Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp;



Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp;



Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our modern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-ruled-over-killer-whales-nbsp">Marine reptiles ruled over killer whales&nbsp;</h2>



Experts discovered that some of these reptiles could exceed 33 feet (10 meters) in length, hinting at a way of life that appears to have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkably powerful</a>.&nbsp;



According to their research, these creatures ruled the seventh level in a reconstructed Cretaceous food web, while present-day killer whales and great white sharks rarely pass the sixth.&nbsp;



At the heart of these findings is work by McGill University’s <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biology</a>, led by doctoral student Dirley Cortés and co-author Hans Larsson, who is a professor in the same department.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-reached-the-pinnacle">Marine reptiles reached the pinnacle</h2>



Large predators typically dominate the top ranks in any oceanic food chain. Scientists often call these ranks "<a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/06%3A_Ecology/6.05%3A_Trophic_Levels" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic levels</a>." 



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> systems reach a natural limit around the sixth trophic (or feeding) level, where species like orcas hover at the pinnacle of the energy pyramid.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to examine these possible ecological interactions,” said Cortés, who is lead author on the publication. 



By <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying</a> fossil evidence in the <a href="https://www2.sgc.gov.co/LibroGeologiaColombia/tgc/sgcpubesp36201913.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paja Formation</a>, the team determined that Mesozoic reptiles had apparently gone one level higher. 



These ancient animals likely feasted on anything in their path, which explains how their food web stacked up so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-a-lost-food-web">Reconstructing a lost food web</h2>



This investigation on ancient marine reptiles used body size, possible feeding tools, and comparisons with existing marine species to build a detailed framework for who ate whom in that vanished Colombian sea, where the warm climates of the Early Cretaceous allowed a surge in ocean diversity.&nbsp;



The Paja Formation’s fossil record reveals predators with robust jaws and swift movement, alongside an assortment of invertebrates that thrived in trophic levels beneath them.&nbsp;



Researchers drew upon modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-disease-is-pushing-caribbean-reefs-toward-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean reef</a> networks to cross-check their results. 



By comparing these fossils to present-day communities, the study uncovered what one of the paper’s authors described as "intricate links among prehistoric animals" that pushed the boundaries of the marine hierarchy.



“Understanding this complexity helps us trace how ecosystems evolve over time,” said Cortés.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-competition-shaped-the-seas">How competition shaped the seas</h2>



Marine food webs do not form overnight. Competition for resources tends to bring about new evolutionary strategies and unique feeding habits. 



During parts of the Mesozoic, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0501562102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> from marine predators and their potential prey made survival an ongoing challenge. 



A known surge in shell-crushing snails and other predatory invertebrates during this era has been labeled by paleontologists as the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>.&nbsp;



Ancient marine reptiles from the Paja Formation existed in this tense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> of changing prey, leading them to develop massive body sizes and formidable hunting styles.&nbsp;



“These findings illuminate how marine ecosystems developed through intense trophic competition and shaped the diversity we see today,” said <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Larsson</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



The close study of creatures that roamed the ocean so long ago is not just about cataloging exciting fossils. Discoveries like this tell us that life’s history is packed with surprising adaptations.&nbsp;



Paleontologists see a chance to compare these ancient networks with modern ones, thus providing fresh insights into how ecosystems recover from challenges such as climate change or habitat loss.&nbsp;



Researchers also note that these fossil communities remind us of how species at the top of the food chain can alter their entire environment, often making space for additional biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolution">A window into evolution</h2>



One important lesson from this work is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatic shifts</a> in ocean biodiversity occurred long before humans entered the picture. 



Marine reptiles vanished near the end of the Mesozoic, but the legacy of their top-heavy food webs is imprinted in the fossil record. 



Each puzzle piece from that record, from large jaws to specialized teeth, helps paint a more accurate picture of how Earth’s seas matured. 



The high trophic levels in the Paja Formation suggest that new habitats were emerging, allowing marine reptiles to reach body sizes and predatory niches that are rarely matched in modern times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-marine-reptiles-and-ecosystems">Ancient marine reptiles and ecosystems</h2>



Researchers plan to keep building models for other fossil sites. This work may reveal whether seventh-level predators were uncommon or if there were other pockets in Earth’s history where they thrived. 



