists and inspired visions of futuristic technologies. Capabilities of cricket frogs Jake Socha, a professor of mechanical engineering, and his research team at Virginia Tech have examined this phenomenon. “The humble cricket frog lives nearby, and yet it still surprised...

A recent <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>, has found that climate change and overfishing has shrunk many of the world’s fisheries. Researchers have found that ocean warming has caused an average 4.1% decline in sustainable catches for both fish and shellfish between 1930 and 2010. In five specific locations, including the East China Sea and North Sea, the average drop was between 15% and 35%.

These drop percentages are concerning as seafood has become a huge source of nourishment for the growing global population. And more than 56 million people work in the fisheries industry or subsist on fisheries, the researchers note.

"We recommend that fisheries managers eliminate overfishing, rebuild fisheries and account for climate change in fisheries management decisions," said study leader <a href="https://marine.rutgers.edu/~cfree/">Chris Free</a>, a postdoctoral scientist at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>. "Policymakers can prepare for regional disparities in fish catches by establishing trade agreements and partnerships to share seafood between winning and losing regions."

"We were stunned to find that fisheries around the world have already responded to ocean warming," said co-author <a href="https://marine.rutgers.edu/main/malin-pinsky">Malin Pinsky</a>, an associate professor in <a href="http://deenr.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers' Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources</a>. "These aren't hypothetical changes sometime in the future."

Although some ocean species have benefitted from warming ocean temperatures, these species can only take so much warming before they start to decline in numbers due to too high of temperatures, senior author <a href="https://marine.rutgers.edu/~ojensen/index.html">Olaf Jensen</a>, an associate professor in <a href="https://marine.rutgers.edu/main/">Rutgers' Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences</a>, said.

Scientists from <a href="https://newbrunswick.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers-New Brunswick</a> and the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> studied the impact of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-summer-weather-severe/">climate change</a> and ocean warming on 235 populations of 124 species in 38 global ecological regions. They then used ocean temperature maps to combine fishery data and estimate temperature-caused changes in the sustainable catch between 1930 and 2010. Losses were seen in areas like the Sea of Japan, North Sea, Iberian Coastal, Kuroshio Current, and Celtic-Biscay Shelf. Gains were recorded in the Labrador-Newfoundland, Baltic Sea, Indian Ocean, and Northeast U.S. Shelf.

Furthermore, the researchers note that overfishing makes species in fisheries more vulnerable to ocean warming, and continued warming will negatively impact efforts to rebuilt overfished areas.

The next step is for researchers to better understand the impact of tropical ocean warming as well as explore other factors related to the drop of sustainable catches in fisheries like ocean temperatures, ocean oxygen content, acidity, and productivity.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Orion Weldon

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Climate change has already shrunk many global fisheries

A recent Rutgers University study, published in the journal Science, has...

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are the only species of the deer family in which both males and females grow antlers.  Caribou are a species of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/real-reindeer/">reindeer</a> native to the most northern parts of the globe, from North America to Asia and Europe.  That’s not the whole story though, because depending on the opinion of the scientist, there may be as many as <a href="https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Tetlin/wildlife_and_habitat/caribou.html">seven subspecies</a> of caribou and at least five.  

In most people’s minds, the caribou is an animal of the barren tundra of the arctic, but with some subspecies, their native range extended further south.  Yes, some caribou live their entire lives in the far north, but other caribou have ranged as far south as Washington State, New York and Minnesota. These southernmost caribou are the woodland caribou, a subspecies adapted for living in forests.  

The woodland caribou are also larger and darker colored than their more northern relatives.  These caribou have different migration patterns, some populations move very little through the year.  Other herds wander widely but seem to show little migration patterns. Some migrate long distances between forests and tundra annually.  For a long time, the woodland caribou was the only chance for someone to see the iconic deer in the lower 48 states. Sadly, woodland caribou living in a habitat closer to human population densities is also more threatened.  The woodland caribou has been protected as endangered in the United States since 1983. Unfortunately, designated protection under the law doesn’t always safeguard a future for animals in the real world. 

Woodland caribou eat lichen as a major source of food.  Lichens only grow in large numbers in old growth forests.  <a href="https://defenders.org/woodland-caribou/basic-facts">Defenders of Wildlife</a> estimates that it takes 80 to 150 years for a forest to grow enough lichen to support caribou.  This need for old growth forest leads the caribou into conflict with logging. Even ‘sustainable’ wood harvesting can threaten an animal that requires a forest at least 80 years old for survival.  Caribou are generally shy and are disturbed by every day human intrusions like roads. These things combined with recreation put pressure on caribou in the continental US. 

