In the forests of Tanzania, chimpanzees have long been known to fish for termites using handmade tools crafted from local plants. But what makes this behavior even more fascinating is how carefully they seem to choose the materials for their tools.



New research now shows that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> are not just grabbing any nearby stick to poke into a termite nest - they’re making smart choices based on how flexible and effective the material is.



This discovery comes from a collaborative effort between researchers at the University of Oxford’s <a href="https://www.anthro.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Anthropology</a> and Museum Ethnography, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, the Jane Goodall Institute in Tanzania, the University of Algarve, the University of Porto in Portugal, and the University of Leipzig.



The study sheds light on the technical thinking behind chimpanzee tool use, a largely invisible part of primate evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-prefer-flexible-tools-for-fishing">Chimpanzees prefer flexible tools for fishing</h2>



To eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a>, chimpanzees must first catch them. The primates use thin plant probes to pull the insects carefully out of narrow, winding tunnels inside termite mounds.



The team proposed that flexible tools would work better in these tight spaces than rigid sticks. To test this, lead author Alejandra Pascual-Garrido brought a portable mechanical tester to Gombe Stream National Park. She measured the amount of force it took to bend different plant materials.



The results were striking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-sense-when-something-touches-them-despite-not-having-nerves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> that the chimpanzees actually used were much more flexible than those that were available but ignored. 



On average, unused plants were 175 percent more rigid. Even among plants growing side-by-side near the termite mounds, the ones that were repeatedly used produced significantly more flexible tools.



“This is the first comprehensive evidence that wild chimpanzees select tool materials for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-a-peak-season-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termite fishing</a> based on specific mechanical properties,” said Pascual-Garrido, who has been studying chimpanzee tool-making in Gombe for over ten years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-preferences-across-africa">Shared preferences across Africa</h2>



Interestingly, the same plant species used by chimpanzees in Gombe such as Grewia - are also used by other chimpanzee populations living thousands of kilometers away.



This pattern suggests that the mechanical qualities of these plants are so useful that they’ve become common knowledge among different chimpanzee groups. It also hints that this knowledge might be deeply embedded in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee culture</a>.



Their choices suggest a kind of natural logic. Chimpanzees may have what scientists call a “folk physics” - an intuitive understanding of which materials will get the job done.



Their knack for selecting the right plant isn’t just done by trial and error. It’s a skill. And it's one that might reflect the kind of thinking our early human ancestors used when building their own tools.



“This novel approach, which combines biomechanics with animal behaviour, helps us better understand the cognitive processes behind chimpanzee tool construction and how they evaluate and select materials based on functional properties,” said Pascual-Garrido.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-chimpanzees">New questions about chimpanzees </h2>



The research opens up more questions than it answers. How do young chimpanzees learn which materials to use? Do they copy their mothers? And do they apply the same rules when choosing tools for other jobs - like collecting ants or honey?



“This finding has important implications for understanding how humans might have evolved their remarkable tool using abilities,” explained Adam van Casteren from the Department of Human Origins at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“While perishable materials like wood rarely survive in the archaeological record, the mechanical principles behind effective tool construction and use remain constant across species and time.”



These behaviors also raise questions about memory, experience, and even innovation in non-human primates. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-early-humans">Clues about early humans</h2>



Understanding how chimpanzees refine their techniques over time could reveal a primitive form of trial-and-error learning that mirrors early human problem-solving.



By studying chimpanzees and their preferences for certain types of materials, researchers hope to uncover clues about how early humans may have started crafting implements long before stone tools appeared in the archaeological record.



It’s a small but meaningful step toward understanding the roots of human intelligence - through the eyes, and hands, of our closest extant relatives.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00419-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004225004195%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Chimpanzees have tool-making skills similar to human engineers

In the forests of Tanzania, chimpanzees have long been known to fish for termites using handmade tools crafted from local plants. But what makes this behavior even more fascinating is how carefully they seem to choose the materials for their tools. New research now shows that these primates are not just grabbing any nearby stick to poke into a termite nest - they’re making smart choices based on how flexible and effective the material is. This discovery comes from a collaborative effort between researchers at the University...

A few million years ago, a massive crocodile measuring more than five meters long dominated the waterways of southeast Queensland. The "swamp king" has been identified by experts at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> based on their analysis of fossils that were uncovered in the 1980s.

According to study lead author and PhD candidate Jorgo Ristevski, the researchers named the species Paludirex vincenti after Geoff Vincent, who discovered the giant fossilized skull near the town of Chinchilla.