In many regions, marine formations remain poorly understood, so there is every chance that the Paja Formation was not the only site containing marine reptiles with astonishing hunting powers.&nbsp;



More studies may show that, over millions of years, seas can produce predators more fearsome than anything we know today.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/202/1/zlad092/7275647?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.&nbsp;



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Top predators in prehistoric oceans would have eaten killer whales as snacks

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp; Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp; Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/">Queensland University of Technology</a>, researchers have solved the mystery of what killed millions of shearwater birds in 2013. The team found evidence that migrating seabirds are eating materials that are not even food, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pumice-raft-carried-nutrients-to-the-great-barrier-reef-from-nearly-2000-miles-away/">pumice</a> stones, because they are starving.

Study lead author Dr. Lauren Roman is a researcher at Australia's national science agency CSIRO. She said there was much discussion in the scientific community about the causes of mass mortality of seabirds which are often found with plastic and other non-food items in their stomach.

"We found that in the instance of the shearwater bird deaths in 2013, these birds were starving, and in their starved state had reduced prey discrimination," said Dr. Roman.

"Our study investigates the chicken-and-egg dilemma - do animals starve from eating non-food or do animals eat non-food because they are starving?""

Seabirds are indicator species that can be used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems. Mass mortalities are often indicative of changing food webs and ecological conditions.

The study was focused on short-tailed shearwaters, which migrate from Australia to the North Pacific in April and return late in the year. Among 172 deceased seabirds that were recovered from the New South Wales and Queensland, 96.7 percent had ingested pumice or plastic.

The researchers used satellite systems to track the 2013 shearwater migration and compared the data to locations of a large pumice raft produced by the 2012 Havre eruption north of New Zealand.

"We proposed that a short time period between non-food ingestion and death would indicate that birds were already starving at the time of non-food ingestion, and a starving state would be reflected by poor body condition and reduced muscle mass," explained study co-author Professor Scott Bryan, who has been studying pumice rafts for over 20 years.

"Death after a longer period would indicate that birds starved following ingestion of non-food."

Professor Bryan said detailed information about the route of the pumice raft was an integral part to determining the answer of where the birds had consumed the pumice.

"We combined the tracking information data of the short-tailed shearwaters, using location tags on migrating birds, and the geological signature of the ingested pumice."

"By October 2013 when the shearwaters were returning to Australia on their annual migration from the North Pacific, the floating pumice was now located along their flight path as they approached Australia."

Once the experts had established when the birds ate the pumice, and their physical condition at the time, they were able to conclude that the birds were already starving when they ate the pumice. Furthermore, the study revealed that the seabirds had ingested the pumice about 12 to 41 hours before death.

"With a projected increase in challenging times for wildlife because of threats such as climate change, marine pollution and over exploitation of resources, this study has implications for mass mortalities and exacerbation of existing threats to marine species," said Dr. Roman.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/journal/mariecolprogseri">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Migrating seabirds are starving and eating non-food items

In a new study from the Queensland University of Technology,...

A study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> is shedding new light on an elusive whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-screech-owls-are-already-critically-endangered/">species</a> in the Southern Ocean. The experts report that Gray's beaked whales appear to be resilient to ecosystem changes and human activities, and have maintained a stable population for more than a million years.

Gray's beaked whales live in the deep oceans of the Southern Hemisphere and are rarely spotted. Prior to this study, the biology of the whales was almost entirely a mystery.

Gray's beaked whales are small whales that spend most of their time deep below the ocean's surface feeding on squid. Observational data on the species is impossible to obtain. Whalers refer to them as "scamperdown whales" due to their evasive behavior.

In collaboration with experts at the University of Copenhagen, the Exeter team set out to investigate the history of the population over the past 1.1 million years. The researchers analyzed the genome sequences of 22 Gray's beaked whales that were previously stranded on beaches in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand 

"The population approximately doubled about 250 thousand years ago, coinciding with a period of increased Southern Ocean productivity, sea surface temperature and a potential expansion of suitable habitat," study co-author Dr. Kirsten Thompson.

According to the genetic analysis, the current population appears to have high levels of genetic diversity and no patterns of genetic similarity in geographical areas. This indicates that the whales leave their birth groups and move widely throughout their range across the Southern Hemisphere.

Based on their high levels of genetic diversity, a flexible social system, and the rich habitats of the Southern Hemisphere, the experts believe that Gray's beaked whales could be resilient to changing ecosystem conditions.

