Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a long and difficult journey. They travel up to 10,000 kilometers from Central and South America to their feeding grounds in Antarctica.



But how do they know when it's time to leave? According to new research, these whales rely on both real-time changes in their environment and long-term memories of past ocean conditions to time their migrations.



The study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, used eight years of satellite tracking data collected between 2009 and 2016. The team tracked 42 humpback whales tagged near Costa Rica, Panama, and Ecuador.



By following the whales' movements southward to Antarctica, the researchers hoped to understand what cues triggered their annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-use-memory-to-time-their-journey">Whales use memory to time their journey</h2>



The study revealed that whales respond to local cues such as sea surface temperature and food availability.



But they don’t rely solely on current conditions. They also seem to remember when food was most abundant in the Southern Ocean during previous years.



That memory, combined with what’s happening around them, helps them decide when to go.



“They seem to know that changes happening in their immediate environment are linked to conditions thousands of kilometers away,” said Professor Virginie Millien. “This allows them to fine-tune their migration, so they arrive just as their food supply peaks.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Krill</a>, a small crustacean, is the whales’ main food source in Antarctica. Each year, krill populations bloom during a specific seasonal window. 



For centuries, whales have timed their migration to match this pattern. But that rhythm is now being disrupted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-whales-keep-up-with-climate-change">Can whales keep up with climate change?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/krill-face-a-double-whammy-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer oceans</a> and changes in sea ice are beginning to shift the timing of the krill bloom. Even though whales are adjusting their departures, climate change may be moving too fast for them to keep up.



“We don't know how long they'll be able to keep up,” said Millien. “Every year since 2016 has been the warmest on record, and that pattern is speeding up. At some point, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-memories-feeding-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory-based</a> strategy may no longer work.”



The study also revealed notable differences in how males and females migrate. Male humpbacks tend to travel more quickly and take direct paths. 



In contrast, females - especially those with calves - stick to the coast. Their route is slower but possibly safer, giving their young time to rest and stay away from predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-balance-of-marine-ecosystems">Delicate balance of marine ecosystems </h2>



These findings have important implications for conservation. As ship traffic increases along coastal routes, so do the dangers whales face.



Collisions with vessels and disturbances to their migration corridors can have serious effects on whale populations.



“This research provides the data needed to inform conservation efforts,” said Hector Guzman of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. “It's not just about protecting whales; it's about preserving the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.”



The researchers emphasize the need to safeguard migration routes and feeding zones, especially as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate continues to shift</a>. Protecting these areas doesn’t just benefit whales - it supports the entire marine food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-whales-matter-more-than-ever">Why whales matter more than ever</h2>



Whales are amazing animals that help keep oceans and seas healthy. As they move, whales consume food and excrete waste - assisting with the distribution of nutrients in the water body.



This enables the growth of phytoplankton and other microscopic plants which take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Thus, whales make a direct contribution to the food webs of the ocean and the climate on land.



Their existence also boosts biodiversity, creating new feeding opportunities for other marine creatures that depend on nutrient-rich zones. 



If whale populations are decimated, the productivity of the ocean will decline. As waters undergo more drastic changes, the survival of humpback whales is crucial.



Observations of humpback whales provide researchers with insights into the limits of ecosystem resilience and the measures needed to prevent collapse. From this perspective, protecting whales becomes a priority, along with assessing the overall health and stability of the oceans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87489-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Whales in hot water: Will climate change disrupt their migration?

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a long and difficult journey. They travel up to 10,000 kilometers from Central and South America to their feeding grounds in Antarctica. But how do they know when it's time to leave? According to new research, these whales rely on both real-time changes in their environment and long-term memories of past ocean conditions to time their migrations. The study, led by scientists from McGill University, used eight years of satellite tracking data collected between 2009 and 2016. The...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a>, researchers have found that young alligators have the ability to regenerate their tails. Remarkably, the alligators can regrow the complex structures by up to three-quarters of a foot, or 18 percent of their total body length.

Adult male American alligators measure up to 15 feet in length. While it has been well-documented that much smaller reptiles such as lizards are capable of regrowing entire appendages, regeneration has not been studied extensively in alligators.

