The dogs we love to cuddle, play fetch with and spoil rotten may be continuously evolving. Nestled comfortably in our modern living rooms, dogs are no longer mere hunting aids or guards of our homes but cherished companions that are integral to our lives.



This change has not only transformed their nature but is also fueling a new wave of dog domestication, a novel concept shedding light on the complex dynamics of dog-human relationships.



A few decades ago, dogs were purpose-oriented animals charged with hunting, herding livestock, and offering protection. Today, the dynamics have shifted as their primary role has morphed into companionship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-living-and-dog-evolution">Modern living and dog evolution</h2>



Our fast-paced, contemporary lifestyle is largely sedentary, trading large, open spaces for urbanized environments. 



This shift in human lifestyle has extended to our pets, changing their nature and behavior. This societal evolution and our enduring desire for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-honoring-mans-best-friend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendly, tranquil pets</a> is driving what experts are calling a dramatic third wave of dog domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-relationships-with-dogs">Evolving relationships with dogs</h2>



This shift mirrors an uprising in oxytocin levels within dogs. Oxytocin, often referred to as the "love hormone," is a key player in social bonding. This hormone is credited for dogs' innate desire to interact with their human counterparts.



A research team from Sweden's <a href="https://liu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Linköping University</a>, led by canine experts Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods, delved deeply into understanding how our modern lifestyle has affected dogs' genetic traits.



Hare, an evolutionary-anthropology professor at Duke University, and Woods, manager of the Duke Canine Cognition Center's Puppy Kindergarten program, provide new insight into the evolving man-dog relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-of-dogs">Social behavior of dogs</h2>



The study involved a detailed observation of 60 golden retrievers attempting to open a treat jar. The dogs were subjected to this task twice - once after receiving oxytocin nasal spray and once after receiving a neutral saline nasal spray.



The findings suggested that dogs with a specific genetic variant of the oxytocin receptor responded stronger to the oxytocin spray. This genetic variant made them more likely to seek help from their owners.



The experiment reaffirmed that oxytocin levels influence a dog's social skills and its ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communicate with humans</a>. 



The research emphasizes that dogs' social skills are partially genetic. Their sensitivity to oxytocin and social behavior stem from their genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-evolving-dogs">Changes in evolving dogs</h2>



The concept of a third wave of domestication is further backed by the behavioral differences noticed in service dogs. These dogs are a far cry from the active hunters or alert guard dogs. They are trained professionals, suited to their owners' 21st-century lives due to their uniquely friendly dispositions.



Dogs previously held roles as working animals – hunting, herding, and guarding. Unlike their modern counterparts, they were conditioned to be active and alert.



However, the recent rise in urbanization and the shift to indoor living has sparked a stark contrast in canine behavior, rendering some historical traits maladaptive.



"Unlike most pet dogs, service dogs are attracted to&nbsp;strangers, even as puppies," noted the researchers. "And increasing friendliness seems to have changed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>’ biology, just as it did thousands of years ago."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domestication-of-evolving-dogs">Domestication of evolving dogs</h2>



The journey of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine domestication</a> is traced back between 40,000 and 14,000 years, starting with the first wave when humans were foragers. 



Stray wolves adapted to human settlements for a predictable food source, gradually replacing fear and aggression with fascination and attraction to humans.



The second wave of domestication began post the industrial revolution. With an increase in disposable income, the bourgeoise bred dogs for specific physical traits, reflective of their status. 



This era gave birth to most of the 200 dog breeds recognized by the American Kennel Club today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-third-wave-of-dog-domestication">Third wave of dog domestication</h2>



The key difference of the third wave of domestication is its main focus - tailoring dogs' personalities to our modern world. 



"For the happiness of dogs and their owners, humans need to breed and train more dogs like service animals, embarking on a new wave of dog domestication to help them fit into the new world we have created," noted the researchers.



To meet the needs of this evolving paradigm, breeding and training dogs akin to service animals will become increasingly important. 