"Human activity is causing rapid ecological change in every habitat on Earth, including the deep oceans," said Dr Thompson. "We need to understand how different species might respond to these changes, but we lack detailed knowledge on many animals, particularly deep-sea whales like Gray's beaked whales."

The experts used mitochondrial DNA to investigate the history of the population and partial nuclear genomes to estimate population structure.

"Our findings suggest the numbers of Gray's beaked whales have been relatively stable for the last 1.1 million years," said Dr.  Thompson.

"The Southern Hemisphere's oceans could potentially support a surprisingly large number of Gray's beaked whales. Good news for one species at least."

"We show how genomic tools can help to reveal past history, current status and potential near-future changes in animal populations that are enigmatic, rarely observed and beyond the reach of traditional boat surveys."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gray's beaked whales have been stable for over a million years

A study from the University of Exeter is shedding new...

Apple flies are a fascinating example of speciation, the beginning of a new species, and have captivated scientists for many decades. When settlers in North America introduced apple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/legume-trees-play-a-key-role-in-forest-recovery/">trees</a> to the region, some hawthorn flies shifted to this new host plant and split off to form a new species. 

An international team of experts led by the <a href="https://www.ncbs.res.in/">National Centre for Biological Sciences</a> has continued an investigation into the origins of the apple fly that was first initiated 160 years ago by Charles Darwin and his Cambridge classmate Benjamin Walsh.

The researchers examined the neurological processes that underlie important behavioral changes in the apple fly, including their mate choice and preference toward a new host plant. Such changes contributed to the rapid evolution of apple flies.

Hawthorn flies and apple flies feed only on one particular fruit, either hawthorn berries or ripe apples. They also mate on the fruit and lay their eggs in it. 

Each generation of these two groups of flies emerges with a specific preference for the scent of either apples or hawthorns, and a strong aversion to the other. 

The experts set out to understand what distinguishes the two types of flies. The team discovered that both apple and hawthorn flies use the same brain regions to process odors, but switch the locations of processing. 

The scientists were able to locate the specific point where this difference emerges at the very first synapse in the olfactory system, called the antennal lobe. 

"The most surprising part to me was actually seeing olfactory processing be so clearly different between the apple and hawthorn infesting host races," said study first author Cheyenne Tait. "We knew these flies have divergent odour preference behaviors and patterns of genetic differentiation. Now, from this work we know their sensory neurophysiology differs as well."

According to the researchers, a simple shift in the processing of important sensory information could possibly be a major contributor to the diverse species we see. 

"We are seeing the stuff of speciation. The origin of new species is one of the great questions that has piqued the intellectual curiosity of humankind," said study co-author Jeffrey L. Feder. 

"Resolving the question of speciation is of great scientific importance and the ongoing evolution of apple and hawthorn host races of Rhagoletis is connected to life itself, or the origin of new life forms."

The simple change in the neurological processing of the fruit odor triggered a change at a species scale. 

"What is most remarkable to me is the simplicity of the switch - these flies simply changed their minds along with their species. Such a subtle shift in the processing of important sensory information in the brain could be contributing to the change in behavior that helps drive their evolution into new species," explained study co-author Shannon Olsson.

"This discovery has important implications for how animals such as insects can quickly adapt and change their behaviour to new environments, such as with invasive species, or respond to human-influenced changes in climate or land use."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsociety.org/journals/">The Royal Society Publishing</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Apple flies emerged from a simple change in the brain

Apple flies are a fascinating example of speciation, the beginning...

Warm river habitats are more important than expected for the survival of cold-water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-show-they-have-compassion-through-prosocial-behavior/">fish</a>, such as salmon and trout, according to a new study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. This discovery has important implications for fish conservation strategies. 

As the climate gets warmer, experts are working to identify habitats that remain suitable for cold-water fish during the summer. Yet this implicitly devalues areas that are seasonally warm, even if they are suitable for fish most of the year, explained study lead author Professor Jonny Armstrong. He said that this is a potentially severe blind spot for climate change adaptation.

"Coldwater fish like trout and salmon are the polar bears of river ecosystems - iconic species that are among the most vulnerable to climate change," said Professor Armstrong. 

"A huge challenge for conservation is to figure out how to help these fish survive a warmer future. The conclusion is that we should not waste money on warm habitats and instead focus on saving the coldest places, such as high mountain streams, which are already the most pristine parts of basins. Most people agree we should give up on places that are warm in summer, but forget that these places are actually optimal for much of the year."