In collaboration with the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, the researchers used advanced imaging techniques to examine the structure of regrown alligator tails. The team discovered that the new tails had a central skeleton composed of cartilage surrounded by connective tissue that was interlaced with blood vessels and nerves. 

"What makes the alligator interesting, apart from its size, is that the regrown tail exhibits signs of both regeneration and wound healing within the same structure," said study lead author Cindy Xu. "Regrowth of cartilage, blood vessels, nerves, and scales were consistent with previous studies of lizard tail regeneration from our lab and others. However, we were surprised to discover scar-like connective tissue in place of skeletal muscle in the regrown alligator tail. Future comparative studies will be important to understand why regenerative capacity is variable among different reptile and animal groups."

The discovery that alligators are regrowing complex new tails could provide experts with new insight about the regeneration process in amniotes - the large group of animals that have backbones including alligators and humans. 

"The ancestors of alligators and dinosaurs and birds split off around 250 million years ago," said study co-senior author Professor Kenro Kusumi. "Our finding that alligators have retained the cellular machinery to regrow complex tails while birds have lost that ability raises the question of when during evolution this ability was lost. Are there fossils out there of dinosaurs, whose lineage led to modern birds, with regrown tails? We haven't found any evidence of that so far in the published literature."

The researchers hope their work may ultimately lead to the development of new methods for repairing injuries and treating diseases such as arthritis.

"If we understand how different animals are able to repair and regenerate tissues, this knowledge can then be leveraged to develop medical therapies," said study co-author Professor Rebecca Fisher.

"Staff biologists in our Alligator Research and Management Program have been pleased to partner with Dr. Kusumi at Arizona State University for many years," said Ruth M. Elsey, a biologist at the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries.

"We see alligators in the field with some indication of possible regrowth of tail tissue, but their expertise led to the current study detailing the histological changes associated with the capacity for possible partial tail regrowth or wound repair."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Complex tail regeneration has been discovered in alligators

In a new study from Arizona State University, researchers have...

Global warming may increase the risk of infectious disease outbreaks in animals that are adapted to cooler and milder climates, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a>. On the other hand, animals adapted to warmer climates could experience mild reductions in infectious disease risk as temperatures rise. 

In addition to habitat loss, invasive species, and many other climate-related threats, ecological communities are now faced with more frequent and widespread disease outbreaks. Observations over the last several decades indicate that there is a link between climate change and infectious disease risk in wildlife. 

"Infectious disease outbreaks among wildlife have surged in recent decades alongside global climate change," wrote the study authors. "However, the circumstances under which climate change is most likely to promote or inhibit infectious disease remain unknown for several reasons."

Scientists have proposed the "thermal mismatch" theory to help explain the complex relationships between parasites, hosts, and their environment. The theory suggests that small-bodied, infectious pathogens have a greater tolerance for abnormal temperatures than the larger-bodied species they seek out as hosts. 

As a result, animals adapted to warmer conditions are at the greatest risk of disease outbreaks under unusually cooler temperatures, while animals that are accustomed to cooler climates are faced with greater threats as temperatures rise.

"However, thermal mismatches may not affect diverse hosts and parasites equally because wildlife host and parasite traits can greatly influence disease outcomes," explained the researchers. "For example, thermal mismatches might exert an especially strong influence over disease outcomes in ectothermic hosts because their immune responses are highly temperature-dependent."

"To address this challenge, we examined how disease risk was affected by temperature for diverse wildlife hosts and parasites that vary in ecologically important traits across a worldwide climatic gradient."

Study lead author Jeremy Cohen is an expert in climate change ecology at University of Wisconsin. His team assembled a dataset which included pathogen prevalence in 2,021 host-pathogen pairs from 7,346 wildlife populations worldwide, along with local weather and climate data for each location. 

"We found that on average, hosts from cool and warm climates experienced increased disease risk at abnormally warm and cool temperatures, respectively, as predicted by the thermal mismatch hypothesis," explained the study authors. 

The effects were largely dependent on the parasite identity and host traits, and were strongest among cold-blooded species. The researchers also noted that the thermal mismatch effect was similar in terrestrial and freshwater systems.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals in cold climates are facing a higher risk of disease outbreaks

Global warming may increase the risk of infectious disease outbreaks...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-monarch-butterflies-are-stressed-by-human-handling/">Monarch</a> butterfly caterpillars can flip the switch from harmonious to hostile when their favorite food may become unavailable. In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, scientists observed caterpillars with limited access to milkweed lashing out and lunging at others, attempting to headbutt them out of the way. The caterpillars were found to the most aggressive during the final stages before metamorphosis.

