Creatures,Of,The,Cambrian,Period,,Underwater,Scene,With,Anomalocaris,,Opabinia,

A new investigation of tiny Cambrian shells has sparked excitement among experts who study how life changed when animals, both predators and prey, first expanded in number and variety. 



The research, published in&nbsp;Current Biology, focuses on shell fragments from a small animal related to brachiopods.



These ancient remnants come from the ocean covering what is now South Australia. The shells are dotted with tiny perforations that some unknown marine creature must have made about 517 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cambrian-waters-and-shells-of-prey">Cambrian waters and shells of prey</h2>



The <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/07/revisiting-the-cambrian-explosion-s-spark" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Explosion</a> was a phase in Earth’s history when many animal groups appeared in the fossil record in a short span of time. 



It began roughly 541 million years ago, and it introduced an incredible diversity of organisms that possessed shells, spines, and other protective structures. Yet specialists have questioned how these defense features developed so quickly.&nbsp;



Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators force prey</a> to reinforce their shells and adapt? Or did environmental changes spark widespread new traits in ocean life? 



After puzzling over these questions for decades, experts are now pointing to new shell damage as possible proof of a rapid back-and-forth struggle between attackers and the creatures they targeted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shell-holes-reveal-predator-prey-interactions">Shell holes reveal predator-prey interactions</h2>



This fresh look at the shells was spearheaded by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Russell-Bicknell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Russell Bicknell</a> of the American Museum of Natural History. 



Bicknell joined forces with colleagues from the <a href="https://www.une.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New England</a> and <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macquarie University</a> to study the tiny armor of a Cambrian species called <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288292290_New_data_on_the_sclerite_morphology_of_the_tommotiid_species_Lapworthella_fasciculata" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lapworthella fasciculata</a>.&nbsp;



The shell fragments ranged from a little larger than a grain of sand to something about the size of an apple seed. Researchers spotted more than 200 pieces with punctures that look as if a worm-like or snail-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> produced them. 



Over time, the shells appear to have become thicker and stronger, which suggests a quick answer by L. fasciculata to defend itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-reveals-attacks-on-shelled-prey">Evidence reveals attacks on shelled prey</h2>



The team examined the fossil remains across different points in <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/cambrian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian</a> history. They found that holes in the shells gradually rose in frequency while the shell walls became tougher in a short window.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fossil-shells_Lapworthella-fasciculata_Cambrian_credit-Bicknell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fossil-shells_Lapworthella-fasciculata_Cambrian_credit-Bicknell_1s.webp" alt="Examples of Lapworthella fasciculata shells (under scanning electron microscope) from the Mernmerna Formation, Flinders Ranges, South Australia, showing holes made by a perforating predator. Scale bars represent 200 micrometers. Credit: R. Bicknell, et al (2025) Current Biology" class="wp-image-1956329"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of Lapworthella fasciculata shells (under scanning electron microscope) from the Mernmerna Formation, Flinders Ranges, South Australia, showing holes made by a perforating predator. Scale bars represent 200 micrometers. Credit: R. Bicknell, et al (2025) Current Biology</figcaption></figure>



“Predator-prey interactions are often touted as a major driver of the Cambrian explosion, especially with regard to the rapid increase in diversity and abundance of biomineralizing organisms at this time. Yet, there has been a paucity of empirical evidence showing that prey directly responded to predation, and vice versa,” said Bicknell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-speed-of-adaptation">Unexpected speed of adaptation</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that early animals developed new defenses to keep up with evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogfish-lure-their-prey-with-a-built-in-fishing-rod-and-bait/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>. This shift is frequently described as an arms race because each improvement from one side pushes the other side to respond.&nbsp;



The remarkable part is how swiftly L. fasciculata managed to boost its shell thickness. In a few generations, the predator must have increased its ability to break through stronger shells.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Paleozoic-Era" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> from 1987, early <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Paleozoic-Era">Paleozoic</a> life underwent several bursts of diversification, partly driven by escalating attacks in marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-shells-big-implications">Tiny shells, big implications</h2>



The tiny shells open a window into the daily struggles of creatures that once lived in shallow seas filled with new forms of life. 



These findings add weight to the idea that confrontation between small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and their prey influenced the rapid spread of protective traits, such as tougher shells, in the early Cambrian.&nbsp;



A thickened shell could have meant the difference between living and becoming a snack. Some scientists propose that these predator-prey interactions may have shaped early marine communities more than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-filling-gaps-in-the-fossil-record">Filling gaps in the fossil record</h2>



Fossils from the Cambrian are not always easy to interpret. 



Soft-bodied creatures rarely fossilize well, and skeletal fragments often appear in fragments scattered through sedimentary rock. Many experts have struggled to figure out exactly which predators might have roamed these waters.&nbsp;



The punctured shells from L. fasciculata provide valuable clues because they are preserved well enough to show unmistakable signs of drilling or piercing. 



These marks are a real boost to understanding how shells and predatory tools advanced in lockstep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-today-s-shelled-preys">Why it matters for today’s shelled preys</h2>



Shell protection still matters in modern oceans, from clams to snails. When researchers look at how Cambrian animals beefed up their shells, they see patterns that may match modern dynamics. 



Crabs, for instance, often feed on shelled prey, and those prey can shift their own growth strategies in response.&nbsp;



Looking at these ancient shells confirms that this tug-of-war between attacker and defender is nothing new. While more discoveries are needed, the takeaway is that even half a billion years ago, survival hinged on how well an organism handled the never-ending threat of becoming someone else’s lunch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connections-to-broader-evolutionary-questions">Connections to broader evolutionary questions</h2>



Fossil shells tell us that the Cambrian Explosion’s rapid spread of animal life involved a tense duel between those doing the hunting and those trying to avoid it. 