The researchers found that warm river habitats are suitable for cold-water fish during the spring and fall, when the rivers are not at peak summer temperatures. 

These warm habitats can provide fish with the energy they require to travel to cooler parts of the river during the summer and to reproduce.

"The synergy between cold water and warm water is really important," said Professor Armstrong. "We're not saying cold water is not important. We're saying that warm portions of basins are also important because they grow fish during the shoulder seasons. Conserving this habitat is critical for unlocking the full potential of rivers to support fisheries."

"In a warmer future, many fish will need fish to take a summer vacation and move to cold places to survive the hottest months of the year. Their ability to do that could often depend on how much energy they can get in the spring and how well they can feed in the fall to bounce back. The places that are stressfully warm in summer are just right in spring and fall, and there is growing evidence that they can fuel fisheries."

The study was focused on data from previous research that used remote sensing technology to obtain river water temperature data across 14 river basins throughout the year.

The OSU team incorporated these temperatures into a "bioenergetics model," which predicts fish growth potential based on equations derived from lab studies. The analysis revealed new clues about how growth opportunities shift across river basins throughout the year. In particular, the results showed the potential for a large fraction of total fish growth to accumulate during the spring and fall in places that are too hot during summer.

Next, the experts created a simulation model to investigate how these warm river habitats could contribute to fisheries. Simulations based on the behaviors of rainbow trout over the course of a year demonstrated that the majority of fish moved into cooler waters in the summer,  where they experienced insufficient growth rates. 

However, in the months before and after summer, the fish mainly resided in seasonally warm downstream habitats that fueled their growth.

"In conservation, we often judge streams by their summer conditions; this is when we traditionally do field work, and this is the season we focus on when planning for climate change," said Armstrong. 

"We place value on places that hold fish during summer and devalue those that don't. Our simulations showed why this can be a problem - the portions of rivers that contribute most to growth may not be the places where fish are found during summer, so they get written off."

According to Professor Armstrong, the simulations reveal the synergy between seasonally warm and perennially cool habitats and that fish that lived in these two types of habitats grew much more than fish that were restricted to either habitat alone.

"We think of things in this binary way - it's either warm-water habitat or its cold-water habitat. And we have definitions for fish - it's either a warm-water fish or a cold-water fish. But the places we think of as warm are, in fact, cold way more than they are warm."

Professor Armstrong pointed to the Willamette, a tributary of the Columbia River that runs nearly 200 miles from Eugene to Portland, Oregon.

"When it's warm enough for humans to swim, it's bad for cold-water fish. But there's only like six weeks of the year where it is comfortable to go swimming in Oregon."

"That speaks to the fact that we write off places because they get too hot through the lens of August. They're actually pretty nice for most of the year if you're a cold-water fish. And fish don't necessarily have to live there in August, just like you don't have to go swimming in the Willamette in December."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warm river habitats are important for cold-water fish

Warm river habitats are more important than expected for the...

Bald eagles have been dying from a neurodegenerative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-forest-cover-linked-to-disease-outbreaks/">disease</a> in the southern United States, but the cause of the disease has eluded scientists for more than 25 years. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> (MLU) in Germany, experts have now identified the source of the mysterious ailment.

The researchers have linked the unexplained deaths of bald eagles to a toxin produced by cyanobacteria that grow on invasive aquatic plants. The experts report that the problem is potentially worsened by the herbicides used to control the plants. 

The brain disease was first detected in 1994, when more than two dozen bald eagles died in Arkansas. The animals last control over their bodies and developed holes in their brains. The neurodegenerative disease was named vacuolar myelinopathy (VM), but its origin was unknown.

Researchers later found that the herbivorous prey of bald eagles were also affected by the disease. The invasive aquatic plant, Hydrilla verticillata, grows in freshwater lakes. However, there were some lakes that contained the aquatic plant where the disease was not detected. 

In 2005, Professor Susan B. Wilde of the University of Georgia identified a previously unknown cyanobacterium on the leaves of Hydrilla verticillata, which appeared to be the cause of the disease. This led to the discovery that vacuolar myelinopathy only occurs in places where the cyanobacteria had colonized the invasive plants. Professor Wilde called the bacterium Aetokthonos hydrillicola, or "eagle killer that grows on Hydrilla."