It's not just about wagging tails, but forging a path that ensures we have dogs suited to the new world we have created, bringing happiness to both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-slower-helps-dogs-understand-what-humans-are-saying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs and their human caretakers</a>.



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Dogs are evolving to fit the modern lives of humans

The dogs we love to cuddle, play fetch with and spoil rotten may be continuously evolving. Nestled comfortably in our modern living rooms, dogs are no longer mere hunting aids or guards of our homes but cherished companions that are integral to our lives. This change has not only transformed their nature but is also fueling a new wave of dog domestication, a novel concept shedding light on the complex dynamics of dog-human relationships. A few decades ago, dogs were purpose-oriented animals charged with hunting, herding livestock,...

In 1955, a 200-million-year-old fossil was discovered at Fell Mill Farm in Warwickshire, England. It remained unstudied until 2014 when scientists used computerized tomography (CT) scanning technology to digitally reconstruct the ancient reptile skull and unearth the mysteries that have surrounded it for 60 years.

The fossilized skull, which is almost a meter in length (about three feet), is that of a ichthyosaur, a massive prehistoric marine reptile. Unlike other ichthyosaur fossils discovered in the United Kingdom, this sample is remarkably preserved in three-dimensions. Others of the same species have been “pancaked” over time, causing the skull structure and several key bones to be compromised.

"Initially, the aim of the project was to clean and conserve the skull and partially dismantle it to rebuild it more accurately, ready for redisplay at the <a href="http://www.birminghammuseums.org.uk/thinktank">Thinktank Museum</a>,” said paleontologist and co-author of the study, Nigel Larkin. “But we soon realised that the individual bones of the skull were exceptionally well preserved in three dimensions, better than in any other ichthyosaur skull we'd seen. Furthermore, that they would respond well to CT scanning, enabling us to capture their shape digitally and to see their internal details. This presented an opportunity that couldn't be missed.”

Lead author and one of the world’s leading ichthyosaur experts Dean Lomax, from The <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a>, knew they had something special on their hands when he saw how well-preserved the skull and skeleton portion was. He was able to confirm that the specimen was a rare species of ichthyosaur called the Protoichthyosaurus prostaxalis, which is the largest type of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ichthyosaurs-warm-blooded/">ichthyosaur</a> known.

Bones that are not usually present in other ichthyosaur skulls, yet appeared in this specimen, were micro-CT scanned by Dr. Laura Porro of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London (UCL)</a> at <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">Cambridge University</a> in 2015. These bones, only preserved on the left side of the braincase, were then digitally mirrored via the CT scans and 3D printed to fit the other side.

[caption id="attachment_1864855" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ichthyosaur.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1864855" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ichthyosaur.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="362" /></a> Reconstruction of ichthyosaur skull, Image © Bob Nicholls (Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum)[/caption]

“CT scanning allows us to look inside fossils - in this case, we could see long canals within the skull bones that originally contained blood vessels and nerves,” Dr. Porro said. “Scans also revealed the curation history of the specimen since its discovery in the '50s. There were several areas reconstructed in plaster and clay, and one bone was so expertly modelled that only the scans revealed part of it was a fake. 

“Finally there is the potential to digitally reconstruct the skull in 3D,” she continued. “This is hard (and risky) to do with the original, fragile and very heavy fossil bones; plus, we can now make the 3D reconstruction freely available to other scientists and for education."

Lomax said that waiting until CT scanning technology is available to study the fossil has been worth the wait. Their findings and methods of CT scanning will greatly help future paleontologists discover and unearth amazing prehistoric mysteries.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image © Bob Nicholls (Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum)

Medical scans reveal secrets of a massive extinct marine reptile

In 1955, a 200-million-year-old fossil was discovered at Fell Mill...

Asteroid that killed the dinosaurs caused a massive global tsunami. Beneath Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula lies a 111 mile-wide crater called the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-asteroid-struck/">Chicxulub crater</a> that was formed after a giant asteroid collided with Earth 65 million years ago.