This new research highlights that predation is more than a violent encounter; it is a potent force pushing creatures to adapt in surprising ways.&nbsp;



Scientists will likely hunt for similar evidence in other early animal groups. Future work may close gaps in our knowledge of who attacked whom in those ancient seas and how quickly the defenders responded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982224016476" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Shell fossils reveal ancient predator-prey battle 517 million years ago

A new investigation of tiny Cambrian shells has sparked excitement among experts who study how life changed when animals, both predators and prey, first expanded in number and variety. The research, published in&nbsp;Current Biology, focuses on shell fragments from a small animal related to brachiopods. These ancient remnants come from the ocean covering what is now South Australia. The shells are dotted with tiny perforations that some unknown marine creature must have made about 517 million years ago. Cambrian waters and shells of prey The Cambrian Explosion...

Researchers at the <a href="http://www.aecom.yu.edu/">Albert Einstein College of Medicine</a> have assembled the first complete wiring diagram of the nervous system of an animal. The study was focused on the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, and reveals some significant differences between the male and female specimens.

The achievement marks a major milestone in the field of "connectomics," the production of comprehensive maps of the brain or nervous system to identify the specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medical-marijuana-chronic-nerve-pain/">nerve connections</a> responsible for various behaviors.

Study lead author Dr. Scott Emmons is a professor of Genetics in the Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience.

"Structure is always central in biology," said Dr. Emmons. "The structure of DNA revealed how genes work, and the structure of proteins revealed how enzymes function. Now, the structure of the nervous system is revealing how animals behave and how neural connections go wrong to cause disease."

Experts theorize that some neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, are problems caused by faulty connections. 

"This hypothesis is strengthened by the finding that several mental disorders are associated with mutations in genes that are thought to determine connectivity," said Dr. Emmons. "Connectomics has the potential to help us understand the basis of some mental illnesses, possibly suggesting avenues for therapy."

An adult C. elegans grows to just one millimeter in length and contains about 1,000 cells that make up a simple nervous system with a few hundred neurons. This makes the roundworm one of the best animal models for understanding the human brain, which is billions of times more complex.

The laboratory of the late British biologist Dr. Sydney Brenner published the first map of the C. elegans nervous system in 1986, after analyzing thousands of electron micrographs of the roundworm. 

Using specially developed software, Dr. Emmons' team combined new roundworm electron micrographs with the ones used by Dr. Brenner to create complete wiring diagrams of entire adult animals of both C. elegans sexes. The diagrams include all connections between individual neurons, connections from neurons to the worm's muscles and other tissues, and synapses between the muscle cells.

"While the synaptic pathways in the two sexes are substantially similar, a number of the synapses differ in strength, providing a basis for understanding sex-specific behaviors," explained Dr. Emmons. 

"These connected networks serve as starting points for deciphering the neural control of C. elegans behavior. Since the roundworm nervous system contains many of the same molecules as the human nervous system, what we learn about the former can help us understand the latter."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Giovanni Cancemi

Scientists assemble the first full diagram of an animal’s nervous system

Researchers at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine have assembled...

New Deputy Secretary of the Interior has an alarming environmental record. Since the departure of former Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke, it’s worth asking whether anything has improved in the leadership of the department. 

After Zinke <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ryan-zinkes-departure-environment/">left the Department of the Interior</a> in disgrace, assistant Secretary David Bernhardt stepped up to fill his place and seemingly carry on his legacy of environmental destruction and indifference. <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/16/trumps-new-interior-secretary-is-now-under-investigation.html">CNBC</a> reported that just days after Bernhardt was confirmed in his new office, the Department of the Interior’s inspector general office confirmed they were investigating him for ethics violations. The violations seem to mainly stem from his own time as Deputy Secretary of the Interior. <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/2390596/david-bernhardt-scandal-tracker">Outside Online</a> reported that Bernhardt has been involved in at least 17 scandals so far. 

Until recently, Bernhardt’s promotion left the position of Deputy Secretary of the Interior open. On June 24, 2019, Susan Combs was confirmed as the new Deputy Secretary of the Interior, under Bernhardt. Before this recent promotion, Combs worked in the Department of the Interior as the temporary assistant secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, a position she was initially nominated for by Ryan Zinke. 

Combs was responsible for overseeing the Endangered Species Act, a responsibility she largely saw to by trying to roll back wildlife protections. Trump’s Department of the Interior even suggested a full revision of the Endangered Species Act, <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/51.11/latest-interior-combatant-confirmed-to-department">High Country News</a> reported. There is no surprise about Combs’ distaste for wildlife protections if you look further back in her history. 

Before her time in the Department of the Interior, Combs worked as comptroller of Texas, where she is a native. As Texas Land Commissioner, Combs argued that protections for the Golden-Cheeked Warbler negatively impacted military readiness in central Texas. The argument was that because of the warbler, the military base operated under training restrictions, an opinion that was contradicted by officials at the military base. In fact at that time, there were no training restrictions because of the Golden-Cheeked Warbler. After the contradiction became apparent, Anne Idsal, George W. Bush’s chief aide, reached out to the staff of the three star general operating the base and within hours, their official story changed, claiming the bird was negatively impacting their training. 

Combs has been critical of species protections throughout her career. The <a href="https://m.washingtontimes.com">Washington Times</a> reported in 2013 that as Texas Comptroller, Combs questioned the science behind the US Fish &amp; Wildlife’s decision-making on listing species under the Endangered Species Act. Combs led Texas in setting aside $5 million to fight what she viewed as spurious listings on the Endangered Species Act.

Susan Combs was primarily asking for independent scientific review of the research done by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> to determine eligibility for a species listing. In 2011, the <a href="https://m.washingtontimes.com">Washington Times</a> reported that there was a backlog of 251 species which the Department of the Interior had to decide to list for protection or not, a task that they agreed to complete in six years. Combs and other state politicians argued that the federal government didn’t have the capacity to scientifically make these decisions in that amount of time.