Over time, the woodland caribou population in the United States dwindled to a single herd that lived in the Selkirk Mountains in the border region of northern Idaho, Washington and British Columbia.  The woodland caribou of this region are sometimes known as mountain caribou for their habit of migrating to high alpine areas as well as forests. The herd was known as the Selkirk herd and crossed over the US-Canadian border with no thought for international politics.  The Selkirk herd now may be gone with the rest of the woodland caribou that once lived in the continental United States. 

In 2009, surveys found 50 individual mountain caribou in the Selkirk herd.  Less than a decade later in 2016, the numbers were tallied at 12 individuals in the herd.  Last year, the <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/onearth/americas-last-woodland-caribou-herd-down-just-three-animals">National Resource Defense Council</a> reported that there were only three female caribou remaining in the Selkirk herd.  Just three days ago, <a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/latest-the-last-woodland-caribou-has-left-the-lower-48">High Country News</a> reported the inevitable end of this slow decline.  The last caribou of the Selkirk herd was captured and moved to a breeding facility in Revelstoke, British Columbia.

Other herds have disappeared before.  One herd was observed to decline in <a href="https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/banff/decouvrir-discover/faune-wildlife/caribou/initiation-primer">Banff National Park</a>, Canada until the population was small enough that the last members disappeared in an avalanche in 2009.      

The upside to the tragedy of a lost herd of caribou is lessons learned.  It’s quite obvious that woodland caribou would need old growth woodlands but human societies can be slow to learn.  Efforts to protect the remaining woodland caribou are already underway in Canada and those in Alaska are protected. Breeding programs now hold out the potential hope of reintroduced caribou someday roaming throughout the northern continental US again.

<a href="http://rcrw.ca/?page_id=26">Revelstoke Caribou Rearing in the Wild</a> is the organization where the last member of the Selkirk herd of mountain caribou will hopefully be bred successfully.  The organization reports on populations of all the mountain caribou herds. The numbers of these herds as a whole declined sharply around 2002 and have continued to spiral downward.  The herd near Revelstoke was made of roughly 210 caribou in 1994 but was down to about 120 in 2011. The caribou in the area around Revelstoke have been researched heavily since the 1990s and their decline is well documented.  Other herds have shown similar declines and the breeding program at Revelstoke focuses on calf survival as a way of growing populations. 

The declines in wild caribou herds are caused by habitat destruction, changing predator-prey dynamics, and other disturbances caused by humans.  All caribou herds have been moving more northward, which often causes populations to fracture and become smaller and more isolated, creating genetic problems.  Greater survival of calves can help solve some of these problems but only if habitat destruction is halted and perhaps reversed in some ways. Without the habitat caribou need, they won’t survive.  

<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.18/in-canada-mountain-caribou-recovery-falters">High Country News</a> reported in 2016 that there were only about 1,000 mountain caribou left all-together.  The cause is largely from industrial logging in much of the Caribou’s habitat. Conservation money focuses on things like breeding programs, without taking on big lumber that destroys the caribou’s home; a quixotic effort.  Other protections implemented include culling wolves, a natural, native predator of caribou and limiting snowmobile recreation in parts of the caribou range. 

The British Columbian government implemented the Mountain Caribou Recovery Implementation Plan (MCRIP), which enacted protections but failed to limit logging in caribou habitat.  The forests the caribou depend on – interior temperate rainforest – are made of large stretches of unique, old growth trees. Some of that forest is protected in places like the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/attmain/flathead/specialplaces">Bob Marshall Wilderness Area</a> in the US or <a href="https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ab/banff">Banff National Park</a> in Canada, but with wide ranging animals like caribou, enormous forest is required.  Another problem is that even in National Forests within the US, logging is allowed, even if managed to be sustainable.  When old growth is needed, this model does no favors to the caribou. 

In the end, if habitat destruction isn’t stopped, captive bred populations of mountain caribou may just end up supplying another exhibit at the zoo.      

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The last of the woodland caribou relocated from the contiguous U.S.

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are the only species of the deer...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/relict-megafauna/">giant ground sloths</a> that trudged across the Earth millions of years ago weighed thousands of pounds and could measure as long as 20 feet in length. These long-since extinct herbivores could prop themselves up on their hind legs to reach twigs and leaves in trees. 

The discovery of a giant ground sloth fossil has helped shed light on a year in the life of the sloth as it’s diet changed to adapt to variations in climate and vegetation. 