Study lead author Alex Keene is a professor of Biological Sciences at Florida Atlantic University.

"I saw that there were basically no published papers on aggression in this or any other caterpillar species, but there's a lot of exciting work that's been done on fruit flies where they've found single-pheromone receptors or single genes that trigger aggression," said Professor Keene. "Now we might be able to take that powerful neurobiology and genetics and study it in a more ecologically relevant organism."

Professor Keene normally explores the neurobiology of fruit flies, but he turned his attention to monarchs after observing their aggressive behavior in his garden. Monarchs are a good indicator of the pollinators present in any given ecosystem - if they are declining, other pollinator numbers are likely dwindling as well. 

At their largest body size, a single monarch caterpillar can eat an entire milkweed leaf in under 5 minutes. "If you compare that to a fruit fly where there are a lot of larvae on one piece of rotting fruit, there is less competition there," said Professor Keene. "But each of these caterpillars will at some point in their developmental cycle encounter resource limitation."

To investigate, the researchers built an open milkweed garden behind their lab in Boca Raton and waited for the caterpillars to arrive on their own. In the lab, the team grouped caterpillars together with different amounts of milkweed. The results were consistent. When there was less food available, the caterpillars were likely to headbutt each other out of the way to get more milkweed. 

Professor Kenne explained that the experiment itself turned out to be a bit complicated. "We definitely had a lot of challenges. We had a hard time breeding the monarchs in the lab, and we found that almost every nursery sells their milkweed with pesticides. So, we ended up having to grow our own. But I like to say that resilience is one of the main characteristics scientists have to have because most of what we do doesn't work."

Going forward, the researchers want to learn more about what drives the aggressive response to limited food in the brains of the caterpillars. This will provide insight into how these responses work in nature.

"One of the fundamental problems with work like this is that we're testing animals in a very derived setting. And that's not what brains evolved to do," explained Professor Keene. "So now that we have this invertebrate model in a relatively controlled setting, but doing an ecologically relevant behavior, that becomes important in terms of looking at the mechanism and function of this behavior in more complex organisms."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monarch caterpillars resort to headbutting when food is limited

Monarch butterfly caterpillars can flip the switch from harmonious to...

Fifty years after they were hunted to near extinction, blue whales have returned to the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> made the discovery while following up on a recent study which revealed that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-sing/">humpback</a> whales are also returning to South Georgia.

The international research team analyzed 30 years worth of sightings, photographs, and underwater sound recordings to investigate how Antarctic blue whales are recovering after commercial whaling was banned in the 1960s.

Blue whales were once abundant off South Georgia before commercial whaling killed more than 42,000 individuals between 1904 and 1971. The giant fish vanished from this region, with only a single blue whale sighting between 1998 and 2018. By 2020, however, a survey in February recorded 58 blue whale sightings and numerous acoustic detections.

"The continued absence of blue whales at South Georgia has been seen as an iconic example of a population that was locally exploited beyond the point where it could recover," said study lead author Susannah Calderan of the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS).

"But over the past few years we've been working at South Georgia, we have become quite optimistic about the numbers of blue whales seen and heard around the island, which hadn't been happening until very recently. This year was particularly exciting, with more blue whale sightings than we ever could have hoped for."

The researchers used devices that can detect the loud, low frequency calls of whales over long distances. The team also collected records of whale sightings reported to the South Georgia Museum.

Overall, 41 individuals have been identified in photographs from South Georgia over the last ten years, yet none of these match the 517 whales in the current Antarctic blue whale photographic catalog.

"We don't quite know why it has taken the blue whales so long to come back," said Calderan. "It may be that so many of them were killed at South Georgia that there was a loss of cultural memory in the population that the area was a foraging ground, and that it is only now being rediscovered."

The remote location, harsh weather, and lack of access to South Georgia greatly limit the opportunities for whale surveys, yet careful examination of the region is critical for future management.

"This is an exciting discovery and a really positive step forward for conservation of the Antarctic blue whale," said study co-author Dr. Jennifer Jackson, who led the 2020 whale expedition.