"I stumbled across a press release issued by the university in Georgia and was fascinated by these findings, because I've worked with cyanobacteria for years," said MLU Professor Timo Niedermeyer. He obtained samples of colonized plant leaves, cultivated the bacteria in the lab, and then sent them back to the U.S. for further testing. However, the tests came back negative, which meant the bacteria from the lab did not induce the disease. 

"It's not just the birds that were going crazy, we were too. We wanted to figure this out." Professor Niedermeyer once again colonized the leaves that were sent to him. Steffen Breinlinger, a doctoral student in his research group, used a new imaging mass spectrometer to investigate the molecular composition on the surface of the plant's leaf. 

The analysis revealed a new substance that only occurs on the plant leaves where the cyanobacteria grow, but is not produced in the cultivated bacteria.

Breinlinger's investigation into the chemical structure of the isolated molecule showed that it contains five bromine atoms. The properties are unusual for a molecule formed by bacteria.

The chemical structure of the isolated molecule also explains who the toxin did not form under laboratory conditions - standard culture media in which cyanobacteria grow do not contain bromide. 

"We then added bromide to our lab cultures, and - the bacteria started producing the toxin," said Breinlinger. 

Further research is needed to determine why the cyanobacteria form the toxin on the aquatic plants in the first place. One of the herbicides used to combat the invasive aquatic plant contains bromide and may stimulate the production of the toxin that is killing bald eagles and other wildlife.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disease that kills bald eagles linked to invasive plant

Bald eagles have been dying from a neurodegenerative disease in...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers report that ocean mammals have reached a crucial crossroads where some are at risk of extinction while others are showing signs of recovery.

The experts analyzed the status of the world's 126 marine mammal species, including whales, dolphins, seals, sea otters and polar bears. The researchers determined that the biggest threats to the survival of these ocean animals are pollution, climate change, and accidental capture by fisheries.

The study shows that 25 percent of ocean mammal species are now classified as being vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The North Atlantic right whale and the near-extinct vaquita porpoise are among those in the greatest danger.

Populations of other ocean mammals, such as the northern elephant seal, humpback whale, and the Guadalupe fur seal, have managed to recover as a result of conservation efforts.

The international research team, which included scientists from more than 30 institutions in 13 countries, has pointed out conservation measures and research techniques that could protect marine mammals into the future.

"We have reached a critical point in terms of marine mammal conservation," said lead author Dr. Sarah Nelms. "Very few marine mammal species have been driven to extinction in modern times, but human activities are putting many of them under increasing pressure."

"Our paper examines a range of conservation measures - including Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), bycatch reduction methods and community engagement - as well as highlighting some of the species that are in urgent need of focus."

According to the researchers, 21 percent of marine mammal species are listed as "data deficient" on the IUCN Red List. This means that there is not enough evidence available to assess their conservation status. The lack of knowledge makes it difficult to identify which species are in need of protection.

"To continue conservation successes and reverse the downward trend in at-risk species, we need to understand the threats they face and the conservation measures that could help," said Professor Brendan Godley, who leads the Exeter Marine research group.

"Technology such as drone and satellite imaging, electronic tags and molecular techniques are among the tools that will help us do this."

"Additionally, sharing best practice will empower us - and this is why we are so proud to be part of such a large and international group for this project."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/esr/esr-home/">Endangered Species Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some ocean mammals are recovering, others are not

In a new study from the University of Exeter, researchers...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and <a href="https://drexel.edu/">Drexel University</a> have discovered two new species of screech owls in the Amazon and Atlantic rainforests. The experts report that the previously unknown species are already critically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-track-endangered-green-turtles-in-western-australia/">endangered</a>.

"Screech owls are considered a well-understood group compared to some other types of organisms in these areas," said study co-author John Bates. "But when you start listening to them and comparing them across geography, it turns out that there are things that people hadn't appreciated. That's why these new species are being described."

The research team was led by Alex Aleixo, who is currently curator of birds at the Finnish Museum of Natural History in the University of Helsinki.

"Not even professional ornithologists who have worked on owls for their entire lives would agree about the actual number of species found in this group, so a study like ours has been awaited for a really long time," said Aleixo.

The newly-described screech owls are cousins of Eastern Screech Owls, which are commonly found east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States.

"They're cute little owls, probably five or six inches long, with tufts of feathers on their heads," said Bates. "Some are brown, some are gray, and some are in between."

Prior to this study, the new species were lumped together with two groups found in South America, the Tawny-bellied Screech Owl and the Black-capped Screech Owl.

