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Octopus arms display incredible dexterity, bending and twisting with near-infinite freedom. These movements help octopuses explore their environments, manipulate objects, and catch prey. 



Recent research reveals a fascinating secret behind this flexibility: segmented nervous system circuitry.



“If you're going to have a nervous system that's controlling such dynamic movement, that's a good way to set it up,” said Dr. Clifton Ragsdale, professor of neurobiology at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>.



This segmentation appears to be an evolutionary adaptation specific to soft-bodied cephalopods like octopuses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-neural-architecture">Unique neural architecture</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octopus</a> arms are equipped with a remarkably complex nervous system, containing more neurons collectively in their eight arms than in their brain. 



This extensive network of neurons is concentrated in a structure called the axial nerve cord (ANC), which runs along the length of each arm.



The ANC is segmented, with each segment corresponding to one of the suckers on the arm. These segments act like local control hubs, with nerves branching out to nearby muscles and sensory structures associated with each sucker. 



The segmented organization of the ANC allows the octopus to manage the movement and sensory functions of each sucker independently, enabling precise control over their arms. 



This unique design supports the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus's extraordinary ability to explore</a>, manipulate, and interact with its environment with unparalleled dexterity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structures-in-octopus-arms">Structures in octopus arms</h2>



Graduate students Cassady Olson and Grace Schulz made this discovery while studying the arms of the California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides). 



Using imaging tools, they found that the ANC features columns of neuronal cell bodies separated by gaps, or septa. These septa allow nerves and blood vessels to connect to the muscles and suckers. 



“The best way to set up a control system for this very long, flexible arm would be to divide it into segments,” Olson noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-sucker-control">Complex sucker control</h2>



The study revealed that octopus arms have a "sucker map" in their nervous system - a layout that helps control each sucker with great precision.



This map organizes nerves in a way that allows the octopus to coordinate the movement and sensory input of every sucker individually. Each sucker can move on its own, changing its shape and even functioning as a sensory tool. 



When an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus</a> touches something, it can "taste" and "smell" through receptors in the suckers, much like combining a hand, tongue, and nose into one. 



This specialized nervous system design is what enables octopuses to perform complex tasks like manipulating objects, exploring their surroundings, and capturing prey with exceptional dexterity and precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-and-squid-arms">Octopus and squid arms</h2>



The researchers also studied the longfin inshore squid (Doryteuthis pealeii), another type of soft-bodied cephalopod, to compare its nervous system to that of octopuses.



While squid and octopuses share some structural similarities, the study revealed key differences reflecting their unique evolutionary paths. 



In squid, the long stalks of their tentacles - used to shoot out and grab prey - do not have segmented nerve structures.



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sucker-equipped clubs</a> at the end of these tentacles do show segmentation in their axial nerve cord (ANC), similar to octopus arms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specific-evolutionary-adaptations">Specific evolutionary adaptations</h2>



This suggests that segmentation in the nervous system is specifically adapted to control precise, dexterous movements in appendages with suckers.



The lifestyles of these animals explain the differences. Squid primarily hunt in open water, relying heavily on their vision to locate prey and using their streamlined tentacles to grab it. 



In contrast, octopuses explore the ocean floor, using their highly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-inspire-more-human-like-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitive arms</a> to touch, taste, and manipulate their environment. 



These differences highlight how evolution modifies neural designs to meet the unique demands of an animal’s habitat and hunting style.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-octopus-arms-use-their-eight-brains">How octopus arms use their eight brains</h2>



Each of their eight arms operates almost like a separate brain, packed with its own set of neurons that allow them to perform complex tasks independently. 



This means an octopus can explore a crevice with one arm while another is unscrewing a jar or playing with a toy. 



Their arms are incredibly flexible and strong, covered in suction cups that can taste, touch, and grip objects with amazing precision.



What’s even more mind-blowing is how octopuses use their arms to solve problems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-garden-thermal-springs-accelerate-octopus-egg-hatching-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environment</a>. 



They can manipulate objects, open containers, and even escape from tight spots, showcasing their problem-solving skills and adaptability. 



Scientists believe this arm intelligence is one of the reasons octopuses are such skilled hunters and escape artists. 