The fossil was discovered in a sink-hole in Belize by divers, and Jean T. Larmon, a Ph.D. candidate at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> analyzed a fossilized tooth from the remains along with a team of researchers. 

Carbon dating and studying fossil teeth can be challenging if the tooth lacks enamel, and the researchers soon realized that isotopic analyses on certain layers of the sloth’s tooth were inaccurate. 

Without enamel, some of the layers were more impacted by sedimentary processes that eventually led to fossilization than others. 

A sloth’s teeth, like other herbivorous species, continue to grow throughout its life and so the fossil represented a unique opportunity to study dietary changes over time if the researchers could find the right layers to analyze.

[caption id="attachment_1868816" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/sloth-graphic.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1868816" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/sloth-graphic.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> Giant ground sloth, Graphic by Julie McMahon[/caption]

Larmon and colleges analyzed carbon and oxygen stable isotope data from 58 samples collected from a single tooth of the fossil. The samples were collected from three layers of the tooth: the cementum and the outer and inner orthedentin. Cathodoluminescence microscopy was used to evaluate the data and ensure accuracy. 

The carbon and oxygen isotope data differed from layer to layer, but the inner orthedentin layer seemed to have withstood the chemical and physical sedimentary processes over the years, and so that layer was used to date the tooth. 

The researchers found that the tooth was around 27,000 years old and the sloth lived during the Last Glacial Maximum. 

The variations in oxygen isotopes in the tooth indicated that the sloth lived during a year divided by short wet seasons and one long dry season and likely eat grass and shrubs during the wet seasons. 

The study, published in the journal Science Advances and backed by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, shows that sloths in Belize changed their diets depending on the season and ate what was available. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Stanley Ambrose

Fossilized tooth sheds light on the diet of the giant ground sloth

The giant ground sloths that trudged across the Earth millions...

These birds have a Plan B if they can’t keep their eggs in one basket. Researchers at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> have found a species of cuckoo in the tropical jungle of Central America that has developed an interesting strategy for reproductive success. The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-feathers-hair-teeth/">birds</a> start off the breeding season by building communal nests which are guarded by two or three breeding pairs. If the communal nest is destroyed by a predator, however, the birds spread out their eggs in different nests.

Study co-author Christina Riehl is an assistant professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. 

“When different females in a population pursue different reproductive tactics, like cooperative and parasitic nesting, this poses an evolutionary puzzle,” said Professor Riehl. “We wondered why some females lay their eggs into other groups' nests, whereas other females never do.”

“We found the parasitic strategy is more of a second-line option. It's as if the birds say, ‘If our cooperative attempt fails, let's go to Option B.’”

The greater ani is one of just a few bird species in which unrelated females raise their young together. By contrast, social parasitism is a very common strategy used by over 250 bird species.

To find out what makes the birds resort to parasitism, the scientists observed the anis and their nesting behaviors for more than a decade at Barro Colorado Nature Monument in Panama. 

The researchers discovered that nearly all the birds started the breeding season in communal groups due to constant threats from predators such as snakes and monkeys. Social parasitism was also found to be widespread, with about 25 percent of the nests being parasitized by a female who was not a member of the group.These birds have a Plan B if they can’t keep their eggs in one basket

The team noted that females whose nests were destroyed by predators early in the nesting cycle were most likely to lay parasitically, and usually built an alternative nest close to the failed nest. The experts also determined that both of the reproductive strategies are viable options for the birds. 

Mark Hauber is an ornithologist and behavioral ecologist of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign who was not involved in the study. 

“The study explains why cooperative breeding is maintained evolutionarily in this species - solitary breeding or parasitism alone are simply not productive enough,” said Hauber. “But either cooperative breeding with large clutches or failed cooperative breeding followed by parasitism are equivalent strategies fitness-wise. Thus parasitism continues to be present in the population and so is cooperative breeding.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Christina Riehl

These birds have a Plan B if they can’t keep their eggs in one basket

These birds have a Plan B if they can’t keep...

Paleontologists at <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> have identified the fossil remains of what may be the oldest frogs in North America. The fragments of Chinle frogs, which measure smaller than a pinky nail, represent the first known Salientia from the Late Triassic around 216 million years ago.

The scientists analyzed several small pieces of hip bones from Chinle frogs, which are indirect ancestors of modern <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/frogs-charm-city/">frogs</a>. The specimens were named after the Chinle Formation of Arizona where they were found in May of 2018.