Distinguishing the groups of owls took years of field studies in the Amazon and Atlantic rainforests. Bates said that conducting fieldwork in the rainforest at night comes with new challenges.

"For me it's more a feeling of fascination than being scared, but at the same time, you're running into spider webs. If you're wearing a headlight you see the eyeshine of the nocturnal animals. One time I was stepping over a log and I looked down and there was a tarantula the size of my hand just sitting there," said Bates. "If I had been a kid I would have been scared to death."

Screech owls typically live high in the trees, which makes it difficult to study them.

"To draw the birds out, we used tape recordings," explained Bates. "We'd record their calls and then play them back. The owls are territorial, and when they heard the recordings, they came out to defend their territory."

When the experts analyzed and compared the birds' calls, they detected variations in their sounds. The researchers also examined the birds and collected tissue samples for DNA testing.

Overall, the investigation was focused on 252 specimens, 83 recordings, and 49 genetic samples from across the range of the Tawny-bellied Screech Owl complex in South America.

The team's analysis of the data revealed the existence of the Xingu Screech Owl and the Alagoas Screech Owl. Both of these owls are brand new to science, but are also threatened with extinction.

Study co-author Jason Weckstein is the associate curator of Ornithology in the Academy of Natural Sciences at Drexel University and a professor in the Department of Biodiversity, Environment and Earth Science.

"Both new species are threatened by deforestation," said Professor Weckstein. "The Xingu Screech Owl is endemic to the most severely burned area of the Amazon by the unprecedented 2019 fires, and the Alagoas Screech Owl should be regarded as critically endangered given the extensive forest fragmentation in the very small area where it occurs."

Bates said he hopes that the study will shed light on how varied the Amazon and Atlantic forests are and how simply protecting certain areas is not enough to preserve the forests' biodiversity.

"If you just say, 'Well, you know Amazonia is Amazonia, and it's big,' you don't end up prioritizing efforts to keep forests from being cut in these different parts of Amazonia," said Bates. "That could mean losing entire faunas in this region."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/">Zootaxa</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Two new species of screech owls are already critically endangered

Scientists at the Field Museum and Drexel University have discovered...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, researchers have discovered that crocodiles once thrived on land and in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-are-driving-wastewater-into-the-ocean/">water</a> as a result of rapid evolution.

Modern crocodiles are predators that live in rivers, lakes and wetlands. They use their powerful jaws to snatch up their prey, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

The latest research shows that ancient crocodiles were much more diverse. During the time that dinosaurs lived, some types of crocodiles were fast-moving plant eaters, while others had features that were similar to dolphins.

The experts analyzed more than 200 skulls and jaws, including fossils from the entire 230-million-year history of crocodiles and their extinct relatives. The team examined shape variations among the specimens to identify differences between species and to investigate how quickly certain groups changed over time.

The study revealed that some extinct crocodile groups, including the dolphin-like thalattosuchia, evolved very fast over many millions of years. The skulls and jaws of these ancient crocodiles transformed as they expanded into niches that are occupied by other animal groups today.

The experts also determined that crocodiles, alligators, and gharials - the only living crocodilians - are more conservative than these extinct fossil groups. They have evolved steadily,  but more slowly, for the last 80 million years.

"Crocodiles and their ancestors are an incredible group for understanding the rise and fall of biodiversity," said study lead author Dr. Tom Stubbs.

"There are only 26 crocodile species around today, most of which look very similar. However, there are hundreds of fossil species with spectacular variation, particularly in their feeding apparatus."

Experts have long assumed that dramatic shifts in habitat and diet can trigger rapid evolution, but these patterns are usually documented in groups with a large amount of diversity like birds, mammals, and fish. This is the first time the pattern has been established in crocodiles.

"Ancient crocodiles came in a dizzyingly array of forms. They were adapted to running on land, swimming in the water, snapping fish, and even chewing plants," said Dr. Stephanie Pierce.

"Our study shows that these very different ways of living evolved incredibly fast, allowing extinct crocodiles to rapidly thrive and dominate novel ecological niches over many millions of years."

"It's not clear why modern crocodiles are so limited in their adaptations," noted Professor Michael Benton. "If we only had the living species, we might argue they are limited in their modes of life by being cold-blooded or because of their anatomy."