"In Latin, 'Paludirex' means 'swamp king,' and 'vincenti' honors the late Mr. Vincent," said Ristevski. "For several years the fossilized skull was on display in the Queensland Museum, before it was donated to the Chinchilla Museum in 2011."

Ristevski said that the swamp king was "one intimidating croc." With a skull that measured around 65 centimeters, Paludirex vincenti would have had a body length of at least five meters, which is over 16 feet.

"The largest crocodylian today is the Indo-Pacific crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, which grows to about the same size," said Ristevski. "But Paludirex had a broader, more heavy-set skull so it would have resembled an Indo-Pacific crocodile on steroids."

In its time, Paludirex was one of the top predators in Australia, and would have been capable of preying on giant prehistoric marsupials. "The waterways of the Darling Downs would once have been a very dangerous place because of it."

Dr. Steve Salisbury, a senior lecturer in the UQ School of Biological Sciences, noted that various species of prehistoric crocodylians once existed in Australia.

"Crocs have been an important component of Australia's fauna for millions of years. But the two species we have today - Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus johnstoni - are only recent arrivals, and were not part of the endemic croc fauna that existed here from about 55 million years ago," explained Dr. Salisbury.

"Whether Paludirex vincenti went extinct as a result of competition with species like Crocodylus porosus is hard to say."

"The alternative is that it went extinct as the climate dried, and the river systems it once inhabited contracted - we're currently investigating both scenarios."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Five-meter crocodile was once the "swamp king" of Queensland

A few million years ago, a massive crocodile measuring more...

The global food production system must be changed to prevent widespread biodiversity losses, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>. The researchers determined that current food production methods are destroying the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beavers-create-habitats-that-support-threatened-amphibians/">habitats</a> of thousands of species. 

"We estimated how agricultural expansion to feed an increasingly wealthy global population is likely to affect about 20,000 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians," said study co-lead author Dr. David Williams. "Our research suggests that without big changes to food systems, millions of square kilometers of natural habitats could be lost by 2050."

Dr. Williams noted that nearly 1,300 species will likely lose at least a quarter of their remaining habitat to food production, and hundreds could lose at least half. 

"Ultimately, we need to change what we eat and how it is produced if we're going to save wildlife on a global scale. We need to alter both our diets and food production methods."

The researchers estimated how food systems would affect biodiversity at a finer spatial scale than previous studies. The findings are particularly relevant to conservation action, highlighting exactly which species and landscapes are likely to be threatened.

The experts used a new model that estimates where agricultural expansion and abandonment are most likely to occur. This data was combined with projections of how much land each country will need for food production.

The team investigated whether each individual animal species could survive in farmland. The study revealed that habitat losses could be especially severe in sub-Saharan Africa and in parts of Central and South America.

Furthermore, many of the species that will be impacted most by land use changes are not currently classified as being threatened with extinction, which means that there are no conservation plans to protect them.

"As international biodiversity targets are set to be updated in 2021, these results highlight the importance of proactive efforts to safeguard biodiversity by reducing demand for agricultural land," said study co-lead author Dr. Michael Clark of the University of Oxford.

"Discussions on slowing and reversing biodiversity often focus on conventional conservation actions, such as establishing new protected areas or species-specific legislation for threatened species. These are absolutely needed, and have been effective at conserving biodiversity."

"However, our research emphasises the importance of also reducing the ultimate stresses to biodiversity - such as agricultural expansion."

"The good news is that if we make ambitious changes to the food system, then we can prevent almost all these habitat losses."

Changes that could reduce future biodiversity losses include a transition to healthy diets, a reduction in food loss and waste, an increase in crop yields, and international land-use planning. 

By modeling the potential outcome of these food production changes, policy makers will be able to identify which efforts are likely to produce the greatest benefits in any given country or region.

For example, raising agricultural yields would be very beneficial for protecting biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa, but would not be advantageous in North America where yields are already high. By contrast, shifting to healthier diets would have major benefits in North America, but not in regions where meat consumption is low and food insecurity is high.

"Importantly, we need to do all of these things. No one approach is sufficient on its own," said Dr. Clark. "But, with global coordination and rapid action, it should be possible to provide healthy diets for the global population in 2050 without major habitat losses."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natsustain">Nature Sustainability</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Current food production methods threaten thousands of species

The global food production system must be changed to prevent...