2011 was also an important year in Texas for endangered species. According to the <a href="https://www.statesman.com/news/20180409/how-texas-fights-endangered-species-protections-critter-by-critter">Austin American-Statesman</a>, that year the oversight of the Endangered Species Act in Texas was moved from Texas Parks and Wildlife where it had been managed for years. Instead, the Endangered Species Act was henceforth to be managed by the comptroller's office, a move that Combs supported. Texas is the only state in which the top financial official is in charge of overseeing protection of wildlife. 

Despite Comb’s call for more unbiased science used for endangered species protections, her own record shows a clear bias. Her own state’s research on the golden cheeked warbler is controversial, showing larger populations of the bird than previously suspected. The findings are also contradicted by <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> which says the warbler should remain on the Endangered Species Act. The researcher that carried out the study was also on the board (with Combs) of Texas Wildlife Association, a land rights organization that already supported delisting the warbler. 

Susan Combs has consistently been opposed to wildlife protections, even putting conservation and habitat conservation planning for the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard in the hands of the oil and gas industry working in the Permian Basin where the lizard lives, the <a href="https://www.texasobserver.org/trump-taps-texan-susan-combs-fierce-critic-of-endangered-species-act/">Texas Observer</a> reported. Combs is also a former visiting fellow of the Texas Public Policy Foundation, an organization funded by Koch Industries and oil companies, <a href="https://westernvaluesproject.org/senate-votes-to-confirm-conflicted-susan-combs-to-top-interior-position/">Western Values Project</a> reports. Combs also has investments in oil and gas that have earned her recently as much as $2.1 million.  

Obviously, Susan Combs has a track record that worries many environmentalists and those who care about the future of the Department of the Interior. Much like her boss and Ryan Zinke before him, Combs has ties to ranching and oil, interests she’s supposed to be working to manage against the weight of environmental and biological conservation. Still, Combs was confirmed, with a <a href="https://www.staugustine.com/news/20190608/congressional-votes-for-week-of-may-31-june-6-2019">congressional vote</a> of 57 yeas to 36 nays. It took almost two years of waiting, but Combs is officially the Deputy Secretary of the Interior.

It seems unlikely that Combs alone is more of a threat than others in the department or those who came before her, but there seems to be a shared vision of dismantling any protection for public lands or endangered species afforded under federal law. This is just part of the Trump administration’s continued <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-record-environment-2020/">history</a> pushing environmental regulations out of the way of profit. In the end, it won’t be the rich that suffer from this short-sighted strategy, it will be the poor and those non-humans with no power to protect themselves.                              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>                       

Image Credit: Steve Maslowski/U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

New Deputy Secretary of the Interior has an alarming environmental record

New Deputy Secretary of the Interior has an alarming environmental...

The middle of the dog pack is a free-for-all fight up the social ladder, a new study has revealed.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and the Veterinary Service of the Local Health Unit Rome 3 in Italy studied a pack of 27 roaming mongrels in Rome to see how aggression played out within the dominance hierarchy. 

It was previously thought that the higher up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-wild-dogs-sneezing/">canine social ladder</a> you went, the more aggression you would find as top dogs battle it out to defend their status.  

However, the researchers found that middle-dogs were more likely to assert their dominance in hopes of moving up and establishing a pecking order. 

“Our results reveal the unavoidable costs of climbing a dominance hierarchy,” said Dr. Matthew Silk, a member of the research team. “In the middle of the hierarchy - where it’s harder to predict which animal should be dominant - we see lots of aggression.”

Over the course of a year, the researchers observed the pack of dogs which depended on humans for food but roamed freely throughout the city suburbs and kept to themselves. 

[caption id="attachment_1874715" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/dog-pack.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874715" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/dog-pack.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="430" /></a> Wild dogs living on the outskirts of Rome. Image Credit: Simona Cafazzo[/caption]

The hierarchy was based on sex and age with older male dogs dominating younger dogs. Males were also dominant over females of the same age. 

“Fighting over food and mates uses energy and time and can lead to injuries, so hierarchies play an important role because animals know their place without needing to fight,” said Robbie McDonald, a fellow researcher.  

Because the middle of the pack consisted of mostly young males, aggression was more common.

If a dog displayed dominance, it was characterized by an upright posture, the tail and head high, and sometimes laying a paw on another dog’s back.  

“Although fights within a social group of free-roaming dogs are usually characterized by low-intensity aggression, the middle of the hierarchy is occupied by young males of similar size and age, among whom nothing is definitive and for whom the challenge is to gain rank,” said Dr. Simona Cafazzo, of the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna.

The researchers published their findings in a new study in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 

-

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Simona Cafazzo

The middle of the pack is a dog-eat-dog fight for dominance

The middle of the dog pack is a free-for-all fight...

Hidden in plain sight are a group of insects that, for all of their cryptic inclinations, like to dance. Many of the 3,000 species of the order Phasmatodea—commonly known as stick and leaf insects—add to their already spectacular camouflage by swaying to mimic the movement of vegetation in the breeze. 

There have been reports of multiple insects swaying together in a silent disco of sorts, like rejected backup booty from the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ViftZTfRSt8">dance scene</a> in Labyrinth. Far from a leisure activity, this entomological choreography likely assists them in blending in with their leafy homes and avoiding predation, a theory corroborated by a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/27/1/83/1742619">2016 study</a>.

It’s been a successful strategy: these enigmatic creatures have adapted to forests and grasslands on all continents but Antarctica, though they are most abundant in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hunting-decline-mammals-tropical-forests/">tropics</a>. From the massive two-foot long Phryganistria chinensis Zhao, the longest insect in the world, to the tiny, half-inch long Timema cristinae, they are a remarkably diverse group. 

Some are flattened and foliage-like, even sporting blemishes and holes that mirror the imperfections of real leaves. Others are whip-thin and stick-like. While most are shades of green and brown, a few, such as the Malagasy species <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00105/full">discovered in 2019</a>, are brilliantly colored. Flight capabilities vary as well: there are winged species and species that are wingless and earthbound. 