"With South Georgia waters designated as a Marine Protected Area by the Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, we hope that these increased numbers of blue whales are a sign of things to come and that our research can continue to contribute to effective management of the area."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/esr/esr-home/">Endangered Species Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Blue whales are making a comeback in South Georgia

Fifty years after they were hunted to near extinction, blue...

In a recent review, Dr. Marcelo H. Cassini analyzed studies on sexual aggression among non-human mammals. The research was focused on "sexual disturbance," or aggressive male behavior toward a female around <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cross-mating-finches-exchanged-genes-and-beak-shape/">mating</a> time that could result in physical harm or cause mother-offspring separation.

"In non‐human mammals, sexual conflict should be particularly intense because males rarely provide parental care," explained Dr. Cassini. "An expected consequence of sexual conflict is male aggression towards mates."

"Considering how complex measurements and interpretations of behaviors such as sexual aggression and sexual coercion are, I preferred to define operationally, as sexual disturbance - any male behavior towards females during the pericopulatory period that can be costly for females."

Dr. Cassini set out to estimate how widespread sexual disturbance is among mammals, and to analyze the various types of female responses to sexual disturbance. He also wanted to characterize the consequences of such male aggression for the females.

"I conducted a systematic review by searching the literature in the Web of Knowledge database using the search tools available for 19 main journals, and I conducted a qualitative review via a taxon‐by‐taxon analysis."

The study, which was published by <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us">Wiley</a>, revealed that sexual disturbance is common in 4 of the 32 mammalian orders examined: Primates, Artiodactyla, Carnivora, and Cetacea. All of these groups include species that practice polygyny, which is when males mate with multiple females. 

"The most common expression of sexual conflict around copulation is seen in behaviors associated with female retention attempts that cause minor harm," said Dr. Cassini. "Research suggests that the most common response of females to sexual disturbance comprises female grouping around a dominant male."

According to Dr. Cassini, his review suggests that sexual aggression is a rare behavior when you consider that there are thousands of species of mammals. Further studies are needed to see whether sexual disturbance affects the reproductive success of males and females.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652907">Mammal Review</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Polygynous male mammals may have more sexual aggression

In a recent review, Dr. Marcelo H. Cassini analyzed studies...

Despite previous reports that vertebrates are in a global state of decline, a new study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> has determined otherwise. The researchers found that some specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-development-has-the-biggest-impact-on-dwindling-koala-populations/">populations</a> really are in trouble, such as those in the Indo-Pacific region, but that vertebrates are actually stable overall. 

Mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and fish are all animals within the subphylum Vertebrata. Based on historical monitoring data, experts have typically estimated that vertebrates have declined by an average of more than 50 percent over the last five decades. 

The McGill researchers determined that this average number is greatly impacted by a small portion of animal populations that have experienced extreme losses.

"Recent analyses have reported catastrophic global declines in vertebrate populations,"wrote the experts. "However, the distillation of many trends into a global mean index obscures the variation that can inform conservation measures and can be sensitive to analytical decisions. For example, previous analyses have estimated a mean vertebrate decline of more than 50% since 1970." 

"Here we show, however, that this estimate is driven by less than 3% of vertebrate populations; if these extremely declining populations are excluded, the global trend switches to an increase."

Study senior author Brian Leung explains that given the previous mathematical methods used to model vertebrate populations, an estimate could arise from two very different scenarios: widespread systematic declines or a few extreme declines. For the current investigation, the researchers took a different approach.

The team analyzed a dataset of over 14,000 vertebrate populations from around the globe collated in the Living Planet Database. The  researchers identified a very small percentage of vertebrate populations which have suffered extreme population losses, including reptiles in tropical areas of North, Central and South America, and birds in the Indo-Pacific region. 

When these extreme losses were accounted for, the remaining vertebrate populations as a whole were not generally increasing or decreasing.

"The variation in this global aggregate is also important. Some populations really are in trouble and regions such as the Indo-Pacific are showing widespread systematic declines. However, the image of a global 'biodiversity desert' is not supported by the evidence." said Leung. "This is good, as it would be very discouraging if all of our conservation efforts over the last five decades had little effect."