The aftermath causes  of the collision included a nearly mile-high global tsunami and brought about the extinction of the dinosaurs and nearly three-quarters of all life on Earth. 

New research recently presented at the<a href="https://sites.agu.org/"> American Geophysical Union</a>'s annual meeting in Washington, D.C. shows how much of an impact the tsunami had after the asteroid collided into the shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico.Asteroid that killed the dinosaurs caused a massive global tsunami

The research was conducted by a team from the<a href="https://umich.edu/"> University of Michigan. 

</a>“The Chicxulub asteroid resulted in a huge global tsunami, the likes of which have not been seen in modern history,” Molly Range, the lead researcher of the project, told <a href="https://www.livescience.com/64426-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-caused-giant-tsunami.html">Live Science</a>. 

According to Range, this is the first global simulation of the impact tsunami, and the researchers had to use two models to simulate the full global scale of the tsunami after the collision. 

One model showed wave height and sediment displacement immediately following the impact and the second model showed how the tsunami spread through and displaced the world’s ocean in the hours after the impact. 

“The impact tsunami spread quickly out of the Gulf of Mexico into the Atlantic and through the Central American seaway into the Pacific within the first 24 hours,” the researchers <a href="https://agu.confex.com/agu/fm18/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/445502">wrote</a>. 

Once the asteroid collided with Earth, the first model simulated what the next ten minutes were like near the collision site, and the model showed an initial wave reaching nearly a mile high flowing away from the crater. 

The team used data from the first model to simulate how the tsunami propagated through the world’s oceans in the second model.

“We found that this tsunami moved throughout the entire ocean, in every ocean basin,” Range told Live Science.

Waves in the North and South Pacific reached as high as 46 feet after the initial impact tsunami wave, the model showed waves reaching 13 feet in the North Atlantic. 

“This model suggests that the bolide impact not only had major effects on the global atmosphere and biosphere, it also created a tsunami of such magnitude that its effect is felt across much of the world ocean,” the researchers conclude. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Asteroid that killed the dinosaurs caused a massive global tsunami

Asteroid that killed the dinosaurs caused a massive global tsunami....

Every year, insect and mosquito-transmitted diseases like malaria, dengue fever, and Zika are responsible for millions of deaths worldwide. 

Nearly 40 percent of the Earth’s population is at risk of contracting malaria, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/whr/1996/media_centre/executive_summary1/en/index9.html">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), and the Aedes aegypti mosquito, a transmitter of many common insect-transmitted diseases, is one of the deadliest animals in the world. 

Now, a new study could pave the way for the development of a type of mosquito birth control to reduce mortality rates and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dengue-fever-modified-mosquitoes/">prevent insect-transmitted diseases from spreading</a>.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> conducted a study examining mosquito egg formation and identified a gene specific to healthy mosquito larvae development. 

The study was published in the journal PLOS Biology.

“We specifically looked for genes that were unique to mosquitoes and then tested for their functional role in eggshell synthesis,” said Jun Isoe, the leader of the research. “We think there are other discoveries to be made using this same species-directed approach.” 

First, the researchers identified and tested 40 mosquito-specific genes to determine the function of each gene. 

Next, the researchers injected the genes with an RNA molecule that inhibited the protein that each specific gene codes in a process is called RNA interference. 

The team injected the RNA molecules into a female mosquito before she fed on a host. Female mosquitoes need a blood meal to produce eggs. Once a mosquito laid her eggs, the researchers monitored the offspring to see if the RNA molecule had affected the eggs.

Only one of the genes had an impact on embryo development after being injected with the RNA molecule, the EOF-1 gene or Eggshell Organizing Factor protein as the researchers called it. 

Disrupting the EOF-1 protein resulted in the death of an embryo because the female mosquito laid malformed eggshells that were not able to support larvae development. 