[caption id="attachment_1874620" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Epidares-nolimetangere.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874620" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Epidares-nolimetangere.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="485" /></a> Epidares nolimetangere, Image Credit: Bernard Dupont[/caption]

While their visual dissimulation and largely nocturnal habits are enough to protect them from most predators, their juicy bodies make them prime prey. Sometimes blending into the background just isn’t enough. Luckily, they have other tricks up their skinny sleeves. Many will drop to the ground when threatened, blending in with dead vegetation, sometimes after having startled their antagonist with a flash of spectacularly patterned wings. 

Most are autotomous—capable of shedding limbs—leaving attackers to content themselves with a chitinous and unappetizing leg. Individuals that have not yet fully matured can regrow them with the next molt, though they are smaller. Occasionally, adults that would not otherwise molt do so in order to regenerate a limb as well. And many can slime their enemies with pungent hemolymph—blood—ejected from specialized orifices in their joints or spray them with a chemical deterrent. 

Their reproductive habits may also contribute to their ubiquity. A number of species are parthenogenetic—that is, females can produce offspring without mating. Some let their eggs drop randomly, allowing them to be found by foraging ants. Because the eggs possess a fatty nodule that the ants can eat, they are transported back to their nests. Once the greasy treat has been consumed, the eggs themselves are discarded in the ants’ refuse pile—an unlikely place for most creatures to find a meal. There, they safely incubate and eventually hatch. And because phasmid eggs are uniquely strong due to the high content of calcium oxalate in the shells, some are able to hatch even if an egg-bearing female is eaten by a bird. 

When their poor mother has been digested and excreted, a small proportion of the eggs <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecy.2230?referrer_access_token=AHoc2bmmuqznmdvtQ518pE4keas67K9QMdWULTWMo8PwtGssas92l20oN0sKhYZlQ0spXwMeLtuGwLobAQUiBckf1MH3SyA-1QYwY66m2oMcxXr6q7lxi5OzxgZlh8pa8-U7PxgNw6JbTohoPFxL7Q%3D%3D">survive and hatch</a>. The parthenogenetic component of this process is important here. Many insects fertilize their eggs as they are being laid, making use of the sperm packet that they stored during mating. However, because some stick insects are capable of laying fertile eggs without mating, this process is unnecessary and even eggs that have not yet been laid make it through the digestive process. This unique adaptation may have facilitated their spread across the globe—like the seeds they resemble, the eggs are transported far and wide in avian bellies. 

It is their appeal to avian predators that led to the rediscovery of the Lord Howe Island stick insect (Dryococelus australis), thought to be relegated to an island off of Australia. This massive, black phasmid was believed to have been wiped out soon after a shipwreck introduced rats to its home in 1918. Rats, being generalist predators, have ravaged the wildlife of numerous islands and Lord Howe was no exception. However, in 1964, climbers found a dead specimen on Balls Pyramid, a precipitous volcanic islet southeast of Lord Howe. Several years later, more dead ones were found at the peak. They are thought to have been deposited there by seabirds. 

[caption id="attachment_1874621" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Aschiphasma-annulipes.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874621" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Aschiphasma-annulipes.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="399" /></a> Aschiphasma annulipes, Image Credit: Bernard Dupont[/caption]

It was not <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicholas_Carlile/publication/230017970_The_recovery_programme_for_the_Lord_Howe_Island_Phasmid_Dryococelus_australis_following_its_rediscovery/links/5c203f0392851c22a341d399/The-recovery-programme-for-the-Lord-Howe-Island-Phasmid-Dryococelus-australis-following-its-rediscovery.pdf">until 2001</a>, however, that living stick insects were discovered on the remote volcanic peak. Due to slight morphological differences between these specimens and preserved ones from the original Lord Howe Island population, it was suspected that these might be another species. However, <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(17)31098-9">genetic analysis</a> proved that they were likely the same. Thought to be among the rarest animals on Earth, they are now being reared in zoos.

Despite their cosmopolitan distribution and impressive size, little is known about the habits of many phasmid species—even diet and mating habits are obscure. Males of some species have never been seen. Their Delphic existence is, appropriately enough, reflected in their nomenclature, which derives from the Greek for “phantom.” In Māori mythology, the presence of stick insects—associated with the forest god Tāne indicated that one was traversing a holy site and when they landed on a woman, it was believed she was pregnant. Guillermo del Toro’s film Pan’s Labyrinth features a fairy who disguises itself in stick insect form. 

These numinous associations speak to the imaginative power of these strange and otherworldly beasts. The inanimate made animate, they are among the closest things we have to the fantastical inhabitants of fairy tales—talking clocks and flying carpets. The walking sticks and leaf insects, enchanting as they may be, are, however, utterly practical. Their dances and masterful disguises are the products of an evolutionary arms race, a desperate bid to avoid being devoured.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Main Image Credit: Michael Whitehead

&nbsp;

Fantastic phasmids: The mysterious lives of stick insects

Hidden in plain sight are a group of insects that,...

What makes some species prosocial and others solitary and aggressive towards members of their own kind? 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.cnrs.fr/en/cnrs">National Centre for Scientific Research</a> in France studied spiders to see why young spiderlings who have a high level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-social-spiders-groups/">social tolerance</a> later disperse to live in solitary isolation. 

This dispersion coincides with a major decrease in social tolerance in adult spiders with some even eating other members of their species. 

It is not well understood why prosocial behaviors are so sporadic or temporary for some species or why isolation leads to social intolerance. 

The researchers monitored spiderlings that belonged the labyrinth spider species (Agelena labyrinthica), which are solitary. 

Behavioral and chemical modeling were used to determine what underlying mechanisms drive the transition from prosocial to antisocial and eventual isolating dispersal. 

The researchers found that as a spiderling matures, it naturally gains more mobility and freedom to wander. This increased mobility leads to the spider dispersing away from its siblings. After five days, the researchers saw that the spiderlings dispersed without any changes in social behavior. 