"We were surprised by how strong the effect of these extreme populations was in driving the previous estimate of average global decline," said study co-author Professor Anna Hargreaves. "Our results identify regions that need urgent action to ameliorate widespread biodiversity declines, but also reason to hope that our actions can make a difference."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vertebrate populations are not in a global state of decline

Despite previous reports that vertebrates are in a global state...

In a study of nearly 1,300 mammal and bird <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-infectious-rickettsia-bacteria-found-in-dogs/">species</a>, researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have discovered that migratory animals "live fast and die young." The experts found that migrating animals generally develop faster, produce offspring earlier, and die younger compared to similar species that do not migrate. 

The study also revealed that migratory animals who walk and swim tend to grow larger than their non-migrating relatives, while those that fly are usually smaller.

"We think that walking and swimming migrants are generally larger because only large animals can store enough energy, and use it efficiently enough, to make long-distance land or sea migrations viable," explained study co-author Professor Dave Hodgson. "Among flying species, the opposite is true, as a large body mass makes flying more costly in terms of energy."

The research may help to solve the mystery of why many migratory animals are vanishing. With their fast lifestyle, these species may not have the capacity to adapt to environmental changes. For example, migratory species may not be able to advance the timing of their migrations or delay breeding to keep pace with a shifting climate.

"Many species migrate over long distances and this requires substantial amounts of energy," said study lead author Dr. Andrea Soriano-Redondo. "This energy cannot be used for other purposes such as self-maintenance or reproduction, so we would expect animals to adjust the amount of energy they use for these things."

"By prioritizing reproduction over survival, 'fast-living' species have the potential to increase numbers more rapidly - which may balance the long-term energy costs and short-term risks of migrating."

The researchers analyzed the "pace of life" for animals by focusing on seven factors, such as longevity and the age of female sexual maturity. According to the study authors, the findings will help predict the responses of bird and mammal species to environmental change, and partly explain the decline of many migratory animals.

"We have long thought that migration is a risky behavior," said study co-author Professor Stuart Bearhop. "Animals often take a chance when they migrate, hoping to find the right conditions in their destination."

"In the case of birds that migrate to the High Arctic, they arrive in spring and have a short window in which to breed. Some will only attempt this if conditions are right - and if climate change degrades habitats, these 'fast-living' species might miss their chance entirely."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Migratory animals live faster and die younger than their relatives

In a study of nearly 1,300 mammal and bird species,...

In a new study from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>, experts report that many <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropical-songbirds-reproduce-less-during-severe-droughts/">songbirds</a> push their offspring to leave the nest before they are ready. The researchers observed early fledging in 12 of 18 species studied in various habitats throughout the United States, and the findings suggest that this behavior is a commonly used evolutionary strategy among songbirds. 

"Individual chicks may be less likely to survive, but by manipulating them out of the nest early, parents benefit through a 14% increase in their likelihood of raising at least one offspring to independence," said study lead author Todd Jones, a doctoral student in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences (NRES).

"The parents are distributing the risk," explained study senior author Professor Mike Ward. "The longer chicks stay in the nest, the greater the chance the whole brood will be lost to predators like snakes or raccoons. But we see parents physically separating chicks in space outside the nest, and that way, the probability of them all dying is almost zero."

The research provides new insight into parent-offspring conflict, an evolutionary concept that describes the tradeoffs that are inherent aspects of parental care. By providing offspring with abundant resources, the parents may suffer a higher risk of starvation and disease and a lower chance of future reproductive success.

On the other hand, depriving the offspring of sufficient care decreases their chances of surviving long enough to pass along their parents' genes - which is the ultimate goal from an evolutionary point of view.

"For all organisms with parental care, there will always come a point where they're in conflict. In this case, it was a little surprising parents were putting chicks out in a dangerous situation that's good for the parent, but not good for the offspring," said Professor Ward. "But it makes sense from an evolutionary perspective, for the parents."

Jones explained that the surviving offspring will eventually benefit from leaving the nest early too, because they inherit the same strategy in their DNA.

"While the offspring are suffering a cost in the immediate term, down the road when they're breeding and they do the same thing to their kids, it's also benefiting them. This behavior is being passed down from generation to generation," said Jones.

Previous research has been primarily focused on what happens in the nest or immediately afterward, but the goal of the new study was to understand more about the juvenile transition. The investigation is the first to compare survival rates before and after fledging across various species and locations.