Not only is EOF-1 specific to mosquitos, but the researchers also found that the RNA molecule prevented healthy embryo development for the entirety of the mosquito’s lifespan.

“This lasting effect makes the EOF-1 protein a very attractive target for drugs,” said Miesfeld. 

The researchers think that disrupting the EOF-1 protein could be an innovative solution to control mosquito populations in regions where mosquito-transmitted diseases pose major health risks. 

“We think this strategy may have a much lower chance of harming other organisms than what is being used today,” said Miesfeld. “Since the days of DDT, we have known that mosquito population control works to reduce the incidence of human disease. This could be a next-generation tool that could be applied to bed nets and other areas frequented by mosquitoes.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: CDC/Frank Hadley Collins

Mosquito birth control could prevent the spread of deadly diseases

Every year, insect and mosquito-transmitted diseases like malaria, dengue fever,...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have found that most cat owners think that their pets will instinctively hunt birds and mice whether they discourage the behavior or not. While many owners dislike their cat’s tendency to hunt wildlife, they feel either unable or unwilling to control it.

The team interviewed cat owners about their pets' hunting behavior, what concerned them about this behavior, and what actions they felt responsible for. Hunting was mostly viewed as an activity that was beyond the individual's control. However, those who did have the desire to limit hunting did not know how to achieve this without locking their cats indoors, which few owners wanted to do.

Study lead author Dr. Sarah Crowley is an associate research fellow at the Environment and Sustainability Institute on the University of Exeter's Penryn Campus.

“We found a spectrum of views on hunting, from owners who see it as positive for pest control to those who were deeply concerned about its consequences for wild animal populations,” said Dr. Crowley. “However, because hunting is a natural cat behavior, few owners believed they could effectively control this without negatively affecting their cats' welfare.”


Some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cats-love-boxes-safe/">cats</a> catch multiple birds and small animals every week, while many others stay indoors and rarely prey on animals. Regardless, conservationists are concerned about the impact that hunters among the  UK's 11 million cats may have on declining species such as house sparrows.

Some of the current methods used to prevent cats from hunting wildlife include the use of collars with bells and bright colors.

“Cat owners understandably make their pets' health and well-being a priority, and many feel that cats need free access to the outdoors,” said Professor Robbie McDonald. “At the same time, having such independent pets creates extra anxieties for owners about both their cats' safety while ranging free, and their impacts on wildlife.”

“We are working closely with cat owners and cat welfare organizations. Our aim is to find practical ways of reducing hunting, while enhancing cat health and welfare.”

Robert Middleditch is the chairman of SongBird Survival, the independent bird conservation charity that sponsored the study. 

“We are very concerned about the significant adverse impacts that free-ranging domestic cats can have on our songbirds and other wildlife,” said Middleditch. “We are therefore delighted to have commissioned this important project, and believe that working with cat owners to find practical solutions, while promoting responsible pet ownership, can benefit both vulnerable wildlife and cats.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/publications/journals/people-and-nature/">People and Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most cat owners think they can’t stop their pet from hunting wildlife

Researchers at the University of Exeter have found that most...

An international team of scientists may have unraveled the mystery of why some snakes have <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-just-a-few-drops-of-viper-venom-call-kill-you/">venom</a> that is deadlier than others. The researchers found evidence that venoms have evolved to become more powerful against animals that are closely related to species that the snake most commonly preys upon.

Some venomous snakes are far more dangerous than others. For example, a cobra or a rattlesnake can kill thousands of animals and several adult humans with a single reserve of venom, while a marbled sea snake has only a tiny amount of weak venom and is harmless to large animals. 

Scientists have long debated why venoms vary so much in their potency, but the reason has remained unclear. For the current investigation, the team compared records of venom potency and quantity for over 100 venomous snake species.

Study lead author Dr. Kevin Healy conducted the research at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St. Andrews</a>. 