“This new find highlights just how much there is still to learn about the Late Triassic ecosystem, and how much we find when we just look a little closer,” said study co-lead author Professor Michelle Stocker. “We're familiar with the charismatic archosaurs from the Chinle Formation, but we know that based on other ecosystems, they should make up a small percentage of the animals that lived together. With this new focus we're able to fill in a lot of those missing smaller components with new discoveries.”

The hip bones were long and hollow and had a hip socket that was offset rather than centered. Professor Stocker said that the bones were so small that the Chinle frog could fit on the end of your finger.

“These are the oldest frogs from near the equator,” said Professor Stocker. “The oldest frogs overall are roughly 250 million years old from Madagascar and Poland, but those specimens are from higher latitudes and not equatorial."

Professor Sterling Nesbitt added, “Now we know that tiny frogs were present approximately 215 million years ago from North America, we may be able to find other members of the modern vertebrate communities in the Triassic Period.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Virginia Tech

Scientists find fossils of the oldest known frogs in North America

Paleontologists at Virginia Tech have identified the fossil remains of...

Rauhhautfledermaus (Pipistrellus nathusii)

Migratory bats know just when to turn on cruise control. A study led by scientists at the <a href="http://www.izw-berlin.de/welcome.html">Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a> describes how migrating bats have mastered their own style of cruise control. The researchers found that the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/vampire-bats-deadly-bacteria/">bats</a> move at speeds which allow them to travel across long distances while using the least amount of energy. 

Experts still lack a clear understanding of the energy requirements for aerial migration, particularly among bats. The Leibniz-IZW team set out to analyze the energy demands associated with the travel speeds of small migrating bats, or Nathusius' pipistrelle.

For part of the investigation, the researchers used a wind tunnel experiment combined with measurements in a respirometry chamber. The chamber allowed the scientists to track CO2 that was released in the breath of the bats, providing a record of their metabolic rate during flight. The measurements were repeated immediately before and after one-minute flights at various speeds in the wind tunnel. 

Using this information, the scientists recorded the flight metabolic rate as it  related to air speed, which helped them to identity the flight speed with the best energy to distance ratio. The study revealed that the optimal speed for these particular bats was around 16 miles per hour. 

“Our study confirms that the observed flight speeds are consistent with the expectation that migratory bats practice optimal flight speeds for covering the largest distance with the least amount of energy,” wrote the researchers. 

“When foraging in a dune forest, bats performed sharp turns in order to catch insects,” said study co-lead author Sara Troxell. “These tight turns require slower flight speeds and the overall speed might be reduced in anticipation of such turns.” 

Christian Voigt added, “However, it is important to realize that our insights into the migratory behavior of bats are still in their infancy.”

The study is published in the <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Christian Giese

Migratory bats know just when to turn on cruise control

Migratory bats know just when to turn on cruise control....

You may remember the great public debate surrounding the photograph of a dress that quickly became a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/28/business/a-simple-question-about-a-dress-and-the-world-weighs-in.html">viral sensation in 2015</a> after the public could not agree on its color. 

Was it blue with black stripes or white with gold stripes? The two color schemes were so different that the internet exploded when it became clear that so many people perceived the same image so differently. 

Now, a new study of colorful snail shells has once again revealed that people see and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormone-see-color/">categorize some colors differently</a>. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> first categorized analyzed the color of Cepaea nemoralis (grove snail) shells and then measured the shells using a spectrometer to see if there were differences in the way people saw the color of shells. 

The study was published in the journal Heredity, and the researchers explain how the ability to accurately identify and categorize colors is crucial to how we classify species and to our understanding of evolution. 

Grove snails are common across Europe, and their shells can be yellow, brown, and pink. The color of the shell may have evolved in response to the snail’s preferred habitat or to evade predators.

If there are documented color changes that have evolved in a species, like if a grove snail’s shell changed color, researchers can work understand what environmental factors prompted the change. 

However, it’s important to know what color that snail’s shell is in the first place.  If researchers studying the snails see different colors, it represents of a problem in classifying them.

[caption id="attachment_1868714" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/snail-shells.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1868714" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/snail-shells.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="343" /></a> Snail shell color variations, Image Credit: Daniel Ramos Gonzalez[/caption]

“The shell patterns and colour are hugely variable - almost like a snail fingerprint. As scientists, to ensure the accuracy of our studies and the subsequent interpretation, it is important that we have a reproducible measure of colour,” said Angus Davison, the leader of the study. “The problem is that there are obvious differences in how humans perceive and categorise their colour, making it very difficult to compare the different types.”