"This has been really understudied, so any information we get on their survival or life histories during this period is really important, especially given anthropogenic landscape changes, global climate change, or what have you. Having that baseline information will allow us to detect shifts or changes in the future," said Jones.

"Some of these species are declining pretty dramatically throughout the Midwest. They're probably right on the razor's edge," added Professor Ward. "So if predation goes up for some reason, it could really have big implications for that cohort throughout the years."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Songbirds abandon offspring early, but it's for their own good

In a new study from the University of Illinois, experts...

Sinking fish carcasses carry toxic mercury pollution from the surface waters to the most remote parts of the ocean, including the 36,000-foot-deep Mariana Trench, according to a study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. The scientists report that most of this mercury originates in atmospheric emissions from coal-fired power plants, mining operations, and other human activities.

"Mercury that we believe had once been in the stratosphere is now in the deepest trench on Earth," said U-M environmental geochemist and study lead author Professor Joel Blum. 

"It was widely thought that anthropogenic mercury was mainly restricted to the upper 1,000 meters of the oceans, but we found that while some of the mercury in these deep-sea trenches has a natural origin, it is likely that most of it comes from human activity."

A team of Chinese researchers recently concluded that mercury reaches the deep-sea trenches by hitching a ride on microscopic particles of sinking organic matter, such as fecal material and dead plankton. However, Professor Blum's team suggests that the mercury is delivered by sinking carrion of fish that feed near the surface of the ocean.

Scientists and policymakers seek to understand how changing global mercury emissions will affect mercury levels contained in seafood. While mercury is a naturally occurring element, more than 2,000 metric tons are emitted into the atmosphere each year as a result of human activities. Mercury emissions have recently declined in North America and Europe, but continue to increase in China and India.

"Yes, we eat fish caught in shallower waters, not from deep-sea trenches," said Professor Blum. "However, we need to understand the cycling of mercury through the entire ocean to be able to model future changes in the near-surface ocean."

When mercury reaches the ocean or land, some of it is converted into methylmercury - a highly toxic version that can accumulate in fish that are consumed by humans. This hazardous substance is known to cause damage to the central nervous system, the heart, and the immune system. The developing brains of fetuses and young children are particularly vulnerable to methylmercury.

The researchers analyzed the isotopic composition of methylmercury in fish and crustaceans collected at the bottom of two deep-sea trenches in the Pacific Ocean. The tissues of snailfish and crustaceans called amphipods were collected at depths of up to 33,630 feet in the Mariana Trench in the northwest Pacific, southwest of Guam. Additional samples were collected at depths of up to 32,800 feet in the Kermadec Trench in the southwest Pacific, northeast of New Zealand.

"These samples were challenging to acquire, given the trenches' great depths and high pressures," said study co-author Jeffrey Drazen, an oceanographer at the University of Hawaii. "The trenches are some of the least studied ecosystems on Earth, and the Mariana snailfish was only just discovered in 2014."

The experts determined that the mercury from deep-sea-trench amphipods and snailfish had a chemical signature that matched the mercury from a wide range of fish species in the central Pacific. These fish feed at depths of around 1,640 feet, and were analyzed by Professor Blum and his colleagues during previous research.

The Michigan team also ruled out the possibility that the mercury was sinking in particles of detritus, which was proposed by the Chinese team, based on the chemical signature of the mercury in the trench organisms.

The study showed that most of the mercury in the deep trench samples had been transported in the carcasses of fish that feed in near-surface waters, where most of the mercury comes from human activities.

"We studied the trench biota because they live in the deepest and most remote place on Earth, and we expected the mercury there to be almost exclusively of geologic origin--that is, from deep-sea volcanic sources," said Professor Blum. "Our most surprising finding was that we found mercury in organisms from deep-sea trenches that shows evidence for originating in the sunlit surface zone of the ocean."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mercury is carried in fish carcasses to the deepest parts of the ocean

Sinking fish carcasses carry toxic mercury pollution from the surface...

Dog ticks that transmit Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) are more than twice as likely to bite humans instead of dogs when temperatures rise. The research, which was presented at the <a href="https://www.astmh.org/annual-meeting">Annual Meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</a> (ASTMH), provides new evidence that global warming elevates the risk of deadly <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/slow-living-animals-could-be-the-source-of-more-diseases/">disease</a> transmission among humans. 