“These results make sense from an evolutionary viewpoint as we expect that evolution will have shaped venoms to be more efficient at killing the prey animals they are most often the target of the venom,” explained Dr. Healy. “You won't find many mice in the sea so we wouldn't expect a sea snake to evolve venom that is more effective at killing mice than fish.”

The study also revealed that the venom quantity depends on both the size of the snake and the environment it lives in.

“Like all substances venom is dosage-dependent,” said Dr. Andrew Jackson, who is an associate professor in Zoology at <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/">Trinity College Dublin</a>. “Even alcohol, coffee and water can be toxic at high enough volumes so we needed to consider how much venom different species of snake produce and store in their venom glands.” 

“We found that big terrestrial species have the most venom, while smaller tree dwelling or aquatic species had the least. This difference may be due to how often a snake encounters its prey in these different environments, with terrestrial species requiring a larger reserve of venom to take advantage of the rarer opportunities to feed.”

The study findings may improve our understanding of human snake bites and how to effectively treat them.

“Snake bites are a major health concern worldwide, with 2.7 million cases each year,” said Dr.  Chris Carbone of the Zoological Society of London. “Understanding how venom evolves may help us better identify the risks to humans from different snake groups, and also potentially from other venomous animals such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes and jellyfish.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:chrissydsexton@gmail.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why is the venom of some snakes so much more dangerous than others?

An international team of scientists may have unraveled the mystery...

A new study has revealed that evolution has a formula for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bold-male-birds-monogamous/">monogamy</a> and co-parenting.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> conducted the research to find out how non-monogamous species evolved to pair bond and share parenting duties. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Monogamy was defined as animals forming a pair bond, sharing some of the parenting duties, and helping to protect offspring together according to the study. 

The researchers examined five pairs of closely related species, each with a monogamous and non-monogamous member. Four mammals, two birds, two species of frogs, and two fish were included in the study. 

In these five pairs, the researchers found five independent instances of monogamy in the evolution of vertebrates. 

For example, non-monogamous meadow voles diverged and formed a separate species from the monogamous prairie voles at some point in the vole’s evolutionary history. 

The researchers were looking for specific gene expressions to explain how certain species evolved to be monogamous and compared gene expression in the male brains of each of the species. 

“Our study spans 450 million years of evolution, which is how long ago all these species shared a common ancestor,” said Rebecca Young, the first author of the study. 

First, the researchers collected tissue, sequenced the genomes of the different species and identified any gene activity patterns using a data-intensive supercomputer. 

After sorting the genes based on sequencing similarities, the researchers discovered an evolutionary formula for monogamy and co-parenting in the five pairs.

In all of the monogamous species, the researchers found the same changes in gene expression in the male brains. The team says that patterns of gene expressions may help explain other common but complex social behaviors across different species. 

The study examines a broader range of evolutionary history than previous studies and shows how evolution used the same genetic formula for monogamy across different species. 

“Most people wouldn't expect that across 450 million years, transitions to such complex behaviors would happen the same way every time,” said Young.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Yusan Yan and James Tumulty

How animals evolved to become monogamous

A new study has revealed that evolution has a formula...

According to new research published January 7th in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>, female Magellanic penguins travel farther north than their male counterparts, which leads to thousands of female penguins getting stranded on the South American coastline. Those stranded usually end up on the coast between Argentina and southern Brazil — about 1,000 kilometers (over 620 miles) away from their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cryosat-satellite-ice-loss-patagonia/">Patagonia</a> breeding ground.

"Anthropogenic threats have been considered to threaten wintering Magellanic penguins along the coasts of northern Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil; these include water pollution caused by oil development and marine transport as well as fishery-associated hazards, such as bycatch and depletion of prey species," Takashi Yamamoto, of Tokyo’s <a href="https://www.ism.ac.jp/index_e.html">Institute of Statistical Mathematics</a>, said. "Our results suggest that the northward spatial expansion likely increases the probability to suffer these risks, and particularly so in females."