However, once away from the pack, an isolated spider started exhibiting aggressiveness, and social isolation changed the way the spider perceived other members of the same species. 

Spiderlings that were socially isolated were aggressive to their siblings who had spent more time in close proximity. 

Dispersion doesn’t directly cause aggression, but it’s a consequence of being socially isolated, the researchers found. 

“We are now exploring the mechanisms explaining why spiderlings exposed to social isolation behave aggressively,” said Raphael Jeanson, the leader of the study. “Our favorite hypothesis, currently under testing, is that isolation leads spiderlings to forget the social cues emitted by siblings.” 

The study, published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000319">PLOS Biology</a>, could help researchers understand prosocial behaviors and dispersion in other species of solitary spiders. 

“We believe that our findings open interesting perspectives to understand how permanent sociality, which characterizes about 30 out of the almost 50,000 species of spiders described thus far, has evolved,” said Jeanson. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Jean-Jacques MILAN

Solitude and isolation makes spiders aggressive

What makes some species prosocial and others solitary and aggressive...

Experts in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> have developed a technique to significantly increase the toughness of glass. The research, led by Professor François Barthelat, was inspired by mollusk shells and the impact-resistant material that is found in their inner layer.

"Mollusk shells are made up of about 95 percent chalk, which is very brittle in its pure form," said Professor Barthelat. "But nacre, or mother-of-pearl, which coats the inner shells, is made up of microscopic tablets that are a bit like miniature Lego building blocks, is known to be extremely strong and tough, which is why people have been studying its structure for the past twenty years."

Professor Barthelat noted that whether glass is used in a car or a smartphone, its components are "always the weakest links and the most fragile in the entire system." 

To imitate the "building blocks" of nacre, the researchers used an ultraviolet laser beam to carve square or hexagonal patterns onto tiny borosilicate glass sheets. The plates were then covered with thin layers of plastic and separated into individual tiles about one to four millimeters wide.

"Any glass scientist will tell you that shooting a powerful laser into a piece of glass is a bad idea because it will create defects and decrease strength," said Professor Barthelat. "However, our glass is a nice example where material removal and seemingly weakening processes actually makes the material much better!"

The modified glass was found to be two to three times stronger than tempered or laminated glass and 15 to 24 times stronger than plain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/discarded-glass-concrete/">glass</a>. 

"The fabrication method we developed is relatively easy and scalable - one could make industrial volumes of this material very easily and at a reasonable cost," explained Professor Barthelat. 

The research team plans to experiment with a variety of designs using the new glass, such as thin sheets for touch screens. "We also want to develop versions of our nacre-glass that are bendable - a thin plate of this glass would flex to large deformations, and then recover without damage," said Professor Barthelat.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/otravva

A new type of glass was inspired by mollusk shells

Experts in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at McGill University...

The Wind River Reservation is a 1.7 million-plus acre home to the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes. The reservation was established in 1864 by the Bridger-Teton treaty with the US government. As with most reservations, this one had been stripped of its <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bison-american-survival-story/">bison</a> herds, leaving the Native American residents on the land more dependent on food from the federal government and farming than they were traditionally. 

A paper in The <a href="https://history.msu.edu/hst321/files/2010/07/smits-on-bison.pdf">Western Historical Quarterly</a> reports how US military leaders in the late 1800s encouraged the slaughter of bison and often saw such destruction as a way of subjugating and defeating Native Americans. Because of this and the importance of the bison to the physical and spiritual cultures of many western Native American groups, bison remain a potent symbol of indigenous identity. 

Like much of the ecological landscape of North America, The Wind River Reservation’s ecology is a broken remnant of its pre-Colombian glory. Jason Baldes, Tribal Bison Coordinator for the National Wildlife Federation and Wind River Reservation tribal member, told me that after the bison, pronghorn antelope and bighorn sheep were extirpated from the Wind River Reservation prior to 1984. Baldes compared the American prairie that once was to an unspoiled Africa.

"I took a trip to East Africa with my dad in the late 90s and witnessed the wildebeest migration,” Baldes said. “It was incredible to see, but what was more unfathomable was that the 1.5 million wildebeest is less than 5% of what the bison population was here, less than 200 years ago. My dad is a retired wildlife biologist, and I grew up understanding the intrinsic value of wildlife as part of our cultural ties and subsistence lifestyle, it is what we eat."

[caption id="attachment_1874604" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/bison.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874604" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/bison.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="419" /></a> Image Credit: Jacob Byk[/caption]

The basic fact of Native American groups eating bison and other wild animals shows the importance of these creatures. Wild animals are not simply animals to enjoy looking at, they are life itself. One could argue for entire tribal groups, bison and other wild game were independence as well. 

This is why Jason Baldes has been working with the National Wildlife Federation to move bison that would otherwise be culled, off of federal land and reintroduced to Native American land, including the Wind River Reservation. To Baldes, the work is important for the healing of his people from past atrocities and the preservation of cultural identity.

"The importance of buffalo to our people cannot be understated, it is our relative,” Baldes said. “The Eastern Shoshone are the gweechoon deka, the buffalo eaters. We have had ties to the animal for millennia, but have been separated for 130+ years.  Buffalo is part of us, and is central to our ceremonies and spiritual belief ways, and is important for our diet. Even though they haven’t been in our community for a long time, we are still tied to them. Having our relative home, helps us to heal from the atrocities of the past...Bringing buffalo home to the Shoshone people is healing. The buffalo are most important for our young people, so they can know who they are, and be proud of being Shoshone."

The <a href="https://www.nwf.org/">National Wildlife Federation</a> has been working with tribal and the federal government to promote reintroduction of wildlife including bison to Native American lands. Recently, with the involvement of the National Wildlife Federation, an agreement was made between the Fort Peck Tribes and the Eastern Shoshone of the Wind River Reservation. The Fort Peck Reservation already has a large and healthy bison population, descendants of bison from Yellowstone National Park. 