"However, the fossil record shows their amazing capabilities, including large numbers of species in the oceans and on land. Perhaps they only did well when world climates were warmer than today."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Crocodiles have had great success through rapid evolution

In a new study from the University of Bristol, researchers...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, experts have found remarkable butterfly diversity in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/burrowing-animals-in-the-mojave-desert-escape-the-heat-of-climate-change/">deserts</a> of Mexico and the southwestern United States. The surprising discovery may be tied to actively changing conditions in the in the western portion of North America.

"When you think of desert, you don't automatically jump to butterflies, but our results showed that this area is actually a really important hotspot for butterflies, even if it isn't for plants," said study co-first author Chandra Earl. "Just because butterflies are closely tied to their host plants doesn't mean their diversity outcomes have to be similar."

The researchers conducted a continent-wide analysis using a variety of biodiversity databases, including GenBank, Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD), and Map of Life (@moldotorg). 

The experts did not simply count the number of butterfly and plant species in a given area, but also examined the degree of evolutionary relatedness - or phylodiversity - of species in each region. 

"We wouldn't have found the same result if we'd just counted the species like most biodiversity studies." said Earl. "But we really wanted to step away from that, so we didn't lose the importance of evolutionary history."

The researchers explained that butterfly diversity may be greater than that of plants in the desert due to how they interact in the ecosystem.

"Most butterflies are generalists that don't utilize just one host plant. This means that there are a lot of plants with no real functional relevance to butterflies" said study co-first author Michael Belitz. "This makes butterflies less likely to clump into groups of tightly related species like plants do."

There are other ecological factors that may also play a role in butterfly diversity across North American deserts, including the fact that butterflies are much more mobile than plants. 

"These factors all add noise to the data, where you won't see as strong a relationship between plants and butterflies as you might expect," explained Belitz.

The researchers hope that this new understanding of butterfly diversity will encourage others to research and help conserve the insects.

"People already know about the decline of monarch butterflies, but the entire group is under threat," said Earl. "We need to start paying better attention to insects, and this study helps prioritize North American deserts as a new target for conservation efforts."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Surprisingly high butterfly diversity found in North American deserts

In a new study from Cell Press, experts have found...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>, experts have created a framework for locating undiscovered life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-life-on-earth-literally-sparked-by-lightning/">Earth</a>. The study comes less than a decade after the team developed the "Map of Life," a global database that marks the distribution of known species across the planet.

The research was focused on pinpointing where life is yet to be discovered. Study co-author Professor Walter Jetz hopes that the new effort is a moral imperative that can help support biodiversity discovery and preservation around the world.

"At the current pace of global environmental change, there is no doubt that many species will go extinct before we have ever learned about their existence and had the chance to consider their fate," said Professor Jetz. 

"I feel such ignorance is inexcusable, and we owe it to future generations to rapidly close these knowledge gaps."

Study lead author Mario Moura said the study shifts the focus from questions like "How many undiscovered species exist?" to more applied ones such as "Where and what?"

"Known species are the 'working units' in many conservation approaches, thus unknown species are usually left out of conservation planning, management, and decision-making," said Moura. "Finding the missing pieces of the Earth's biodiversity puzzle is therefore crucial to improve biodiversity conservation worldwide."

It is estimated that only 10 to 20 percent of species on Earth have been formally described. In an effort to help find some of these missing species, the researchers compiled data that included the location, geographical range, historical discovery dates, and other environmental and biological characteristics of about 32,000 known terrestrial vertebrates. 

By analyzing this data, the experts were able to predict what kinds of unknown species of the four main vertebrate groups are most likely yet be identified and where they may be found. 

"The chances of being discovered and described early are not equal among species," said Moura. For example, large emus were discovered in Australia in 1790 soon after taxonomic descriptions of species began. On the other hand, the small, elusive frog species Brachycephalus guarani was not discovered in Brazil until 2012, which indicates that there are similar amphibians that have not yet been found.

According to the map of undiscovered life, the odds of discovering new species vary widely across the globe. The results suggest that Brazil, Indonesia, Madagascar, and Colombia hold the greatest opportunities for identifying new species overall.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Map of undiscovered life will guide the search for new species

In a new study from Yale University, experts have created...

Since the beginning of the pandemic, pets have been in higher demand among families with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-best-bedtime-routine-for-children-has-now-been-defined/">children</a> in the home. But now, a new national poll from <a href="https://www.uofmhealth.org/">Michigan Medicine</a> reveals that older adults have acquired their fair share of pandemic pets as well. 