Kangaroos have their own way of expressing themselves to humans, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>. The research contradicts the idea that only domesticated animals like dogs and horses intentionally <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spiny-lobsters-communicate-up-to-3-kilometers-away/">communicate</a> with people.

"Kangaroos are iconic Australian endemic fauna, adored by many worldwide but also considered as a pest," said study co-author Dr. Alexandra Green. "We hope that this research draws attention to the cognitive abilities of kangaroos and helps foster more positive attitudes towards them."

The study was focused on wild kangaroos in three locations across Australia. The researchers discovered that when kangaroos were trying to access food in a closed box, they gazed at a human.  

The kangaroos consistently used a steady gaze to communicate with a person instead of attempting to open the box themselves. This type of behavior is usually associated with domesticated animals.

During the experiments, 10 out of 11 kangaroos actively looked at the person who had placed the food in the closed box, while 9 out of 11 kangaroos also alternated their gaze between the box and the human, which is a heightened form of communication.

The research builds on earlier studies that investigated whether intentional communication is a result of domestication in animals such as dogs and goats. 

Study lead author Dr Alan McElligott, a professor of Animal Behavior and Welfare at <a href="https://www.cityu.edu.hk/">City University of Hong Kong</a>, previously reported that goats can understand human cues to gather information about their environment. The latest findings indicate that, like goats, kangaroos adapt their social behaviors to interact with humans.

"Through this study, we were able to see that communication between animals can be learned and that the behavior of gazing at humans to access food is not related to domestication," said Dr. McElligott. "Indeed, kangaroos - showed a very similar pattern of behavior we have seen in dogs, horses and even goats when put to the same test.

"Our research shows that the potential for referential intentional communication towards humans by animals has been underestimated, which signals an exciting development in this area. Kangaroos are the first marsupials to be studied in this manner and the positive results should lead to more cognitive research beyond the usual domestic species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kangaroos actively communicate with humans

Kangaroos have their own way of expressing themselves to humans,...

In a phenomenon known as the "sunk cost" effect, people follow through with things they have already invested in - even when those efforts are futile. Time invested in a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/positive-student-teacher-relationships-improve-long-term-health/">relationship</a> may cause us to stick with it longer than we should, while money dumped into a pointless project may encourage us to keep spending on it.

In a new study from <a href="https://www.gsu.edu/">Georgia State</a>, experts have demonstrated that humans are not the only ones to engage in such potentially self-defeating behavior, and that monkeys also have a tendency to persist at tasks they have invested in. 

The researchers have identified factors that could possibly play a role in the sunk costs effect. For example, humans and monkeys likely share an evolutionarily preserved mechanism that helps us balance the costs and benefits of our actions.

Both capuchin monkeys and rhesus macaques are housed at Georgia State's Language Research Center. The monkeys participate in entirely voluntary and non-invasive cognitive and behavioral research, explained study co-author Professor Sarah F. Brosnan, who has worked with some of the monkeys for over 20 years. "They're like my second set of kids."

For the investigation, 26 capuchin monkeys and 7 rhesus macaques were trained to play a simple video game. Using a joystick, the monkeys attempted to move a cursor onto a moving target and hold it there as the target kept moving. 

If the monkeys were successful, they heard a victory sound and were given a treat. Those who were unsuccessful did not get a reward before moving on to a new round, which lasted either 1, 3, or 7 seconds. 

"Monkeys have really quick reaction times on these games, so one second to them is actually a long time," explained Professor Brosnan.

Study lead author Julia Watzek noted that most of the rounds only lasted one second. "So if you didn't get a reward after that, it was actually better to quit and start a new round. That would likely get you a treat sooner than if you had kept going."

During the experiments, both species of monkeys showed sunk cost effects. "They persisted 5 to 7 times longer than was optimal, and the longer they had already tried, the more likely they were to complete the entire task," said Professor Brosnan.

The researchers found that uncertainty had a big influence on persistence. When the monkeys got a signal that additional work was required, they were less susceptible to sunk cost behavior, but they still demonstrated it.

According to Watzek, studying this phenomenon in animals teaches us something about how their minds work, as well as our own. 

Professor Brosnan said the findings suggest that this behavior is likely driven by evolution and deeply embedded across species. "The epitome of the sunk cost is I've invested so much in this, I'm just going to keep going." And this can really pay off when it comes to important tasks such as hunting prey, looking for a mate, or building a nest. "Sometimes, you just need to have patience."