Additionally, their ability to coordinate their arms seamlessly allows them to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage themselves</a> by changing color and texture, blending perfectly into their surroundings to avoid predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-s-ingenious-solutions">Evolution's ingenious solutions</h2>



“Organisms with these sucker-laden appendages that have worm-like movements need the right kind of nervous system,” Ragsdale explained. 



The segmented ANC in octopuses and squid highlights how evolution optimizes neural designs to meet unique demands. 



Despite diverging over 270 million years ago, these cephalopods developed similar neural architectures to control their sucker-laden appendages effectively.



This UChicago research sheds light on how octopuses achieve their unparalleled flexibility and dexterity, offering insights into the intricate relationship between structure, function, and evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55475-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Every arm on an octopus has its own massive nervous system

Octopus arms display incredible dexterity, bending and twisting with near-infinite freedom. These movements help octopuses explore their environments, manipulate objects, and catch prey. Recent research reveals a fascinating secret behind this flexibility: segmented nervous system circuitry. “If you're going to have a nervous system that's controlling such dynamic movement, that's a good way to set it up,” said Dr. Clifton Ragsdale, professor of neurobiology at the University of Chicago. This segmentation appears to be an evolutionary adaptation specific to soft-bodied cephalopods like octopuses. Unique neural architecture Octopus...

American lobsters are more susceptible to changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-will-intensify-due-to-thinning-ocean-layer/">ocean</a> conditions than what was previously realized, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a>. By gaining a better understanding of the biological responses of lobsters to climate change, researchers can help to protect them in the future. 

The waters are becoming hotter and more acidic across the range of American lobsters, which extends from Canada to the mid-Atlantic waters of the United States.

The new research contradicts previous studies which suggested that ocean acidification did not have a significant impact on the growth and metabolism of lobsters. 

"Our study indicated that acidification is affecting these lobsters on a molecular scale," said study lead author Maura Niemisto. "Because of environmental changes, they have genes firing at an even higher rate."

All living organisms regulate a wide range of biological processes through their genes, and changes in their environment can influence this capacity. 

Many organisms have a heat shock gene that triggers cells to produce a protein that helps the organism adapt to changing environmental conditions like heat stress. 

The researchers set out to examine the post larval stage of lobsters because they live in the upper water column where ocean acidification and temperature are changing quickly. Using lab experiments, the team exposed postlarval lobsters to the temperature and acidity levels projected for the end of the century. 

The study revealed that under these extreme conditions, the cells of the lobsters adjusted gene regulation to support shell structure and immune functions. This response was stronger from increased acidity compared to hotter temperatures.

The researchers also found that American lobsters exposed to both elevated warmth and acidity exhibited a more drastic response.

"Stressors on an organism have the ability to compound into something that makes it really hard to grow through all the developmental stages to get to a full-grown lobster," said Niemisto.

The implications of these biological responses remain unclear for lobsters in the Gulf of Maine, where the water is acidifying and warming faster compared to the rest of the world's oceans.

Even if lobsters have the genetic capacity to adapt to their changing environment, it may come at a cost. The genetic processes take a significant amount of energy, which comes from a limited budget.

"So, if they're spending a lot of energy on building proteins to respond to stressors, something else has to give," said Niemisto.

The study authors want to know where that extra energy is coming from and where it would normally be invested. For example, if lobsters have to invest more energy to maintain their shells, they may not be able to properly support their immune systems.

According to the researchers, the next step is to better understand these genetic responses in relation to larger-scale changes. Their findings could be combined with further research on the biology of American lobsters to predict the likely responses of specific populations.

"This study has cracked open the door to our understanding of the basic biology of lobster larvae and their response to the changing environment," said study co-author Fields. "However, there is still a lot to learn. As the use of these genetic tools grows, so will our understanding of the larval lobster biology and the impact of climate change on this iconic fishery."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

American lobsters face an uncertain fate

American lobsters are more susceptible to changing ocean conditions than...

In order for animals to thrive in the wild, they must have natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-in-low-quality-habitats-are-more-susceptible-to-disease/">habitats</a> known as wildlife corridors that connect neighboring populations. Otherwise, a group of animals may become isolated and unable to breed and survive. A new study describes the strong influence that humans have on wildlife movement.