For the study, Davison and a Ph.D. student categorized grove snail shell colors by eye. The snail shells were then measured with a spectrometer which measured the light that reflects off the shell to accurately identify the color of the shell. 

Yellow snail shells were accurately identified by eye and matched the yellow shells measured by the spectrometer. But the researchers found that humans struggled to agree on the color of brown or pink shells.

Now, the researchers have a better understanding of how people process and label colors which going forward could help with future studies examining color and evolution. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Dr Angus Davison/The University of Nottingham

Pink or brown? ‘The Dress’ debate returns, this time over snail shells

You may remember the great public debate surrounding the photograph...

There’s a reason that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tigers-species/">tigers</a> and pets are not often associated with each other. Our pets are cuddly and innocent companions while tigers are majestic, yet fierce wild animals. But right now, the United States has a pet tiger problem that was made all the more apparent by recent news of a tiger left abandoned in a Texas home.

In early February, a person entered an abandoned home in Houston, Texas to smoke pot. Inside, the person found a tiger living in small cage, according to <a href="https://abc13.com/tiger-found-abandoned-at-vacant-home-in-se-houston/5132909/">KTRK</a>. Thankfully, the tiger was able to be relocated to a Texas sanctuary to live out the rest of its life.

While this story is certainly bizarre, it is not uncommon to find tigers living as pets in the US. In 2003, a Congressional report estimated that there are as many as <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-108hrpt269/html/CRPT-108hrpt269.htm">11,500</a> tigers living in private homes in the US. Other estimates put the US captive tiger population at <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/more-tigers-in-american-backyards-than-in-the-wild">5,000</a>. It is difficult to calculate an exact number of pet tigers as there is no universal database for these pets.

Either way, it is believed that there are now more tigers living in captivity in the US than in the wild throughout the world. The tiger is currently listed as Endangered and its population is estimated to be less than 4,000.

The import, export and sale of pet tigers are regulated by US and international laws when they occur across country and state borders, but the sale of pet tigers can occur within state lines and in the illegal wildlife market. State laws also vary on the private ownership of big cats with some states outright banning it and other states having no laws on the subject.

The private ownership of tigers is a cause for concern for a variety of reasons including public safety risks. Tigers are inherently wild animals, and strong ones at that. They are highly territorial and use their body weight to knock their prey down and bite their neck to kill them. Private owners are unlikely to be able to properly control a pet tiger in the case of an attack. From 1990 to 2006, captive tigers in the US attacked at least 27 people, killing seven people and severely injuring 20, according to<a href="https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/5400/paper-tigers.pdf"> TRAFFIC</a>.

Even police departments are often ill-prepared to handle pet tigers. In 2017, police officers killed a loose tiger that was roaming around Atlanta, Georgia. The local police officers do not carry tranquilizers on hand and officers decided to shot the animal after it began to enter a densely populated area, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/09/06/georgia-tiger-on-loose-killed/637054001/">USA Today</a> reported.

Animal welfare is another concern that comes with the private ownership of tigers. Tigers are not your run-of-the-mill pet. They do not simply require a bowl of food and water to survive. A full grown tiger can consume 20 pounds of meat a day and needs a safe and stimulating environment. Boredom can be very dangerous in predatory animals and tigers without proper enrichment may attack out of agitation. Lack of animal welfare can, therefore, increase concerns about public safety.

Owners may buy a tiger as a pet when it is an adorable and small cub. Once they become fully grown adults, the owner is likely to become overwhelmed with their pet. According to the 2003 Congressional <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-108hrpt269/html/CRPT-108hrpt269.htm">report</a>, many pet tigers are abandoned after they reach 300 pounds.

The fate of these unwanted tigers is murky. It is unclear what would have happened to the tiger in Houston if someone had not been searching for a spot to smoke pot. The animal could have very likely starved to death.

Advocates of the private ownership of tigers claim that captive tigers can help preserve the species by being reintroduced into the wild, but pet tigers often live in a far different environment than their wild counterparts. The chances of pet tigers surviving in the wild are low. Additionally, many zoos are unwilling to take in pet tigers due to concerns over available space and genetic diversity. It is often up to overburdened wildlife sanctuaries to step up if an owner wants to relinquish a pet.

Recognizing the current pet tiger problem in the US, Congress has previously introduced the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/2990/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22big+cat+public+safety+act%22%5D%7D&amp;r=1&amp;s=2">Big Cat Public Safety Act</a> to prohibit the breeding and possession of dangerous big cats including lions, tigers, leopards and cheetahs. 