The research also indicates that human concerns - like not giving up on something we have publicly committed to - are probably not the main drivers of sunk cost behavior. The study is also a good reminder that there are times when you have good reason to give up.

"We're predisposed to keep trying," said Professor Brosnan. "And when we find ourselves sticking with things, we should also be a little reflective. Do I have a good reason to keep trying? Or should I leave with no reward, because it will save me more in the long run? That's really hard to do. But hopefully we can use our cognitive abilities to help us overcome the emotional heartache of occasional sunk costs."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monkeys and humans keep trying, even when we should give up

In a phenomenon known as the "sunk cost" effect, people...

The remains of the oldest known shipwreck in southern Africa, including ivory from more than 100 elephant tusks, have been analyzed in a new study from <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>. The researchers used advanced testing methods to trace the tusks back to many distinct herds that once roamed West <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/african-forest-elephants-are-running-out-of-fruit/">Africa</a>.

In 2008, a vessel known as the Bom Jesus was found in Namibia. The Portuguese trading vessel had gone missing in 1533 on a journey to India while transporting the elephant tusks, forty tons of gold and silver coins, and other cargo. 

An international team of experts in Namibia, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States combined paleogenomic, isotopic, archeological, and historical analyses to determine the origin of the shipwrecked cargo. The findings are shedding new light on African elephants in both the past and present.

The researchers set out to identify the source of the elephant ivory, which was widely circulated in early Indian and Atlantic trading systems.

"Elephants live in female-led family groups, and they tend to stay in the same geographic area throughout their lives," said study co-author Alida de Flamingh. "We determined where these tusks came from by examining a DNA marker that is passed only from mother-to-calf and comparing the sequences to those of geo-referenced African elephants." 

Study co-author Ashley Coutu explained that comparing the shipwreck ivory DNA to that of elephants with known origins across Africa made it possible to pinpoint the geographic region and species of elephant that matched the shipwreck ivory.

"In order to fully explore where these elephant tusks originated, we needed multiple lines of evidence. Thus, we used a combination of methods and expertise to explore the origin of this ivory cargo through genetic and isotopic data gathered from sampling the tusks. Our conclusions were only possible with all of the pieces of our interdisciplinary puzzle fitting together," said Coutu.

The experts conducted isotope analyses of 97 tusks, which revealed that the ivory had come from African forest elephants. Their mitochondrial DNA traced them to 17 or more herds from West Africa, as opposed to Central Africa.

This was a surprise, said study co-author Shadreck Chirikure, because the Portuguese had established trade with the Kongo Kingdom and communities along the Congo River by the 16th century. "The expectation was that the elephants would be from different regions, especially West and Central Africa."

Four of the mitochondrial haplotypes represented by the tusks are still found today in modern elephants. The others may have been lost due to overhunting or habitat destruction, explained the study authors. The results of the genetic tests also indicate that the elephants lived in mixed forest habitat instead of residing deep in the rainforest.

"There had been some thinking that African forest elephants moved out into savanna habitats in the early 20th century, after almost all savanna elephants were eliminated in West Africa," said co-author Alfred L. Roca. 

"Our study showed that this was not the case, because the African forest elephant lived in savanna habitats in the early 16th century, long before the decimation of savanna elephants by the ivory trade occurred."

The new data can now be used to assist in tracing the source of confiscated illegal ivory, noted De Flamingh, and these findings are just the beginning in terms of what can be learned about elephants from studies of ivory.

"There is tremendous potential to analyze historic ivory from other shipwrecks, as well as from archaeological contexts and museum collections to understand the life histories of elephant populations, the skills and lifeways of the people who hunted and traded the ivory, as well as the many journeys of African ivory across the world," said Coutu. "The revelation of these connections tell important global histories."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shipwrecked ivory sheds new light on African forest elephants

The remains of the oldest known shipwreck in southern Africa,...

Scientists have discovered that a deadly skin disease affecting dolphins is linked to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-losing-their-ability-to-help-mitigate-climate-change/">climate</a> change, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/">The Marine Mammal Center</a>. This is the first time since the mysterious dolphin disease first appeared in 2005 that the cause of the condition has been identified.

The researchers have determined that the disease, which has affected dolphins worldwide, is caused by decreased water salinity associated with climate change. The infected dolphins develop patchy and raised skin lesions that cover up to 70 percent of their bodies.

The international study follows significant outbreaks in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Texas, and Australia. The common factor in all of these outbreaks was a sudden and drastic decrease in water salinity.