[caption id="attachment_1874605" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/reservation.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874605" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/reservation.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="423" /></a> Image Credit: Jacob Byk[/caption]

The population is healthy enough to support hunting, a small step towards returning bison to the center of life again. Now, the Fort Peck Tribes have agreed to exchange bison with the Wind River Reservation. Initially, five male bison were set to be released on June 23 during a powwow. Unfortunately, bad weather delayed capturing bison on the Fort Peck Reservation and moving them to their new home at the Wind River Reservation. The good news is that after a delay, the bison were released on the evening of the 26th. Jason Baldes told me this was an important step for bison conservation but also as a display of tribal sovereignty.

"This release is important because it brings together Tribes of the Buffalo nation,” Baldes said. “The Government to Government agreement between the Fort Peck Tribes of Montana and the Eastern Shoshone Tribe demonstrates the importance of the buffalo to our communities. Fort Peck has led the way in Yellowstone Bison conservation and restoration, and they want to help other tribes ‘bring the buffalo home.’ This will be the first Tribe to Tribe interstate transfer of Yellowstone Buffalo. This exercise in sovereignty among Tribes, strengthens buffalo conservation and cultural revitalization in our communities and sets the pace for other Tribes to do the same." 

Currently, the Wind River bison herd is modest. Before the release, the reservation was home to 27 bison, including four recent calves. The new bison bring the total to 32, but Jason Baldes seems optimistic about the future. Work is ongoing to secure a larger range for the small bison herd and grow it larger.

“There is potential, on the Wind River Reservation, to manage buffalo on hundreds of thousands of acres if people are willing to do it,” Baldes said. “A benchmark for conservation populations is a minimum of 1000 animals, in order to maintain genetic heterogeneity and variability. Two to three times that benchmark are foreseeable. Hunting by tribal members will be the primary mode of management.”

The reservation has already come a long way towards restoring their native wildlife. 7 of 7 native ungulate species are on the Wind River Reservation, with six of them living in populations large enough to support tribal hunting. Bison are currently not on the Wind River Reservation in numbers large enough to support hunting. The history of the bison is perhaps unique in American history, often treated as a Native American cow rather than a wild animal in its own right. Jason Baldes told me that to create a better future for the bison, respect is needed.

“For some reason, people feel the need to treat buffalo like cattle, through roundups, ear-tagging, vaccinations etc,” he said. “No other wildlife species go through that treatment. We need a paradigm shift to one that respects the intrinsic value the animal has. Buffalo is a keystone species, benefitting a host of others as it utilizes the landscape. We shouldn’t measure the value of buffalo on the landscape in terms of money.”

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Main Image Credit: Jacob Byk

Wind River Reservation welcomes bison in historic exchange between tribes

The Wind River Reservation is a 1.7 million-plus acre home...

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved toxin genes. A research team led by Joseph Ryan at the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has analyzed the genomes of three very different types of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-break-free-seafloor/">jellyfish</a> with toxicity levels ranging from harmless to deadly. The study pinpointed a variety of venom-related genes, and will provide a basis for discovering how these toxic genes evolved among jellyfish. 

The research was focused on the genome sequencing of the deadly winged box jellyfish, the upside-down jellyfish, and the stalked jellyfish. As a result of this research, there are now genome sequences for all five lineages of the Medusozoa.Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved toxin genes

"With these new genomes, for the first time, we were able to compare gene content of all 5 classes of cnidarians (Anthozoa, Hydrozoa, Cubozoa, Staurozoa, Scyphozoa). This broad survey provides an important overview of genomic evolution in cnidarians," said Ryan.

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks, sea snakes, and stingrays combined. Approximately 100 people are killed each year by lethal box jellyfish stings, but the exact number is unknown and may be even higher. 

"Box jellyfish are among the most venomous animals on the planet and therefore their genomes are important resources for developing antivenoms as well as potential drugs," said Ryan. "Our survey included a focused assessment of venom-related genes, providing insight into the evolution of cnidarian venom."

Across all three species of jellyfish, the researchers identified 117 putative venom proteins, 9 of which were found to be unique to cnidarians. 

The winged box jellyfish genome was the only one that contained a toxin gene called CqTx. The CqTx protein creates pores in the membranes of cells which results in the destruction of red blood cells, known as hemolysis.

Some box jellyfish stings can stop the human heart within 5 minutes, so the identification of the CqTx toxin gene may shed new light on what makes these stings so deadly. 

The study also revealed that the loss and duplication of another toxin gene, CrTx, played a large role in the evolution of jellyfish. The upside-down jellyfish was found to contain one CrTx gene, the winged box jellyfish had five copies of the gene, and the stalked jellyfish had none.

"Gene loss is an important driver of evolutionary change," explained Ryan. "Having draft genomes allows for accurate inferences of gene loss and for understanding the phenotypic contribution of gene loss in these animals. Furthermore, these genomes provide information about the order of genes in the genome, which in some cases allow for independent verification of the identification of hard-to-classify genes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/gigascience">GigaScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Shahar Shabtai

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved toxin genes

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved...

The smallest forms of life are essential for the health of the entire marine food web, including many of the fish that are in the greatest commercial demand. A new study suggests that focusing on individual fish populations is not an effective strategy to protect ecosystems from the damage and insecurity associated with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/older-fish-disappearing/">overfishing</a>. 

"In simple terms, to successfully manage fisheries in an ecosystem, the rate of removal for all fishes combined must be equal to or less than the rate of renewal for all those fish,"said study co-author Jason Link, who is the senior scientist for ecosystem management at <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/">NOAA Fisheries</a>.

The researchers propose that three particular indices could be monitored, using widely available catch and satellite data, to determine when ecosystem overfishing is occurring. These factors include: when the total catch of all fish is declining, the total catch rate or fishing effort required to get that catch is declining, and the total landings relative to the production in that ecosystem exceed suitable limits.

"Detecting overfishing at an ecosystem level will help to avoid many of the impacts we have seen when managing fished species on a population-by-population basis, and holds promise for detecting major shifts in ecosystem and fisheries productivity much more quickly," said Link.