"Our work indicates that when the weather gets hot, we should be much more vigilant for infections of RMSF in humans," said study lead author Dr. Laura Backus of UC Davis. "We found that when temperatures rose from about 74 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit, brown dog ticks that carry the disease were 2.5 times more likely to prefer humans over dogs."

Spotted fevers have become increasingly prevalent over the last two decades. While RMSF is treatable if it is detected in the first week of infection, the fatality rate for prolonged infections can reach higher than 20 percent.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever can cause many serious complications, including damaged blood vessels, kidney failure, and inflammation of the heart, lungs, or brain. In the last ten years, deadly RMSF outbreaks have emerged among indigenous communities in Arizona and northern Mexico.

Dr. Backus said there have been indications from earlier work that brown dog ticks, which are found throughout the continental United States, may be more aggressive toward humans in hot weather. This is even more concerning given that climate change is greatly expanding areas of the country that experience multiple days of temperatures that exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

The UC Davis team set out to investigate how rising temperatures may elevate the risk of RMSF infections. They designed an experiment to observe whether brown dog ticks preferred humans or dogs when they were exposed to a temperature of 74 degrees Fahrenheit and also at 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

One type of brown dog tick, known as the tropical lineage tick, made an obvious shift in sniffing out humans over dogs in the hotter conditions. These ticks are currently found in southern regions of the United States, such as Arizona, Florida, southern California, and southern Georgia. According to Dr. Backus, the range of the tropical lineage tick is expected to expand north as temperatures rise.

Temperate brown dog ticks, which also carry RMSF, were found to slightly shift their attention toward humans in warmer weather. Instead of showing a preference for dogs, as they normally would, the temperate ticks appeared to become neutral about which host they would choose when they were influenced by heat. These ticks are distributed across all of the lower 48 states. 

"We believe that this decreased preference for dogs - combined with a slight increase in preference for humans - suggests that hot temperatures may also elevate risks of RMSF in areas where the temperate ticks are more common," said Dr. Backus.

She noted that it is important to identify conditions that can increase infection risks, especially considering that symptoms in the treatable early phase of RMSF can be easily mistaken for a number of more common ailments such as headache, fever, and muscle aches.

"The findings from the use of this simple but effective laboratory experiment to gauge how rising temperatures might lead to more human infections with a very dangerous tick-borne pathogen adds to the growing evidence of the increasing connection between climate change and its impact on health," said ASTMH President Dr. Joel Breman. 

"Climate change is moving so quickly that it is critical to keep pace with the many ways it may alter and intensify the risk of a wide range of infectious diseases so we are better prepared to diagnose, treat and prevent them."

The research was presented at the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 68th Annual Meeting.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dog ticks prefer human hosts in hotter weather conditions

Dog ticks that transmit Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) are...

Experts at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) in Brazil conducted two studies to investigate mammal extinctions, or mammal defaunation, throughout the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/centuries-of-human-activities-have-taken-a-toll-on-neotropical-mammals/">Neotropics</a>. The first analysis reveals that more than 40 percent of the region's ecosystem services have been lost, while the second paper finds that 56 percent of all medium- to large-bodied mammal species have vanished.

The team also discovered that the surviving mammals are the smallest. According to study lead author Juliano André Bogoni, the researchers were surprised by the findings. 

“We knew that while mammal species are declining very rapidly in the Neotropics, there are still ‘backups’: for every species that disappears, another survives to perform the same service,” said Bogoni.

“But this isn’t the case for all species. There are families like Cricetidae (rodents such as rats, mice, voles, etc.) in which there may be 30 species in a genus and as many as 100 species in ‘sibling groups' which are closely related in evolutionary and morphological terms. In other words, there are many overlapping species among small mammals and flyers (bats). If we had confined our analysis to medium- and large-bodied mammals, the loss of ecosystem services would have been far greater.”

There is usually not the same time type of overlapping among apex predators. "Only one backup exists in many places. Jaguar and puma, for example. When one is lost, only the other remains, if they coexist in the same place, which they often don’t, so loss of the species means loss of the services,” said Bogoni.