According to the <a href="https://www.healthyagingpoll.org/">National Poll on Healthy Aging</a>, nearly 60 percent of respondents aged 50 to 80 have pets in the home. Among these pet owners, 17 percent had gotten at least one pet since the pandemic began. 

The survey results showed that pet ownership was higher among women, white respondents, those who live in single-family detached homes, and among individuals aged 50 to 64.

In a 2019 poll from Michigan Medicine, older adults reported that having a pet helps them enjoy life and reduces stress. The respondents also said their pets give them a sense of purpose and help them to connect with other people and stay active.

Among older adults who lived alone or were not in the greatest health when the 2019 survey was conducted, nearly 75 percent said that having a pet made it easier for them to cope with physical or emotional symptoms.

Between the 2019 and 2021 polls, the percentage of older adults that lived alone with a pet jumped up by 12 points. Pets always play an important role as companions for people living alone, but this role became even more significant during the pandemic when many older adults stayed home. 

Poll director Dr. Preeti Malani has firsthand experience with getting a "pandemic puppy" to join her family, and it is the first time they have had any type of pet.

"Sully has been a great addition," said Dr. Malani. "He makes sure we get outside every day. I've also met several other dog owners in the neighborhood."

Wendy Welch is the director of communications at the Humane Society of Huron Valley, where adoption rates have hit record highs in the past year.

"We are delighted to see not just worthy animals get homes, but also to see people get much needed unconditional love as well," said Welch. "While grandparents have sadly been separated from hugging their grandchildren, furry friends have been okay to snuggle." 

"It's well documented that pets can help lower our blood pressure, ease anxiety and improve symptoms of depression. And of particular interest during this isolating pandemic, companion animals certainly stave off the silent killer: loneliness. We are so thankful to the older adults who've opened up their hearts and homes to shelter animals during this time."

The research was funded by the University of Michigan and <a href="https://www.aarp.org/">AARP</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many people over 50 got pandemic pets

Since the beginning of the pandemic, pets have been in...

Gorilla families come together to support young gorillas that lose their mothers, according to a new study from the <a href="https://gorillafund.org/">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</a>. The researchers used more than five decades of data to investigate how maternal loss influences relationships, survival, and future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-from-natural-gas-compressors-disrupts-songbird-reproduction/">reproduction</a> among young mountain gorillas. 

"Mothers are incredibly important for survival early in life - this is something that is shared across all mammals," said study lead author Dr. Robin Morrison. "But in social mammals, like ourselves, mothers often continue to provide vital support up to adulthood and even beyond."

"In many species, like our close relatives, chimpanzees, individuals without mothers suffer higher mortality or may be less successful parents themselves, and this finding can hold even if the loss occurs in early adulthood. But our research shows that mountain gorillas really go against this trend."

Between the ages of two and eight, young mountain gorillas are able to feed themselves but are not fully mature. The study shows that gorillas orphaned at this point in life do not have any greater risk of dying than those who still have their mothers.

The researchers found that maternal loss does not seem to have any long-term effect on the gorillas' ability to reproduce and rear offspring. In addition, the experts discovered that interactions between young gorillas and other group members increases dramatically after the loss of a mother. 

The study authors suggest that this support from other gorillas may be similar to what we see in humans, where family members and non-relatives step into key roles to care for children. For example, male gorillas are known to care for young members of their group, regardless of paternity. 

Dian Fossey once noted that "the extraordinary gentleness of the adult male with his young dispels all the King Kong mythology." The new research confirms this statement, finding that the dominant silverback male plays a particularly important role in supporting young motherless gorillas. These males were observed spending more time close to the orphans, engaging in activities such as resting and grooming together. 

"These findings suggest that our capacity to care for other group and family members in times of need may be deeply rooted within our DNA and something we share with gorillas," said Dr. Morrison.

The researchers analyzed data on mountain gorillas dating back to 1967, when Dian Fossey first established long-term monitoring.

"This study highlights the value of long-term research on wild animal populations" said Dr. Tara Stoinski, CEO and chief scientist of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund.

"Just like us, gorillas live long lives, so it takes years for researchers to record the rare and fascinating behaviors that occur over a gorilla's lifetime. Our dataset, one of the longest of any animal species, stretches back more than 50 years, helping us understand how much we share with one of our closest relatives as we work to protect them and their biodiverse habitat."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young gorillas without mothers get extra support from their group

Gorilla families come together to support young gorillas that lose...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...