Past studies on wildlife connectivity have focused on measuring various aspects of the landscape, and the potential impacts of human behavior have largely been overlooked. 

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html">University of Göttingen</a> and Humboldt University Berlin have introduced a new concept that they call "anthropogenic resistance." The experts say that this aspect of wildlife movement must be considered to secure sustainable landscapes for both animals and people in the future.  

Human disturbances, including rapid urbanization and deforestation, are increasingly impacting natural landscapes. When these changes are assessed, the analyses are largely focused on properties of the land such as agriculture, urbanization, forestland, or elevation. 

Meanwhile, human impacts are usually lumped together in categories such as population density, or distance from settlements or roads. 

The researchers propose that it is not merely the presence, absence, or number of people that affects wildlife movement. Instead, it is what the people are actually doing that alters the behavior of nearby animals. 

According to the study authors, a range of psychological and socioeconomic factors can play a part in anthropogenic resistance, including hunting or supplementary feeding.

For their investigation, the researchers analyzed three case studies on wolves in Washington State, leopards in Iran, and large carnivores in central India. 

The same concept can be applied to other species as well. For example, roe deer use croplands for both shelter and food but reduce their presence during the hunting season. 

The experts report that differences in human behavior based on cultural and religious beliefs strongly influence wildlife movement. 

"Anthropogenic resistance is also relevant to the BearConnect project, which aims to understand the factors that determine connectivity in European populations of the brown bear. Bears are capable of moving across huge distances, as shown by bear JJ1, better known as 'Bruno', who traveled from the Italian Trento region all the way to Bavaria, where he was shot," explained Professor Niko Balkenhol.

"It is important to note that, although Bruno was able to cross the physical landscape, he was stopped by the severe anthropogenic resistance provided by humans who could not tolerate his behavior."

"Our paper shows that anthropogenic resistance is an important piece of the puzzle for connectivity-planning to ensure the functionality of corridors for wildlife and people," said study senior author Dr. Trishna Dutta. "It reveals that there are advantages for social and natural scientists to collaborate in understanding the effects of anthropogenic resistance in future studies."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.oneearth.org/">One Earth</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildlife movement is strongly influenced by human behavior

In order for animals to thrive in the wild, they...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.usf.edu/">University of South Florida</a>, Professor Deby Cassill reports that loggerhead sea turtles lay their eggs in more than one place to increase the likelihood that some of their young will survive. 

The investigation revealed that some females lay as many as six clutches up to six miles apart during the same breeding season.

"Nesting females don't lay all their eggs in one basket. Their reproductive strategy is like investing in a mutual fund. Females divide their resources among many stocks rather than investing everything in a single stock," said Professor Cassill.

"Because females diversify reproduction in unpredictable patterns over time and space, nearly two-thirds of loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings made it into the Gulf of Mexico."

Over the course of a lifetime, one female loggerhead will lay around 4,200 eggs at 40 different sites. This strategy helps to improve the chances of reproductive success despite various threats such as storms.

"Predation and storms are the primary sources of offspring mortality for eggs and hatchlings on the beach. Once hatchlings enter the oceanic environment, the risk of predation is again high."

Professor Cassill analyzed 17 years of data from the Conservancy of Southwest Florida on loggerhead females nesting on Keewaydin Island off the southwestern Gulf coast of Florida. Individuals in this nesting population had been tagged and monitored for years. 

The analysis showed that most sea turtle hatchlings reach the Gulf of Mexico, but this rate of success may drop in the future as a result of human disturbances and climate change. For example, strong storms or sea level rise could flood or wash away the clutches.

"It's important to follow individuals over time to really get a glimpse of how they mate, find food and ensure that some of their young survive to maturity. Without knowledge of the sea turtle's survival and reproductive biology, we cannot develop and implement effective conservation policies," said Cassill.

The research is part of a series of upcoming studies conducted by Cassill to support her "maternal risk management model," which looks at how natural selection pressures, such as predators or a lack of resources, influence how mothers invest in offspring quantity and quality.

Cassill proposed the idea that turtles and fish invest in large numbers of offspring when the threat of predators is high. Mammals, like whales and elephants, provide extensive care to one offspring at a time when there is a seasonal drought or food shortage. 