Increasingly severe storms and hurricanes are dumping unusual volumes of rain in coastal waters, and the resulting freshwater conditions can persist for months. The drop in seawater salinity is particularly extreme after intense storms like hurricanes Harvey and Katrina. As these storms become more frequent, so will the skin disease outbreaks among dolphins.

"This devastating skin disease has been killing dolphins since Hurricane Katrina, and we're pleased to finally define the problem," said study co-author Dr. Pádraig Duignan, Chief Pathologist at The Marine Mammal Center. "With a record hurricane season in the Gulf of Mexico this year and more intense storm systems worldwide due to climate change, we can absolutely expect to see more of these devastating outbreaks killing dolphins."

A current outbreak of the disease is impacting the rare and threatened Burrunan dolphin in southeast Australia. The findings may provide professionals with the information they need to diagnose and treat affected animals. 

Currently, the chances of survival for infected dolphins are poor, especially for animals that experience prolonged exposure to freshwater. The disease was first noticed on approximately 40 bottlenose dolphins near New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

"As warming ocean temperatures impact marine mammals globally, the findings in this paper will allow better mitigation of the factors that lead disease outbreaks for coastal dolphin communities that are already under threat from habitat loss and degradation," said Dr. Duignan. "This study helps shed light on an ever-growing concern, and we hope it is the first step in mitigating the deadly disease and marshalling the ocean community to further fight climate change."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious and deadly dolphin disease has been linked to climate change

Scientists have discovered that a deadly skin disease affecting dolphins...

Underwater recordings have revealed new details of the elusive behavior of whales in the Weddell Sea. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research</a> (AWI) have learned more about the lifestyle and habits of humpback whales, as well as smaller animals called Antarctic minke whales.

Research on baleen whales in the Southern Ocean was once limited to studies conducted during the Antarctic summer, which is when biologists were present. But then, the AWI team permanently installed underwater microphones. 

The hydrophones have been successfully recording sounds in the Weddell Sea for the last nine years. The goal is to help improve protective measures for the whales and their main food source, the Antarctic krill.

The audio recordings have provided unique insights. Based on the observations, the researchers have determined there are most likely two humpback whale populations in the Weddell Sea. Both of these groups have been heard singing and communicating the most frequently in the autumn. The recordings also indicate that the humpback whales avoid areas with sea ice.

By contrast, the AWI team found that Antarctic minke whales prefer ice-covered regions. These animals were mostly heard making their distinctive quacking sounds during the winter months.

Antarctic minke whales are very mysterious. Marine biologists are still working to understand exactly where they live and breed and how many of the whales actually exist. 

A few years ago, experts discovered that Antarctic minke whales produce characteristic calls that sound similar to a dock quacking. These distinctive calls provide scientists with a reliable way to track the small whales, which measure up to eleven meters in length.

AWI biologist Diego Filun and his team are using the quacking sounds for the first-ever comprehensive, long-term observation of Antarctic minke whales in the Weddell Sea. 

"We've been monitoring our underwater microphones for nine years. They were deployed at 21 points throughout the Weddell Sea and along the prime meridian, allowing us to record the whales' acoustic activities in regions where research vessels rarely venture," said Filun. 

"Thanks to the recordings, we now finally understand in what parts of the Weddell Sea the minke whales prefer to be at different times of year, and know that at least some of them stay there for the winter and don't migrate to warmer waters."

The recordings confirmed that in both the summer and winter, Antarctic minke whales stay in regions of the Weddell Sea that are covered with sea ice. However, the frequency of their calls changes with the season. They can be heard far more often in the autumn and winter months. 

"On aerial survey flights over the Weddell Sea in the summer, minke whales were primarily sighted near the sea-ice edge and less frequently in areas with thick sea ice. But our audio recordings showed just the opposite: the minke whales were rarely found in the marginal ice zone, and much more often under thick ice - most likely in an attempt to avoid their archenemies, killer whales," said Filun.

Unlike the minke whales, humpback whales in the Weddell Sea do not seek shelter below the ice. In a second hydroacoustic study led by AWI biologist Elena Schall, the researchers found that humpback whales avoid ice-covered regions altogether. Instead, they seek out Antarctic krill along the northern edge of the ice.