The ecosystem services provided by mammals were divided into four groups: provision, including dietary protein for local populations, seed dispersal, forest regeneration, and genetic resources; regulation, such as climate regulation, disease and pest control, biological control, disaster recovery, and pollination; cultural services, including ecotourism, ethnocultural identity, aesthetics, and education; and support, such as soil formation, nutrient cycling, oxygen production, and primary productivity.

Under various mammal defaunation scenarios, the main ecosystem services affected were ecotourism, soil formation, disease control, and protein acquisition by traditional people. The service losses ranged from 38.9 to 53.0 percent compared to the baseline. Bogoni pointed out that some ecosystem services can decline very quickly. 

“People mostly identify with apex predators or animals with charismatic ecomorphological traits. Rats are unlikely to symbolize ethnocultural identity, whereas jaguars have gripped people’s imagination since pre-Columbian times. Another example of severe decline in services is the provision of animal protein for traditional communities in the form of subsistence hunting. This is a service without much backup and one of those that have declined most. The less backup, the greater the possibility of decline and even complete disappearance.”

To examine the true extent of mammal defaunation, the researchers used a mathematical approach called confusion matrix to handle false negatives, or situations when animals were presumed to be present but were not in the modern database. 

“Applying this matrix to ‘correct’ for possible false negatives, our results showed mean adjusted defaunation of 56.5%,” said Bogoni. “The most severe defaunation rates were in Central America, the Caatinga biome in Northeast Brazil, and the northern portion of South America.”

"Assemblages have been downsized. A breakdown of the data by assemblage should show animals weighing 14 kilograms in 95% of cases according to the historical average, but now they weigh only 4 kg. In other words, only the smaller animals have survived. Defaunation is not only pervasive but also mainly concerns large-bodied animals, probably owing above all to loss of habitat accentuated by hunting.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/ecosystem-services">Ecosystem Services</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mammal defaunation is wiping out valuable ecosystem services

Experts at the University of São Paulo (USP) in Brazil...

As global warming continues at an uncertain pace, scientists have been investigating the capacity for animals all over the world to adapt to heat stress. There is concern regarding <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropical-lizards-are-surprisingly-adaptable-to-climate-extremes/">tropical</a> species, in particular, because they are used to living in a relatively stable thermal environment.

But now, in the first study of its kind, researchers at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> report that birds in both temperate and tropical regions have a much higher tolerance for acute heat stress than what was previously realized.

"In terms of their thermal physiology, a lot of these birds, including tropical species, can tolerate temperatures that are a lot higher than what they experience in their daily lives," said study first author Henry Pollock.  

"That was surprising because tropical ectotherms, such as insects, have been shown to be extremely vulnerable to climate warming. We're just not seeing the same things in birds. It is somewhat encouraging."

While the research indicates that tropical birds can adapt and survive in a warmer world, it is too soon to tell how these species will respond to a rapidly changing environment. 

"It's not necessarily comforting news. If someone walked away from this thinking tropical birds are going to do fine because they're not going to overheat, that would be a simplistic bottom line to take away from this paper," said study co-author Professor Jeff Brawn. 

"Warming is likely to affect tropical birds indirectly, by impacting their resources, the structure of tropical forests. So they may not be flying around panting, suffering from heat exhaustion, but there may be more indirect effects."

The research was focused on 81 bird species from Panama and South Carolina who were exposed to rising temperatures in field labs. The team used tiny sensors to detect the internal body temperatures and the metabolic rates of the birds.

While the temperate birds from South Carolina were found to have a higher average heat tolerance, tropical birds from Panama handled the heat much better than expected. 

Among all of the species, doves and pigeons had the greatest resistance to heat stress by taking advantage of their unique ability to sweat. According to Pollock, these birds actually exceeded the limits of the testing equipment.

"This is the first geographic comparison ever for birds. We need more data from more sites and studies of chronic heat stress over longer periods of time. But I think at the very least, what we can say is that they're able to tolerate higher temperatures than I think anybody expected," said Pollock.

"We're just starting to scratch the surface of what we need to do to really understand how climate change is going to affect birds," concluded Professor Brawn. "But this is an important first step."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652435">Functional Ecology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical birds handle heat stress much better than expected

As global warming continues at an uncertain pace, scientists have...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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