"Without knowledge of the sea turtle’s survival and reproductive biology, we cannot develop and implement effective conservation policies," wrote Cassill.

Without the implementation of well-informed conservation policies, sea turtles are likely to join the ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs as a note in the annals of extinct marine reptiles.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea turtles spread their eggs out for reproductive success

In a new study from the University of South Florida,...

Toxic algae blooms raise the risk of fatal heart disease in sea otters. A neurotoxin produced by algae blooms is causing fatal heart disease in sea otters, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>. Southern sea otters are inadvertently ingesting domoic acid by eating contaminated crabs and clams.

"Sea otters are an amazing indicator of what's happening in the coastal environment, not just to other marine animals, but to us, too, especially on the issue of domoic acid," said study senior author Christine K. Johnson is the director of the <a href="https://ohi.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/about/teams/epicenter">EpiCenter for Disease Dynamics</a> in the One Health Institute.

Domoic acid is produced by harmful algal blooms and accumulates in the marine food web. In 2015, a massive warm water "blob" created a widespread bloom along the West Coast. Levels of domoic acid became so toxic that the Dungeness crab fishing season was forced to close.

The past five years are the hottest on record for the world's oceans, which means that toxic algae blooms and domoic acid exposure will continue to rise.

To investigate the relationship between long-term exposure to domoic acid and fatal heart disease in southern sea otters, the experts analyzed data from 186 free-ranging individuals in California from 2001 to 2017. Of those otters, heart disease was listed as a cause of death for 34 of the 48 otters that died during that time.

The scientists found that otters who consume a high proportion of crabs and clams have a 2.5 times greater risk of fatal heart disease. Even southern sea otters who do not consume large amounts of crabs and clams have nearly double the risk of dying from heart disease as a result of exposure to domoic acid.

The researchers also that discovered domoic acid is particularly harmful to prime-age adult sea otters, whose survival is vital for population growth.

"That's worrisome for the long-term population recovery of southern sea otters, which are a threatened species," said study lead author Megan Moriarty. "This study emphasizes that domoic acid is a threat that isn't going away. It's a food web toxin and is pretty pervasive."

Study co-author Melissa Miller, a veterinarian and pathologist with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, recently led a separate study analyzing the causes of death of sea otters.

"Improving our understanding of the effects of domoic acid on the health and population recovery of southern sea otters is extremely important" said Miller. "Given their unique biology and specialized diet, sea otters are extremely vulnerable to toxic algal blooms, which are likely to worsen with climate change. So the results of this work have far-reaching implications."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/harmful-algae">Harmful Algae</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic algae blooms raise the risk of fatal heart disease in sea otters

Toxic algae blooms raise the risk of fatal heart disease...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, researchers investigated the geographical patterns of Lyme disease. The experts have discovered that a tick's host-seeking behavior, as well as their preferred hosts, can explain why Lyme disease is more prevalent in the northeastern region of the United States compared to the southeast.

Ticks contract Lyme disease by biting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-share-many-of-the-same-behaviors-as-animals-that-live-nearby/">animals</a> that are infected with Borrelia bacteria. Infected ticks can pass the disease along to humans. While it was known that Lyme disease is more commonly diagnosed in the northeast, the causes of this discrepancy are unclear. 

To investigate, a team led by Dr. Howard Ginsberg of the U.S. Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center conducted an extensive study of tick-host interactions at eight field sites throughout the eastern U.S.

The researchers found that southern ticks have a tendency to select lizards as their hosts, rather than small mammals. This is significant because lizards infected with Borrelia bacteria are less likely to pass it along to other ticks compared to mammals. 

The tendency of southern ticks to bite lizards instead of mammals may explain why fewer ticks, and fewer people, develop Lyme disease in the South. 

"Northern blacklegged ticks attach mostly to mice and other mammals, while southern ticks love lizards, especially skinks," said Dr. Ginsberg. "It's interesting that this quirk in tick ecology can have such an important effect on human health."

Dr. Ginsberg's team previously reported that southern ticks tend to stay below leaf litter when seeking hosts, while northern ticks usually climb to leaf tops and twigs. This increases the likelihood that northern ticks will encounter and bite humans. 