The suggested thresholds for each index are based on the known limits of the productivity of any given part of the ocean. 

"We know that climate change is shifting many fish populations toward the poles, yet the fishing fleets and associated industries are not shifting with them," said Link. "That already has had serious economic and cultural impacts." 

The study authors noted that these shifts can be followed over time to see how they can exacerbate or even contribute to ecosystem overfishing. The three proposed indices represent a potential international standard for tracking the status of global fisheries ecosystems.

"They are easy to estimate and interpret, are based on widely repeated and available data, and are a practical way to identify when an ecosystem would be experiencing overfishing based on well understood and well-accepted primary production and food web limitations," said Link. 

"It would eliminate a lot of the debate about whether or not ecosystem overfishing is happening and instead focus attention on solutions. But until we can define and identify what ecosystem overfishing is, we cannot begin to address it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Stanislav Simonyan

Three indicators could help protect marine ecosystems from overfishing

The smallest forms of life are essential for the health...

In May, the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/">United Nations</a> (UN) released a devastating <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">report</a> detailing the unprecedented loss of biodiversity that our planet is currently facing. Now, UN experts are warning of the effects mass <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/decreases-biodiversity-habitat-loss/">biodiversity loss</a> can also have on human rights.

The UN biodiversity report, published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, found that over one million species are currently at risk of extinction. Researchers found that human activities threaten species more than at any other time in the planet’s history. 

The results are incredibly grim. The authors note that we will continue on this downwards spiral unless we implement transformative change.

Plants and animals are not the only victims of the current state of the planet. UN experts caution that biodiversity loss threatens human rights for current and future generations.

“The loss of global biodiversity is having and will continue to have devastating effects on a wide range of human rights for decades to come. This report is a stark reminder that we can simply not enjoy our basic human rights to life, health, food and safe water without a healthy environment,” David Boyd, a UN expert on human rights and the environment, said in a <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24738&amp;LangID=E">news release</a>.

Biodiversity provides humans with food, medicine and livelihoods. Plant and animal species also ensure our ecosystems function properly which, in turn, helps to clean our air, water and soil. Ecosystems such as coral reefs can protect humans from the effects of extreme weather, which is believed to increase as a result of climate change.

A 2015 <a href="https://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/phe-pr.pdf?ua=1">report</a> by the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> and the Convention on Biological Diversity found that biodiversity loss is impacting human health worldwide. 

A decline in natural resources throughout the world could exacerbate tensions between people and countries, resulting in armed conflict.

The loss of pollinators alone threatens $577 billion in annual global crops. Additionally, an estimated 100-300 million people are at an increased risk of floods and hurricanes as a result of the decline in coastal ecosystems, the UN biodiversity <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment">report</a> found.

Communities throughout the world rely on healthy and functional ecosystems for survival. As United Nations experts state, poor communities including indigenous peoples, farmers and fishermen are particularly vulnerable to the effects of biodiversity loss. 

The UN biodiversity report helped wake up the collective conscience of humanity. While many people may not yet see the effects of biodiversity loss on their personal livelihoods, that could change in the coming years. The key to gaining buy-in for transformative change may just be the threat it poses to us personally.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Maciej Olszewski

UN experts warn that biodiversity loss can be a human rights issue

In May, the United Nations (UN) released a devastating report...

You may think of the Caribbean as a physically beautiful location to lay on the beach and sip on cocktails. Many experience the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/economic-coral-bleaching-caribbean/">Caribbean</a> this way, superficially as a backdrop to a nice vacation, but the Caribbean also has much more to offer.

Located at the southern edge of North America, in a zone of transition to the tropics of Central and South America, it’s no surprise that the Caribbean is a hotspot for biodiversity. With <a href="https://www.tripsavvy.com/number-of-islands-in-the-caribbean-1487691">7,000 individual islands</a> scattered through the sea, it’s also no surprise that the region has some fascinating endemic species. Species like Jamaica’s <a href="https://jis.gov.jm/information/symbols/jamaican-national-bird-the-doctor-bird/">SwallowTail Hummingbird</a> (Trochilus Polytmus) or Cuba’s <a href="https://prehistoric-fauna.com/Ornimegalonyx">giant, flightless owl</a> show just a glimpse of the fascinating wildlife found (or once found) in the Caribbean. 

<a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/valuing-and-protecting-biodiversity-caribbean">UN Environment</a> reports that the Caribbean is home to 11,000 plant species, around 72 of which are only found in the region. Meanwhile, Caribbean Sea itself is just as impressive as the islands it fosters.   

There are at least 12,046 <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011916">marine species</a> of 37 different taxa in the Caribbean region. Of this biodiversity, there are more than <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301864386_Coral_Reef_Fishes_Common_Fish_of_the_Caribbean">400 species of reef fish</a> in the Caribbean alone. Some of these fish naturally are more common than others. 

<a href="https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201706/overfishing-reef-decline-threaten-greater-caribbean-and-pacific-island-fisheries-%E2%80%93-iucn-reports">Overfishing and reef decline</a> are leading to a historic decline of fish populations throughout the Caribbean. When I visited Jamaica years ago as part of a team documenting overfishing, the lack of options for fishermen was palpable. People with little money and little education turn to the only work they know to feed themselves. Throughout much of the Caribbean, all some people know is fishing, a way of life that has supplied abundant nutrition that may be coming to an end due to human overreach. This sad situation has led to many programs focusing on protecting marine species and working towards sustainable fisheries. For some fish, the situation is considerably more urgent than for others. 

The <a href="https://www.aqua.org/Experience/Animal-Index/largetooth-sawfish">Largetooth Sawfish</a>, (Pristis pristis) is just one fish of many species living in the Caribbean but it is a rather bizarre specimen. True to its name, the fish has a long protrusion on its snout lined with teeth, making it appear like a saw. Interestingly, the sawfish uses this appendage to find fish and attack them for food. Tiny sensors line the ‘saw’ allowing the fish a 6th sense which can detect the tiny electrical currents created by living animals. With this sense, the sawfish can find prey fish even in dark or muddy waters and attack the prey, securing a meal. 