"Our audio recordings from 2013 indicate that at least two humpback whale populations come to the Weddell Sea in summer to build up their fat reserves," said Schall. "Whales from South Africa seem to go hunting at the eastern edge, near the prime meridian. But humpbacks from South America tend to stay in the northern coastal waters of the Antarctic Peninsula, and can be heard until later in the year than their counterparts to the east."

The recordings suggest that the humpbacks move southward in the summer as the ice retreats, but only travel as far as needed to find sufficient food. 

"If we want to protect the unique biotic communities of the Weddell Sea in the long term, we need to know as precisely as possible how many baleen whales come to the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean in search of food, what regions they hunt in, whether they overwinter there, and how much krill is needed for the whales to find sufficient food," said Dr. Ilse van Opzeeland. 

"In this regard, long-term acoustic observations are a vital tool, because they offer us a far more detailed picture of life below the water than the handful of scientific whale sightings alone."

The AWI researchers hope their findings will be taken into account in future discussions on the establishment of a marine protected area in the Weddell Sea. In the meantime, they will  continue to analyze an abundance of underwater recordings.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Acoustic observations reveal whale behavior in the Weddell Sea

Underwater recordings have revealed new details of the elusive behavior...

Many <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-animals-evolve-faster-in-coldspots-than-in-biodiversity-hotspots/">animals</a> could successfully adapt to changing environmental conditions, especially those that are flexible in their behavior. Other species, however, will not be as fortunate. 

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers describe how some animals fall into an "ecological trap" in the ways they respond to climate change. In particular, the experts found that chestnut-crowned babbler birds react to rising temperatures by changing their behavior in ways that could actually reduce successful breeding.

"We hope that animals that are more responsive to changes in their environment can cope better with climate change, but unfortunately they can make mistakes that make their situation even worse," said study co-author Alex Cones.

The babblers reacted to unusually warm temperatures in early spring by breeding sooner. However, the average temperatures at this time are still colder than later in spring, which can interfere with egg incubation.

In the cold weather, the females spent less time incubating. While this may improve their own chances of survival, exposure to low temperatures is harmful to their developing eggs.

"Many animals breed as early as they can in spring, and climate change is causing this to happen earlier and earlier," explained study co-author Professor Andy Russell.

"Paradoxically, our study shows that earlier breeding in response to warming means babbler eggs and offspring are more exposed to the cold. Babblers should respond by incubating their eggs more, but they don't."

Professor Russell notes that incubating eggs is more costly for the mother in terms of energy in low temperatures, so they focus on their own survival and reduce incubation.

"Parental care is adaptable, not fixed, but in this case the birds adapt in the wrong direction for their chicks' survival - falling into an ecological 'trap'."

Chestnut-crowned babblers live in desert habitats across southeast Australia. Their eggs must be kept at more than 77 degrees Fahrenheit to survive, and the optimal temperature for development is about 100°F.

According to the researchers, more studies are needed to investigate whether species can successfully adapt to environmental change. However, they concluded that their findings on babbler birds are "not encouraging."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/loi/14209101">Journal of Evolutionary Biology</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Babbler birds are shifting their behavior in the wrong direction

Many animals could successfully adapt to changing environmental conditions, especially...

Red squirrels have a higher chance of survival and a greater number of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-abandon-their-offspring-early-but-its-for-their-own-good/">offspring</a> when they have the same neighbors for consecutive years. The study from Cell Press reveals that it does not matter whether the neighboring squirrels are related, because the fitness benefits are simply based on familiarity.

The benefits were even more noticeable among older squirrels, and the research suggests that living next to each other for many years can offset the effects of aging.

"Red squirrels live on their individual territory, and they rarely come into physical contact with one another, but given the value of familiar neighbors, our study raises this really interesting possibility that they might cooperate with their competitors," said study first author Erin Siracusa, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Exeter. 

"What this cooperation looks like, whether it's sharing of food resources, or actively alarm-calling to warn their neighbors of predators, or potentially even forming coalitions to protect the neighboring territories from usurpers, we don't know. But I would argue based on our findings that despite their solitary nature, red squirrels do engage in social interactions and can have important social relationships."

The researchers set out to investigate how social relationships affect solitary, territorial animals who rarely share physical interactions. Through the Kluane Red Squirrel Project, the team followed just over 1,000 individuals for more than 22 years. The squirrels were tagged each summer so that they could be distinguished.

Previously, Siracusa had observed that red squirrels with stable social relationships were less likely to intrude on each other's territories. 