But why are females three times more likely than males to be stranded along the South American coast? Yamamoto and his colleagues realized that females and males actually split up during the winter season.

The team followed eight male and six female Magellanic penguins during the non-breeding season in 2017. After finishing breeding in February, the penguins migrated during April and returned to the breeding spots in September and October. The researchers saw that, during the winter season, females went farther north than the males and also didn’t dive as deep while in the water.

Perhaps the reasoning behind both characteristics has to do with competition for food or other resources that are dependent on physical size — female Magellanic penguins are smaller than males. Regardless of the reason, Yamamoto notes that their findings highlight “the necessity of gaining a better understanding of the long-term spatial utilizations of species throughout their annual cycle, including any differences within a population, in order to facilitate dynamic and adaptive conservation practices."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Takashi Yamamoto

Female penguins venture farther north and many end up stranded

According to new research published January 7th in Current Biology,...

Surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coal-mining-aquatic-life/">coal mining</a> in the Appalachian region of the United States is degrading habitats and impacting biodiversity through mountaintop removal. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.uky.edu/">University of Kentucky</a> conducted a study examining how mountaintop and ridgeline removal will impact native timber rattlesnakes and other diverse species of plants and animals that call the area home. 

The study was published in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 

The Appalachian region is rich in biodiversity and is one of the most diverse non-tropical ecosystems in the world. 

Thousands of species can be found in the Appalachians and surface coal mining poses a serious risk to local habitats and animals that like to hibernate in mining areas. The gentle timber rattlesnake is one such animal. 

Surface coal mining involves the complete removal of forest cover and topsoil, and the mountain is effectively flattened to make mining easier. 

For the study, the researchers implanted radio transmitters in timber rattlesnakes that lived along the Cumberland Plateau and tracked the snakes’ movements to make note of hibernacula or hibernation sites.

“Snakes of the eastern U.S. vary in their hibernacula selection behavior, and for many species, not much is known about hibernacula preferences,” said Thomas Maigret, the lead author of the study. “For example, many aquatic snakes prefer damp hibernacula near the streams where they reside during the summer. But for other species, any warm, protected crevice they can fit into seems to suffice.”

Maigret and his colleagues also reviewed satellite imagery, mining maps, and permit data to see how future coal mining operations might impact the timber rattlesnake’s hibernation sites. 

The mining data showed that timber rattlesnakes preferred to hibernate in prime mining spaces proving that there’s a high risk of timber rattlesnakes being displaced by mining. 

“Other species with habitat preferences similar to timber rattlesnakes - including some snakes - may also be affected disproportionately by mining,” said Maigret. “On the other hand, species associated with middle or lower slopes will not be affected by mining to the same extent.”

Surface coal mining operations are not required to reforest an area after the mining is complete as part of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. As a result, forests and biodiversity are not able to easily recover after surface mining and mountaintop removal. 

Still, Maigret says that timber rattlesnakes are incredibly resilient and adaptable, which provides some hope that their populations will not face serious declines near mining areas. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Thomas Maigret

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Surface coal mining strips away mountaintops, reduces biodiversity

Surface coal mining in the Appalachian region of the United...

For some Magellanic penguins in Argentina, loneliness is their lot in life. That’s because male penguins outnumber females nearly three to one at the breeding colony at Punta Tombo.

It wasn’t always that way.

"Two decades ago, there were about 1.5 adult male Magellanic penguins for every adult female at Punta Tombo," said Dr. Natasha Gownaris, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> who was lead author of the study.

While studying the Magellanic penguins at the breeding colony, Gownaris and Dr. P. Dee Boersma found that more female juvenile penguins die while out at sea than their male counterparts.

Magellanic penguins spend most of their lives out at sea, swimming off the coast of Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina throughout the fall and winter months and into early spring. In the summer, they congregate at breeding colonies like Punta Tombo, where they pair off and nurture their chicks.