Furthermore, variations in tick densities from north to south could help explain the Lyme-disease gradient. Future research is needed to explore how climate change may affect ticks and their hosts, potentially altering Lyme disease patterns in the U.S. and Canada.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lyme disease patterns tied to tick behavior and host choice

In a new study published by PLOS, researchers investigated the...

Experts are describing how fish eyes reveal clues about their surrounding environment. The researchers analyzed the eye lenses of salmon in California's Central Valley to gain a better understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-with-big-eyes-avoid-bright-human-altered-landscapes/">landscape</a> disturbances impact fish.

While the same method has been used to examine fish in marine ecosystems throughout the ocean, the current investigation is the first to apply the technique to freshwater fish. 

The lenses of fish eyes are similar to tree rings in that they grow in layers throughout life, recording chemical signatures that store valuable information. In particular, data is recorded on the diets of fish in specific habitats.

Study lead author Miranda Bell Tilcock is an assistant specialist with the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> Center for Watershed Sciences. "It's like a little diet journal the fish keeps for us, which is really nice." 

Tilcock explained that the study was like "peeling the world's tiniest onion." The experts used fine-tipped forceps to remove the layers until they reached a tiny ball, which is where the fish eyes first began to develop. 

The eyeballs of fish are very rich in protein. According to the scientists, the isotopic values in food webs bind to protein in the eye, leaving geochemical fingerprints that can be uncovered with advanced analysis.

The researchers studied juvenile chinook salmon living in three distinct food webs - river, floodplain, and hatchery - on the Yolo Bypass of California's Central Valley.

Stable isotopes are forms of atoms that can be used to trace origins, diets, and migratory patterns of species. The team conducted stable isotope analyses on the eye lenses of an adult salmon to to determine which food webs and habitats the fish used at various stages over the course of life. 

During the 39-day study, fish on the floodplain grew quickly and accumulated additional laminae, or layers of lenses, compared to fish reared in the river or hatchery. 

"This tool is not just unique to salmon in the Central Valley," said Tilcock. "There are many migratory species all over the world that need freshwater habitat. If you can isolate their habitat and value for diet, you can quantify it for long-term success."

The research has implications for managing floodplains, fish and natural resources and prioritizing habitat restoration efforts.

"You use the otolith to trace the river or hatchery where a fish was born based on the unique geology and water chemistry of the tributaries in the San Francisco Bay watershed," said study co-author Rachel Johnson. "Then you have the eye lens, which tells you where it's eating to help identify floodplain habitats."

"They really work together to present a fuller picture of how salmon move and what they eat as they use different mosaics of habitats across the landscape over their lifetime," said study co-author Carson Jeffres. "Now we have the tool we have been looking for to link juvenile floodplain benefits across the salmon life cycle to adulthood. It's the holy grail of measuring restoration success."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/2041210x">Methods in Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The history of a fish can be traced through its eyes

Experts are describing how fish eyes reveal clues about their...

Bones found in Argentina may belong to the world's largest dinosaur. Experts in Argentina are reconstructing the fossilized bones of what may have been the largest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/when-the-dinosaurs-vanished-forests-expanded-and-thrived/">dinosaur</a> that ever lived on Earth. 

The remains of a 98 million-year-old titanosaur were uncovered in Argentina's northwest Patagonia in 2012. The giant bones, including 24 vertebrae of the tail and elements of the pelvic and pectoral girdle, had been preserved in thick, sedimentary deposits known as the Candeleros Formation.

It was not immediately clear what type of animal had been found. In a new study published in the journal Cretaceous Research, paleontologists report that the remains belonged to a long-necked, plant-eating dinosaur called a titanosaur.

The experts believe the creature is "one of the largest sauropods ever found" and could exceed the size of a Patagotitan, a species which lived about 100 million years ago and measured up to 122 feet in length.

"It is a huge dinosaur, but we expect to find much more of the skeleton in future field trips, so we'll have the possibility to address with confidence how really big it was," said study lead author Alejandro Otero of the Museo de La Plata.

Titanosaur fossils have been found on almost every continent, but the largest "multi-ton" individuals, including those that exceeded 40 tons, have been primarily unearthed in Patagonia.