Sawfish may look completely bizarre, but they have shark-like bodies and are rays. Sawfish interestingly can live in varying levels of salinity from fresh water to open ocean but are most common in estuaries and shallow bays. Often, sawfish are found in seagrasses or mangrove habitats. 

Strangely, there is even a population of the fish in <a href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/10/19/From-the-depths-of-Lake-Nicaragua-comes-a-fish/6851719467200/">Lake Nicaragua</a>. These fish are quite large, with an agreed maximum size of 19.7 feet long but some reports claiming fish of 23 feet in length. In fact, the largetooth sawfish is among the world’s largest fish. Unfortunately, the fish is also extremely endangered.

The sawfish was once widespread throughout the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. A different species, the smalltooth sawfish, was the first marine fish to be placed on the endangered species list in 2003. In fact, all sawfish species are endangered, according to the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/pristis-pristis/">Florida Museum</a>. The largetooth sawfish itself was listed on the endangered species list in the US in 2011. The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/43508845/43508869">IUCN Red List</a> lists largetooth sawfish as critically endangered.

Sawfish have historically been caught as impressive sport trophies and have been used for traditional medicine and for religion. In parts of Africa, the saws are used for tools or the teeth are attached to roosters legs for cock fights. Direct fishing but also the decline of the oceans lead to the decline of the largetooth sawfish as well. Sawfish are also often killed as bycatch, becoming entangled in fishing gear intended for other species. 

But recently, the Caribbean boosted protection for the rare fish. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/06/caribbean-nations-boost-protection-for-extremely-rare-largetooth-sawfish/">Mongabay</a> reports that on June 5, Caribbean nations agreed to add the sawfish to Annex II of the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Protocol under the Cartagena Convention. Protection for the closely related Smalltooth Sawfish have yet to be put into place under SPAW. 

Annexes I and II are the highest levels of protection for a species under the Cartagena Convention. This means that owning, trading and killing the largetooth sawfish is now illegal in the Caribbean. The Cartagena Convention was originally a protocol for cooperation in case of oil spills, agreed upon between Caribbean nations under the <a href="http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention">UN</a> in 1983 and put into force in 1986. Later the convention was expanded to protect special areas and species as well as create land based marine pollution controls. Much more research is still needed to understand the biology of such a unique fish, but strict protection is a good place to start.

Sawfish have been found previously near Florida and more recently in reasonable numbers near Costa Rica and Nicaragua as well. Largetooth sawfish haven’t been seen off the coast of Florida for decades, according to <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/five-facts-sawfishes-in-florida/">Florida Museum</a>, but those waters are still habitat. The Caribbean is a large portion of the area still occupied by largetooth sawfish as well as the smalltooth sawfish. The smalltooth sawfish is now found only in waters off the coast of Florida. 

Caribbean nations agreeing to protect the largetooth sawfish is a step towards securing their future in the world’s oceans. However, protection for the smalltooth sawfish would be very helpful as well. Globally, there are five species of sawfish and all of them are endangered. Greater protection for all of these fish would be welcome. But to truly secure their future existence, the world’s fisheries would need to be sustainable as well, a tall order for the tragedy of the commons that has become our oceans.              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner,</a> <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Simon Fraser University

Endangered largetooth sawfish gain greater protections in the Caribbean

You may think of the Caribbean as a physically beautiful...

Based on the detailed analysis of tooth remains, researchers have discovered that some ancient crocodilians were herbivores. The study findings suggest that the carnivorous preferences of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cultures-crocodiles-worshipped/">crocodiles</a> were replaced with plants at least three times among the distant relatives of modern crocodilians.

"The most interesting thing we discovered was how frequently it seems extinct crocodyliforms ate plants," said study author Keegan Melstrom of the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>. "Complex teeth, which we infer to indicate herbivory, appear in the extinct relatives of crocodiles at least three times and maybe as many as six in our dataset alone."

As semiaquatic generalist carnivores, all modern-day crocodilians have relatively simple and consistent teeth. The extinct species examined for the study clearly showed a different pattern, including many specializations that are not seen today. One feature that was found among the fossils was the primitive characteristic of heterodonty, or teeth of different shapes and sizes. 

"Carnivores possess simple teeth whereas herbivores have much more complex teeth," explained Melstrom. "Omnivores, organisms that eat both plant and animal material, fall somewhere in between. Part of my earlier research showed that this pattern holds in living reptiles that have teeth, such as crocodilians and lizards. So these results told us that the basic pattern between diet and teeth is found in both mammals and reptiles, despite very different tooth shapes, and is applicable to extinct reptiles."

The researchers compared the tooth complexity of prehistoric crocodyliforms with those of living animals to reconstruct their diets. Overall, they measured 146 erupted teeth from 16 different taxa of extinct crocodyliforms.

[caption id="attachment_1874479" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/crocodyliform-life-reconstructions.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874479" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/crocodyliform-life-reconstructions.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="1136" /></a> Crocodyliform life reconstructions. Image Credit: Jorge Gonzalez[/caption]

The study revealed that shortly after the end-Triassic mass extinction, plant-eating crocodilians emerged and persisted until the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. There was also evidence to suggest that a preference for plants appeared independently at least three times in Mesozoic crocodilians.

"Our work demonstrates that extinct crocodyliforms had an incredibly varied diet," said Melstrom. "Some were similar to living crocodilians and were primarily carnivorous, others were omnivores, and still others likely specialized in plants. The herbivores lived on different continents at different times, some alongside mammals and mammal relatives, and others did not. This suggests that an herbivorous crocodyliform was successful in a variety of environments!"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ondrej Prosicky

Some ancient crocodile species were herbivores

Based on the detailed analysis of tooth remains, researchers have...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...