But this week, it was announced that the Big Cat Public Safety Act was reintroduced in the US House of Representatives, championed by Reps. Michael Quigley (D-IL) and Brian Fitzpatrick (R-PA) along with 52 bipartisan cosponsors.

“From irresponsible breeding to inhumane living conditions and public exploitation, the mistreatment of big cats comes in a variety of forms,” said Rep. Quigley. “By introducing the Big Cat Public Safety Act, we are working to address a serious issue that causes immeasurable animal suffering and introduces inexcusable threats to human safety. State laws regarding private ownership of big cats are inconsistent or nonexistent, which is why a uniform federal law is necessary to end this dangerous industry once and for all.”

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Recent tiger seizure illustrates pet tiger problem in the US

There’s a reason that tigers and pets are not often...

Some farmers in central India are on high alert as flocks of wild parrots are tearing into their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/poppy-flowers-bright-colors/">poppy plants</a> for opium. The parrots, who have apparently developed a serious addiction to opium, have even learned when and how to covertly descend upon the plants.

Video footage captured in India’s Madhya Pradesh state shows wild parrots frantically  ripping apart the poppy seed pods. In some cases, the birds can be seen cutting the stalks below the pods and flying off into the trees with them.

The parrots wait until the farmers cut the poppy pods to help them ripen, which exposes latex that is rich in morphine. The birds have also learned to be stealthy, swooping silently down into the poppy fields without making any sound.

The farmers say that the parrots have become so addicted to the opium that they must be on guard nearly all the time to prevent the birds from eating the seeds and getting high.  

[caption id="attachment_1868723" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/parrot-poppies.png"><img class="wp-image-1868723" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/parrot-poppies.png" alt="" width="700" height="443" /></a> Wild parrot in a poppy field, Image Credit: NewsLions[/caption]

The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is one of the oldest medicinal plants in the world. Opiates derived from the plants have been used for thousands of years for both medicinal and recreational purposes. Today, opium poppies are used to produce the two most common painkillers - morphine and codeine.

Dr. R.S. Chundawat is an opium specialist in Mandsaur who explained to <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html">Daily Mail</a> that opium would affect the parrots in the same way that coffee or tea affects humans, giving them instant energy. He said that once the birds experienced this feeling, they would have quickly fallen prey to the addiction.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild parrots are destroying poppies to feed their opium addiction

Some farmers in central India are on high alert as...

When desert snakes encounter an obstacle, they bounce off the barrier and change direction like light waves. 

The s-shape slithering of a snake is a familiar sight, and researchers from the <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/">Georgia Institute of Technology</a> examined this sinusoidal wave-like movement to better understand how limbless snakes deal with obstacles they can’t see. 

After setting up a test arena on shag carpet to mimic the sandy conditions of a desert, the researchers observed snakes as they slithered through a set of six pegs to determine how the snake interacted with obstacles. 

The team found that the snake moved similarly to light waves after diffracting or bouncing off of an obstacle and separating into separate beams of light. 

A snake will not deliberately change course if it encounters an obstacle but instead passively bend with the obstacle and shift direction. 

“The idea behind passive dynamics is that there are waveform shape changes being made by the animal that are driven entirely by the passive properties of their bodies,” said Perrin Schiebel, the lead author of the study. “Instead of sending a signal to activate a muscle, the interaction of the snakes' bodies with the external environment is what causes the shape change. The forces of the obstacles are pushing the snake bodies into a new shape.”

The researchers recorded 253 snake trips to determine and model a pattern in the snakes’ movements.

[caption id="attachment_1868690" align="aligncenter" width="699"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/snake.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1868690" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/snake.jpg" alt="" width="699" height="466" /></a> A Western shovel-nosed snake moves through rubber pegs, Image Credit: Allison Carter, Georgia Tech[/caption]

The snakes were released one and time and temporarily blindfolded using harmless face paint, and for each trip, the researchers nudged the snakes through the pegs. When the snake encountered a peg, it didn’t move in a straight line but continued through the shag carpet in a waveform, exiting the pegs at a different angle. 

“When we put the snakes down in the arena, they started moving using the same waveform they use on desert sand,” said Schiebel. “They would then encounter the dowel grating, pass through it, and continue on the other side still using that waveform.”

Modeling the snake’s patterns illustrated how the pegs scattered the snake’s movements. 

“We think the snake is essentially operating in a model that control engineers would consider 'open loop,’” said Daniel Goldman, a member of the research team. “It is setting a particular motor program on its body, which generates the characteristic wave pattern, and when it collides with the obstacle, its body mechanics allow it to deform and move the posts without degrading its speed.”