The experts still need the dinosaur's humerus or femur bones to accurately estimate how much the creature weighed. At the same time, the researchers believe the enormous dinosaur had a body mass as large or larger than that of a Patagotitan or Argentinosaurus.

"While anatomical analysis does not currently allow us to regard it as a new species, the morphological disparity and the lack of equivalent elements with respect to coeval taxa also prevent us from assigning this new material to already known genera," wrote the study authors. 

"This set of extremely large taxa from Patagonia has contributed to a better understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of titanosaurs, revealing the existence of a previously unknown lineage and shedding new light on body mass evolution."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cretaceous-research">Cretaceous Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bones found in Argentina may belong to the world's largest dinosaur

Bones found in Argentina may belong to the world's largest...

A new study from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE) shows that some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-first-american-settlers-arrived-with-their-dogs/">dogs</a> can learn a new word after hearing it only four times. The preliminary findings indicate that most dogs do not learn words, such as the names of objects, without extensive training. However, there are some dogs that have an exceptional gift for learning language.

Researchers with the Family Dog Project from the ELTE Department of Ethology have been analyzing talented dogs that seem to learn words in the absence of any formal training. According to the study, the dogs learn language simply by socializing with their owners in a human family. 

The research was focused on two gifted dogs, a Border Collie named Whisky from Norway and a Yorkshire terrier named Vicky Nina from Brazil. The experts tested their ability to learn a new word after hearing it only a few times.

"We wanted to know under which conditions the gifted dogs may learn novel words. To test this, we exposed Whisky and Vicky Nina to the new words in two different conditions - during an exclusion-based task and in a social playful context with their owners. Importantly, in both conditions the dogs heard the name of the new toy only 4 times," explained study first author Claudia Fugazza.

In the first task, the dogs showed that they were able to select the correct toy when their owner said an unfamiliar name. They did this by excluding all the other toys that had already been assigned a name, and by then selecting the one toy that had not. However, when they were asked to recognize the toy by its name, the dogs were unsuccessful.

It turned out the dogs were successfully learning words while they were socializing with their owners, who pronounced the name of toys as they played with them together. 

Both Whisky and Vicky Nina were able to select the toys based on the names pronounced by their owners, even though the names were only spoken four times. 

"Such rapid learning seems to be similar to the way human children acquire their vocabulary around 2-3 years of age," said study co-author Adam Miklósi.

The team tested 20 other dogs using the same condition, but none of them showed evidence of learning the names of the toys. This confirms that the capacity for dogs to learn words rapidly is very rare without formal training.

Even the gifted dogs could not commit the words to memory after such a few exposures, and the words faded pretty fast. Whisky and Vicky Nina could remember the words a few minutes after they learned them, but had typically forgotten them by an hour later without any further exposure. 

To investigate further, the ELTE team recently launched the <a href="http://geniusdogchallenge.com/">Genius Dog Challenge</a>, and the project has since gone viral in social media.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gifted dogs can learn words after hearing them four times

A new study from Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) shows that...

The first people to settle in the Americas arrived with their own dogs, according to a new study led by archaeologist Dr. Angela Perri of <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>.

For the investigation, an international team of experts analyzed archaeological and genetic records of ancient people and dogs. The analysis showed that the first people to cross into the Americas before 15,000 years ago, who were of northeast Asian descent, were accompanied by their dogs.

The researchers said their findings suggest that dog domestication likely took place in Siberia sometime prior to 23,000 years ago. People eventually traveled west into the rest of Eurasia and east into the Americas, and they took their dogs with them.

"When and where have long been questions in dog domestication research, but here we also explored the how and why, which have often been overlooked," said Dr. Perri.

"Dog domestication occurring in Siberia answers many of the questions we've always had about the origins of the human-dog relationship."

"By putting together the puzzle pieces of archaeology, genetics and time we see a much clearer picture where dogs are being domesticated in Siberia, then disperse from there into the Americas and around the world."

Study co-author Laurent Frantz is a geneticist at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.

"The only thing we knew for sure is that dog domestication did not take place in the Americas," said Frantz. "From the genetic signatures of ancient dogs, we now know that they must have been present somewhere in Siberia before people migrated to the Americas."