"Once they live next to each other long enough to agree on these territory boundaries, they sort of enter into this gentleman's agreement, saying, 'Okay, we've established these territory boundaries. We know where they are. We're not going to waste our time and energy fighting over these boundaries anymore,'" said Siracusa. 

While this reduced aggression among familiar neighbors has been documented for many species, the current study is the first to link the phenomenon to a fitness advantage.

Siracusa and her team found that living near relatives did not provide any reproductive or survival benefits. This was surprising, considering that animals who share the same genes are generally more caring toward one another. Instead, the experts discovered that the longer squirrels lived with each other, the more likely they were to survive into the next year and produce more offspring.

"The benefits of familiarity were strong enough to completely offset the negative effects of aging," said Siracusa. "For example, for a four-year-old red squirrel that ages by one year, their survival probability decreases from 68% to 59%. But if that same squirrel that ages one year also maintains all of their neighbors, that probability of survival actually increases from 68% to 74%." 

At the same time, Siracusa explained that only a small percentage of squirrels maintain their neighbors from one year to the next. 

According to the researchers, the findings may help explain territorial behaviors such as migratory species returning to the same place year after year or sedentary species maintaining relatively stable territories or home ranges throughout their lifetime.

"In order for territorial systems to arise, the benefit of being territorial has to outweigh the costs of defending those resources, so it's not surprising that we should see the evolution of a mechanism that works to minimize those costs of territoriality," said Siracusa.

"At the risk of waxing poetic about squirrels, I think there is a sort of interesting lesson here that red squirrels can teach us about the value of social relationships. Red squirrels don't like their neighbors. They're in constant competition with them for food and mates and resources. And yet, they have to get along to survive."

"In the world right now, we're seeing a lot of strife and division, but perhaps this is a lesson worth bearing in mind: red squirrels need their neighbors, and maybe we do too."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-biology">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Red squirrels with familiar neighbors have a greater chance of survival

Red squirrels have a higher chance of survival and a...

The analysis of ancient <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/common-starfish-may-not-survive-extreme-ocean-conditions/">fish</a> fossils has revealed the developmental origins of teeth. Using high-resolution X-ray imaging, scientists have identified an evolutionary relationship between teeth and hard structures called dermal odontodes.

Study lead author Donglei Chen is a researcher in the Department of Organismal Biology at <a href="https://www.uu.se/">Uppsala University</a>.

Odontodes are made of dentine, the main substance in ivory. Teeth are an example of odontodes, but some animals also have them on their skin in the form of the tooth-like "scales" known as dermal odontodes.

"Teeth and dermal odontodes are thought to have evolved separately because they seem to develop in different ways," said Chen. "However, most of what we know is limited to modern sharks in which the difference between these structures has become very distinct. To understand the relationship between the two more clearly, we needed to turn to the fossil record."

The research was focused on fossils of one of the earliest bony fishes called Lophosteus, which lived more than 400 million years ago. The fish represents an early stage of tooth evolution, not long after teeth and dermal odontodes may have diverged. 

The researchers used high-resolution X-ray imaging to look at the three-dimensional structure of odontodes in Lophosteus at different stages of development. The study revealed that the appearance of odontodes were similar during early development, but they changed depending on whether they grew in the mouth or on the face of the fish. This finding indicates the presence of different chemical signals in each area directing odontode development. 

In the later stages, some dermal odontodes would move from the face to the mouth and begin to look like teeth, suggesting that both types are made by the same developmental system rather than by separate systems.

"In addition to casting light on the early evolution of our own teeth, our results point to a previously unrecognised evolutionary-developmental relationship between teeth and dermal odontodes," said study senior author Dr. Per Ahlberg. 

"This has potential implications for understanding the signaling that occurs during development and could inspire new lines of developmental research in other organisms."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish fossils provide new insight into the origins of teeth

The analysis of ancient fish fossils has revealed the developmental...

In a breakthrough study, experts at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Delaware">University of Delaware</a> have identified the powerhouse plants that are most critically needed to support food webs across the United States. The researchers have pinpointed the top plants in each bioregion, essentially creating a guide for restoring <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> anywhere in the country.

According to the experts, caterpillars of the Lepidoptera species are the biggest moving forces that transfer energy up the food chain. The researchers explained that caterpillars and other insects need to be surrounded by native plants to thrive, particularly those that have evolved alongside insects over millions of years. 