The results, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, could have important implications for improving autonomous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-robots-electronic-bees/">robots</a> designed to move through complex environments. 

“One problem with robots moving in the real world is that we don't yet have principles by which we can understand how best to control these robots on granular surfaces like sand, leaf litter, rubble or grass,” said Goldman. “The point of this study was to try to understand how limbless locomotors, which have long bodies that can bend in interesting ways using potentially complicated neuromechanical control schemes, manage to move through complicated terrain.”

The researchers say the engineers could use the passive movements of snakes to develop snake-like robots that can easily maneuver through obstacles. 

“We think that our discoveries of the role of passive dynamics in the snake can facilitate new snake robot designs that will enable them to move through complex environments more fluidly,” said Goldman. “The goal would be to build search and rescue robots that can get into these complex environments and help first responders.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Slithering snakes bounce off of obstacles like light waves

When desert snakes encounter an obstacle, they bounce off the...

New research published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a> argues that knowledge of animals’ social lives and culture must be taken into consideration during the planning process of international <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/behavior-change-campaigns-conservation/">conservation efforts</a>. Researchers say that species social learning, which leads to unique animal culture, can enhance both conservation practice and policy.

For example, survival skills, like communication, foraging, and migration, are often learned by young via observation of elders within their group. Unlike genetic transmission, social knowledge is passed through the generations and changes based on environment. However, social knowledge can also result in cultural subgroups within species, with contrasting behaviors and a different set of skills to those in different subgroups. Understanding these subgroups can have a huge impact on conservation efforts. 

"Beyond genes, knowledge is also an important currency for wildlife,” said the lead author of the paper, Philippa Brakes, from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. “As well as conserving genetic diversity, we must work towards maintaining cultural diversity within animal populations, as a reservoir for resilience and adaptation. This is an important reframing of our understanding of the natural world, which will necessitate changes in international wildlife law.”

Brakes and colleagues team state that protecting “social capital” may come down to conserving species based on cultural behavior rather than genetics or geography. Other groups may need aid in protecting their social knowledge “repositories,” those animals like elephant matriarchs that pass knowledge and experience to youths.

The <a href="https://www.cms.int/">Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)</a> has been working on the preservation and conservation of animal culture and recently held a conference during which experts pooled their information of social knowledge expertise to improve species conservation efforts.

"This is an incredibly important development,” said senior author of the paper, Professor Christian Rutz, from the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St Andrews</a>. “Decades of research on animal cultures are now being put to good use in conservation science and policy making, and we have a much better idea of what knowledge gaps still need filling."

The paper’s authors urge governments to take their work into consideration when going forward with conservation policy.

"This new frontier of animal culture and social complexity opens a fascinating and innovative perspective on how we consider animals; from single components of population models to individuals who offer specific contributions to the rest of the social group,” said Dr. Fernando Spina, Chair of the CMS Scientific Council. “When thinking of strategies to conserve migratory animals, which is the main mission of CMS at the global level, with individual animals visiting different countries along their annual cycle, cultural transmission of knowledge on how to fulfil their incredible migratory journeys is a new component environmental policies should fully take into account.”

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation efforts should also consider animal social lives

New research published in the journal Science argues that knowledge of...

Sharks have resiliently adapted to a changing world. People think of dinosaurs as ancient.  According to <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/12/121205-oldest-dinosaur-found-tanzania-science-archaeology/">National Geographic</a>, the oldest known dinosaur fossil is around 240 million years old.  The oldest shark fossils are 450 million years old, according to <a href="http://www.sharksavers.org/en/education/biology/450-million-years-of-sharks1/">Shark Savers</a>.  For vertebrates, sharks are also truly ancient.  

The oldest fossils showing what could be a <a href="https://uanews.arizona.edu/story/ancient-fossil-reveals-oldest-known-circulatory-system">circulatory system</a> are only 520 million years old, a mere 10 million years before sharks.  The first fish fossils appeared about 510 million years ago and were heavily armored jawless fish, a lineage now extinct.  Sharks have lived three times longer than dinosaurs. As the world has changed, sharks have adapted to it while still maintaining the key attributes that make them sharks.  Remains of a shark were even found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-species-discovered-sue-t-rex/">with the bones of Sue</a>, the famous most complete T. Rex.  