During the Last Glacial Maximum about 23,000 to 19,000 years ago, the land between Canada and Russia, and most of Siberia, was extremely cold and dry. The harsh climate likely placed humans and wolves in close proximity given their attraction to the same prey. Increasing interactions between humans and wolves may have led to the domestication of dogs. 

"We have long known that the first Americans must have possessed well-honed hunting skills, the geological know-how to find stone and other necessary materials and been ready for new challenges," said study co-author and archaeologist David Meltzer of Southern Methodist University.

"The dogs that accompanied them as they entered this completely new world may have been as much a part of their cultural repertoire as the stone tools they carried."

Future studies will reveal more about how the relationship between people and dogs led to their worldwide distribution.

"Researchers have previously suggested that dogs were domesticated across Eurasia from Europe to China, and many places in between," said study co-author Professor Greger Larson of Oxford University. 

"The combined evidence from ancient humans and dogs is helping to refine our understanding of the deep history of dogs, and now points toward Siberia and Northeast Asia as a likely region where dog domestication was initiated."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The first American settlers arrived with their dogs

The first people to settle in the Americas arrived with...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have identified a fossil of the earliest known starfish relative. The origin of starfish has eluded scientists for decades, but the new specimen is so well preserved that it is shedding brand new light on the evolutionary history of the starfish <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/family-wastes-food/">family</a>.

"Finding this missing link to their ancestors is incredibly exciting. If you went back in time and put your head under the sea in the Ordovician then you wouldn't recognize any of the marine organisms - except the starfish, they are one of the first modern animals," said study lead author Dr. Aaron Hunter.

"The level of detail in the fossil is amazing - its structure is so complex that it took us a while to unravel its significance."

The fossil, named Cantabrigiaster fezouataensis, was discovered in Morroco's Anti-Atlas mountain range. The specimen and its intricate details, including feathery arms, have been preserved for roughly 480 million years.

The fossil's features are a combination of a starfish and a sea lily, which is a plant that is fixed to the seafloor by a stalk.  

According to the researchers, the discovery captures the early evolutionary steps of the animal at a time in Earth's history when life suddenly expanded, a period known as the Ordovician Biodiversification Event.

Modern starfish and sea lilies both belong to a family of spiny-skinned animals called echinoderms. Dr. Hunter's experience studying both living and fossilized echinoderms is what helped him recognize the features of the specimen. 

"I was looking at a modern crinoid in one of the collections at the Western Australian Museum and I realized the arms looked really familiar, they reminded me of this unusual fossil that I had found years earlier in Morocco but had found difficult to work with."

Modern echinoderms have extremely different shapes and sizes, so it can be challenging to determine how they are related to each another. The new species is unusual because it does not have many of the key features of its relatives. It lacks roughly 60 percent of a modern starfish's body plan. 

In collaboration with study co-author Dr Javier Ortega-Hernández, Dr. Hunter compared the new species to hundreds of starfish-like animals to map the echinoderm skeleton. The researchers looked for similarities and differences between the body plan of modern echinoderms to reveal how each family member was linked to Cantabrigiaster.

The experts found that only the key or axial part of the body, the food groove, was present in Cantabrigiaster. All of the extra-axial body parts evolved later. 

Going forward, the researchers hope to expand their work in search of early echinoderms. 

"One thing we hope to answer in the future is why starfish developed their five arms," said Dr. Hunter. "It seems to be a stable shape for them to adopt - but we don't yet know why. We still need to keep searching for the fossil that gives us that particular connection, but by going right back to the early ancestors like Cantabrigiaster we are getting closer to that answer."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossil sheds new light on the evolution of starfish

Researchers at the University of Cambridge have identified a fossil...

In a new report from <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/">NOAA Fisheries</a>, experts have evaluated the effectiveness of regulations that were issued in 2008 to protect endangered North Atlantic right whales from deadly <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shipwrecked-ivory-sheds-new-light-on-african-forest-elephants/">ship</a> strikes. According to the assessment, vessels are ignoring both voluntary and mandatory speed zones with no regard for the safety of the whales. 

Last year, an investigation by <a href="https://oceana.org/">Oceana</a> had drawn the same conclusion, finding that ships were ignoring a voluntary speed zone in an area south of Nantucket designated specifically for the protection of the whales.  