The new study has revealed that only a few powerhouse plants support the majority of Lepidoptera, and that 90 percent of what caterpillars eat is created by only 14 percent of native plant species. Furthermore, only five percent of the powerhouse plants are responsible for 75 percent of food, and this pattern is consistent throughout the United States.

"Most people talk about a food chain as if it's linear. In a diagram, these connections look like a web rather than a simple chain," said study lead author Professor Doug Tallamy. "Take a keystone native plant like an oak tree. More than 500 types of caterpillars can eat that oak tree. That allows for a more complex and, thus, more stable food web."

While it has already been established that native plants are much better for an ecosystem than non-native plants, the new research zeroes in on the most important native plants.

"There are certain native plants, and there are actually not that many of them, that are doing the bulk of the work," said Professor Tallamy. "So, if you build landscapes without these powerhouse plants that support caterpillars, the food web is doomed."

Out of more than 2,000 plant genera in the mid-Atlantic region, the experts categorized 38 as powerhouse plants, including trees like native oaks and willows. Some of the herbaceous plants that made the list are goldenrod, asters, and perennial sunflowers.

Professor Tallamy was surprised by just how significant the difference was between powerhouse plants and other native species.

"The magnitude of the differences surprised us. It's not just a steady continuum where you have all of your native plants lined up and, from one plant to the next, there's a gradual decrease in productivity. It is extremely skewed toward these powerhouse plants."

While butterflies are known for their beauty, the tastier moth caterpillars do most of the work of transferring energy to predators. "You hear a lot about butterfly gardens. We need to think more about Lepidoptera gardens that include moths, who are the biggest driver of the food web," explained Professor Tallamy.

"Insects pollinate 90% of our flowering plants. Without insects, we'd lose these plants, which collapses the food web. We'd lose amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and even some freshwater fish."

Insects are also a critical component of soil decomposition. They unlock dead plant and animal material and revive the nutrients in the soil. Fungi and bacteria also have this talent, noted Professor Tallamy, but they are significantly slower than insects.

"If insect populations continue to decline, the Earth will rot. Humans will not survive such a drastic change. Insects are essential not just to our well-being, but to our continued existence on Earth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Powerhouse plants support insects and the entire food chain

In a breakthrough study, experts at the University of Delaware...

Evolution cannot keep up with the pace of global warming, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>. After spending four years investigating how zebrafish adapt to warmer conditions, the researchers determined that evolution will not be swift enough to save some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">species</a> from the impacts of rising temperatures.
"It looks like evolution is slower than global warming in this case," said study senior author Professor Fredrik Jutfelt. "This is the largest artificial evolution experiment that has been performed on vertebrates with a focus on heat tolerance."

For the investigation, wild-caught zebrafish were bred based on their ability to cope with the most extreme conditions. Ultimately, the researchers followed about 20,000 individuals over six generations.

"We see that zebrafish can develop heat tolerance, and we have developed lines of zebrafish that can better withstand the heat. That's good news," said Professor Jutfelt.

"The problem is that evolution takes many generations. Evolution only increased the heat tolerance in the fish by 0.04 degrees C per generation. This is slower than the warming experienced by many fish in many places."

Study lead author Rachel Morgan said that with the globe warming so fast, the fish may not be able to adapt to the warmest periods efficiently enough.

Evolution occurs when the best adapted individuals of a species produce more fertile offspring than the rest of the group. Over several generations, the adaptations accumulate and modify the species itself.

However, extreme heat can compromise the ability of fish to reproduce. Above a certain temperature, most of the fish die.

"How organisms adapt to these new conditions depends on their ability to withstand heat, to acclimatize, and the ability to pass on beneficial characteristics to the next generation," said Professor Jutfelt.

Prior to artificial selection, one group of zebrafish was exposed to two weeks in warmer water. The researchers wondered if evolution would increase their capacity to acclimatize, but they found that this was not the case. 

"Instead, the greater the ability of the fish to cope with the worst warm periods, the more their ability to acclimate decreased. So the gain in the form of higher heat tolerance was partly offset by a lower ability to acclimate. All in all, the rate of evolution was probably faster under the conditions in our laboratory than in nature," said Morgan.

"It's unlikely that some zebrafish populations, and other tropical fish species, will be able to cope with the temperatures that the planet may experience by the end of this century," said Professor Jutfelt. "Some species that already live at the limit of what they can tolerate may not be saved by evolution. That is surprising and sad, and it means it is important that we stop warming the planet."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Evolution is no match for global warming

Evolution cannot keep up with the pace of global warming,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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