The pairs’ findings show that juvenile females may face more risk from predators and diminishing food supplies than their male counterparts. That skews the balance between the sexes, and that in turn affects the penguin population as a whole at Punta Tombo, the largest of the breeding colonies.

"Magellanic penguins are serially monogamous – with one male pairing with one female each breeding season – and both parents working together to rear the chicks. So, having fewer females means you have fewer pairings each year overall," Gownaris said.

From 1983 to 2010, Boersma and fellow researchers banded more than 44,300 Magellanic penguin chicks at Punta Tombo. Only 3,296 of those chicks returned to the breeding colony. Researchers were able to determine the sex of 57 percent of those.

"From a conservation standpoint, this study shows us how important it is to try to protect the places where these penguins feed throughout the year, both in the breeding season and the non-breeding season," said Gownaris. "It all comes down to food for this species."

Magellanic penguins aren’t the only penguin species struggling with food competition and survival. King penguins have declined in recent years due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/king-penguin-colony-declined/">climate-linked food shortages</a>.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eap.1826">Ecological Applications</a>. Funding was provided by the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>, <a href="https://corporate.exxonmobil.com/en/community/worldwide-giving/exxonmobil-foundation/overview">ExxonMobil Foundation</a>, <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/projects/marine-fellows">Pew Fellows Program in Marine Conservation</a>, <a href="https://www.thewaltdisneycompany.com/environment/">Disney Conservation Fund</a>, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/">National Geographic Society</a>, the <a href="http://www.chasefoundation.com/">Chase Foundation</a> and the Cunningham Foundation.

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image credit: Dr. Natasha Gownaris, University of Washington

At Punta Tombo, male Magellanic penguins compete for mates

For some Magellanic penguins in Argentina, loneliness is their lot...

New research from the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/">Universities of Rochester</a> and <a href="https://nebraska.edu/">Nebraska</a> have found that two species are not different solely based on reproductive incompatibility as a result of adapting to separate environments, as was previously thought for most of the 20th century. Rather, species are different due to the presence of selfish genes known as meiotic drive elements — genes that could dictate whether two species “converge or diverge.”

The research, published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>, shows that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/women-outlive-men-chromosome/">sex chromosomes</a> of two species evolve to be genetically incompatible before the rest of the genetic chromosomes.

“Genes from one species simply can't talk to genes from the other species," said Daven Presgraves, a dean's professor of biology at the University of Rochester. “All of the gene copies in you and me work in the human genome. But if we were to take a gene out of you and stick it in a macaw parrot, they haven't seen this sequence before and it might not work together with the other genes. That would compromise some sort of function like fertility."

Presgraves and his team came to this conclusion when they crossed two different species of fruit flies to see where this reproductive incompatibility is derived from. The resulting female hybrid offspring was fertile and the hybrid male offspring was sterile. According to Presgraves, the XY sex (the male sex) must become sterile at the first stage of reaching reproductive incompatibility between two species. 

Furthermore, the team found that more incompatibility factors appeared on the XY hybrid’s X allosome, or sex chromosome, compared to the hybrid’s autosomes, or body chromosomes, thus confirming that sex chromosomes change faster between species than non-sex chromosomes. This is because the “selfish genes” called meiotic drive elements are at play, the team found.

These genes essentially sabotage inheritance rules for their own benefit. The meiotic drive elements manipulate the reproduction process in an effort to spread themselves throughout the genome by killing off sperm that don’t carry them within male species.

“This could be because multiple meiotic drive elements from both parental species are unsuppressed in hybrids, and their combined action causes sterility," Colin Meiklejohn, a former postdoctoral student in Presgraves's lab, said.

However, meiotic drive elements can also bring species together during early speciation. “If two populations are leaky [a phase during which some of the genome is still compatible] and there is opportunity for gene flow, a selfish gene can leak over into the other population and spread there,” Presgraves adds, thus erasing some incompatibilities between species.