Whitney Webber is the director of an Oceana campaign designed to reduce threats to North Atlantic right whales, including entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes.

“We’ve long known that current efforts to protect North Atlantic right whales are not enough, and today the federal government agreed. NOAA’s evaluation of its own rule on vessel speeds related to North Atlantic right whales shows that we need stronger protections for these whales from speeding ships," said Webber.   

"Heavy vessel traffic puts North Atlantic right whales at great risk of being killed by ship strikes -  one of their leading causes of death. With only about 360 whales remaining, time is running out."

"Oceana previously launched a tool called <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/illegal-fishing/ship-speed-watch">Ship Speed Watch</a> that allows anyone to monitor the slow zones established to protect North Atlantic right whales. An analysis released  in March showed vessels ignoring voluntary speed zones designed to protect this critically endangered species. This data is supported by today’s government analysis." 

The right whales were pushed to near extinction before a ban was placed on hunting them in 1935. Today, the whales are primarily threatened by collisions with commercial ships. Without slowing down, ships cannot maneuver to avoid right whales. 

Furthermore, an obstacle course of about a million fishing lines is sprawled out across right whale migration routes and feeding areas in the United States and Canada. These ropes get wrapped tight around the whales, which can lead to life-threatening infections

"These slow-moving whales, that are often found near shore, must navigate an obstacle course of speeding ships and fishing gear on their north and south migrations every year," said Webber. "Requiring vessels to slow down is the least we can do to help save this iconic species. Studies have found that slowing speeds to 10 knots or less in areas where these whales may be encountered can reduce the risk of death by 86%."

"NOAA agrees that more needs to be done to protect North Atlantic right whales from vessel strikes. Now it’s time for the federal government to act. Voluntary speed restriction zones must be made mandatory, and the current mandatory speed restriction zones must be expanded and enforced. Oceana calls on NOAA to update the shipping regulations to protect these rare whales before it’s too late.” 

To learn more about Oceana’s campaign to save North Atlantic right whales from extinction, please click <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/our-campaigns/right_whale/campaign">here</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ships are disregarding efforts to protect North Atlantic right whales

In a new report from NOAA Fisheries, experts have evaluated...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> has revealed that some fish develop larger sex organs when they are exposed to high levels of CO2. The experts report that the reproductive capacity of these fish will increase as the oceans continue to absorb carbon emissions.

The researchers said that far from the negative effects expected under the elevated CO2 levels in our oceans predicted for the end of the century, these fish capitalize on changes to the underwater ecosystems to produce more sperm and eggs.

"The warming oceans absorb about one-third of the additional CO2 being released into the atmosphere from carbon emissions, causing the oceans to acidify," said study lead author Professor Ivan Nagelkerken.

"We know that many species are negatively affected in their behavior and physiology by ocean acidification. But we found that in this species of temperate fish - the common triplefin - both males and females had larger gonads under conditions of ocean acidification. This meant increased egg and sperm production and therefore more offspring."

The experts studied the common triplefin near underwater volcanic CO2 vents to analyze how fish will respond to the ocean conditions predicted for the end of this century. The researchers found that higher levels of ocean acidification did not have negative effects on the fish. For example, developing larger gonads did not come at a physiological cost for the triplefins.

"We found males were eating more. They showed intensified foraging on more abundant prey - which was more abundant because of the increased biomass of algae that grows under the elevated CO2," said Professor Nagelkerken.

"The females, on the other hand, did not eat more. They instead reduced their activity levels to preserve energy and then invested this in larger ovaries."

"We also found there were more mature males under elevated CO2 and, in this species where it is the males that take care of the eggs, that means we have more parents nurturing the egg nests, which could increase offspring."

According to the researchers, less dominant fish species did not exhibit higher reproductive output, which was likely due to their less competitive nature.

"We think it likely that the triplefin and similar species will do very well under increased ocean acidification," said co-author Professor Sean Connell. "The study shows that some, more dominant, species will be able to capitalise on changes to ecosystems under ocean acidification, increasing their population."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some fish develop larger sex organs when CO2 levels are high

A new study from the University of Adelaide has revealed...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...