The oldest fossil evidence of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/slow-moving-sharks-strike/">sharks</a> are 455 million year old scales that have been found in Colorado.  There is some disagreement among scientists whether the scales are from sharks but they are clearly fish scales of great antiquity.  400 million year old shark teeth have been found in Europe and a fossilized shark braincase 380 million years old was found in Australia. Sharks have resiliently adapted to a changing world

Closer to home, I spent months preparing a nearly complete shark skeleton found in a stone quarry in Texas.  The vertebrae stood out from the rock with the most relief, looking like a line of short black thread spools, some tipped on end.  As I cleaned more of the overlying stone off, the bizarre features of this particular shark became clearer. Delicate pieces of fossilized cartilage that made up the fin bones lay dark in the light colored stone as if drawn in charcoal.  The outline of a shark was clear despite the damage of time. The head had the delicate features of eye sockets but the mouth was a mangled mess of alien teeth. The teeth were alien because they weren’t stereotypically shark-like at all.  The Ptychodus genus this shark belonged to is known for having flat, knobby plates of teeth. These teeth were used to crack open shell fish rather than shred the flesh of soft fish or marine mammals. The Ptychodus is just one example of the evolutionary radiation that sharks have shown through time, adapting to different ecological niches while staying sharks. 

Another fossil shark I’ve seen with such intimate detail came from Lebanon, this shark showed the same delicate shape but in oranges and reds.  Fossil sharks flattened into the substrate they’re found in appear almost like paintings, mere depictions of life in an ancient world but fossils also give us important information.  Shark fossils show us the wide range of sharks that have lived and also under what environments they thrived. Fossils so much older than humanity also put our species into a greater context and call for humility.    

Visit any reef system in the world and snorkel or SCUBA long enough and you’re likely to eventually encounter a shark.  Small sharks are mostly shy, hiding under the ledges of coral or slipping away around a rock at the approach of noisy humans.  Seeing sharks move with grace through the water is always a thrill, no matter the size of the animal. 

<a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/sharks-rays/sharks">Smithsonian</a> reports that there are over 500 species of shark alive today and most of them are quite harmless to people.  The largest shark, the whale shark measuring over 39 feet long, is also one of the most harmless sharks. The whale shark is unique in being a filter feeder, living on almost microscopic organism floating in the ocean, similar to the diet of whales.  Half the species of shark in the world are small, less than about three feet long and are obviously not man-eaters either. Sharks are actually incredibly diverse in where they live and what they eat, not all of them are hanging around beaches waiting for surfers.  

Sharks are found in deep, open seas as well as in shallow waters near land as well as protected reef systems and kelp forests, even under polar ice.  Sharks take many forms, and the hammerhead is a well-known oddly shaped shark but the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frilled_shark">frilled shark</a>, living in deep cold waters with an eel-like body is just as strange.  The goblin shark is so odd it’s hard to describe. Sharks with their wide diversity and broad ranges are unsurprisingly very important to the health of the ocean.

Mostly sharks are predators in the ocean.  Being a predator naturally limits your population numbers.  If you were to visit Africa, you may notice there are far fewer lions, leopards and cheetahs than zebras, antelope or wildebeest.  The reason is simple – there must be more prey animals to feed a population of predators. If there are more predators, they’ll quickly eat all of the prey and then starve, destroying both animals.  There is one caveat to this rule – it really only holds for endotherms (commonly warm blooded animals). If you’re an ectotherm (or ‘cold-blooded’) you don’t need to eat as often, so there can be a larger number of predators compared to prey.  There are many more spiders compared to the insects they prey on than lions compared to the animals they eat. When this insight is applied to sharks, it shows how unhealthy many marine ecosystems are. 

<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-07-24/sharks-help-keep-coral-reefs-healthy-researchers-say/8736762">New research</a> shows that larger shark numbers mean healthier reefs.  Instead of decimating populations of reef fish, sharks actually promote biodiversity as keystone predators.  Sharks also may play a role in promoting health in corals. Unfortunately, humans as rude upstarts are damaging the ancient lineage of sharks.

<a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/sharks-rays/sharks">Smithsonian</a> reports that shark finning for soups popular in Asia kill an estimated 100 million sharks a year.  Unfounded fear also promotes shark killing, such as the shark culling in Australia. Overfishing, climate change, pollution and agricultural run-off all hurt the oceans, which the sharks are an integral, part of as well.  Whether sharks will survive humans and the chaos we cause or if we’ll kill off our ancient cousins is a decision we must make together. Sharks could easily survive another 100 million years if we let them.        

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Sharks have resiliently adapted to a changing world

Sharks have resiliently adapted to a changing world. People think...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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