Whether or not meiotic drive elements will cause two species to converge or diverge relies on gene flow. Lack of gene flow will cause incompatibilities, whereas the presence of gene flow can bring two species together by way of meiotic drive elements.

“Species — even ones that are geographically isolated — are much leakier than we thought,” Presgraves concludes.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The difference between two species comes down to selfish genes

New research from the Universities of Rochester and Nebraska have...

A shark's skeleton is made up of a material known as cartilage, which is extremely tough but also weighs less and has less density than bone. This allows <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-sharks-swim/">sharks</a> to swim with more flexibility and to grow to very large sizes. 

Scientists at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) theorized that the cartilage in sharks would get tougher and stiffer with age, but were surprised to find that cartilage is actually tougher in young sharks. 

The FAU researchers collaborated up with experts at the National Marine Fisheries Service and the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) to compare the cartilage of six shark species. The team examined the cartilage mechanics of infant sharks, immature sharks, and mature sharks from each of the species.

The study used mechanical testing and an imaging technique called X-radiography. The experts also analyzed the relationship between stiffness and toughness using a simple linear regression.

The researchers found that the youngest sharks were stiffer, or more able to resist compression, and tougher, or able to absorb more energy. They also discovered that the cartilage was stiffer and tougher in the vertebrae toward the back of the body, indicating that the posterior body region is equipped to handle the mechanical loading that occurs with swimming.

Study co-author Marianne E. Porter is an assistant professor in FAU's Department of Biological Sciences.

“Our results suggest that toughness and stiffness, which are positively correlated, may be operating in concert to support lateral body undulations, which is how a shark moves its body and tail from side-to-side to propel itself forward, while providing efficient energy transmission and return in these swift-swimming apex predators,’ said Professor Porter.

Furthermore, while have scientists have long believed that alternating patterns of mineralization on shark vertebrae represent an individual's age, the new study has revealed that these patterns are unrelated to time.

First author Danielle I. Ingle concluded, “These comparative data from our study really highlight the importance of better understanding cartilaginous skeleton mechanics under a wide variety of loading conditions that are representative of the swimming behaviors that we see in the wild.”

The research is published in the <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sharks have tougher and stiffer skeletons when they are young

A shark's skeleton is made up of a material known...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a> has revealed that overweight dogs do not usually live as long as dogs that have more ideal body weights. After analyzing the health outcomes of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dogs-diagnose-malaria/">dogs</a> retrospectively across 20 years, the researchers found that overweight dogs have a lifespan that is up to two and a half years shorter compared to dogs who are in better shape. 

The investigation was focused on more than 50,000 dogs of the 12 most popular breeds. The shorter lifespan associated with being overweight was found in all breeds, but the extent of the effect differed among them. For example, overweight male German Shepherds lived an average of five months less, while male Yorkshire Terriers had a shorter lifespan by two years and six months.

Pet obesity is increasing at a steady rate, and research suggests that one in every three dogs and cats in the United States is overweight. While the study did not explore the underlying cause of extra weight in dogs, feeding habits are known to play a role in pet obesity.

Study co-author Alex German is a professor of Small Animal Medicine at the University of Liverpool. 

“Owners are often unaware that their dog is overweight, and many may not realize the impact that it can have on health,” said Professor German. “What they may not know is that, if their beloved pet is too heavy, they are more likely to suffer from other problems such as joint disease, breathing issues, and certain types of cancer, as well as having a poorer quality of life. These health and wellbeing issues can significantly impact how long they live.”

“For many owners, giving food, particularly tasty table scraps and tidbits, is the way we show affection for our pets. Being careful about what you feed your dog could go a long way to keeping them in good shape and enabling them to be around for many years to come.”

“Worryingly, it is estimated only one in five pet owners always measures how much food they are giving their pet, with four in five always or often simply estimating the amount of food they think their pet needs at each serving.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19391676">Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Overweight dogs have much shorter expected lifespans

A new study from the University of Liverpool has revealed...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...