A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp;



This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whale sharks</a>, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp;



Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is essential for crafting effective measures to protect them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collecting-data-on-whale-shark-behavior">Collecting data on whale shark behavior </h2>



At Ningaloo Reef, a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> on the northwestern coast of Western Australia, annual expeditions have taken place each May from 2009 to 2024. This specific timeframe captures the peak period when whale sharks migrate to the region and aggregate in considerable numbers.&nbsp;



Scientists have used these field seasons to observe and collect data on the behaviors of whale sharks, hoping to uncover patterns that would illuminate everything from feeding habits to potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-mating-behaviors-of-leopard-seals-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a>.



During the 2024 expedition, a research team documented a mature male whale shark engaging in what appeared to be following and biting behaviors toward a smaller female shark.&nbsp;



Although it remains unclear if this encounter culminated in mating, the new observations provide a rare glimpse into the courtship interactions of these elusive giants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-hand-accounts-of-unusual-behavior">First-hand accounts of unusual behavior</h2>



“Following and biting are common copulation behaviours in other species within the subclass of cartilaginous fish that the whale shark belongs to,” explained PhD candidate Christine Barry, a member of <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Murdoch University</a>’s Harry Butler Institute and the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



Barry and her colleagues noted that these behaviors have been observed in several other cartilaginous fish, including various shark species. Such actions typically denote an attempt by the male to stabilize or secure the female’s position during mating.



“This is also consistent with previous reports by fishers recounting behaviours they’d observed out on the water of sexually mature males towards females at different aggregation sites,” Barry added.&nbsp;



These anecdotes, now supported by direct evidence, add weight to the idea that whale sharks’ mating rituals may mirror those of other large sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-mating-clues">Piecing together mating clues</h2>



The research team, led by Barry alongside Dr. Mark Meekan of the University of Western Australia, published their conclusions in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1507072/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



According to Barry, it is unlikely that the encounter during this expedition resulted in a successful mating event. Nonetheless, the instance of following and biting strongly suggests that whale shark mating behavior follows a pattern akin to many other shark species.



By placing these newly documented behaviors in the broader context of whale shark biology, scientists can form hypotheses regarding the mating process of the species.&nbsp;



Additionally, the research group underscores that knowledge of how whale sharks court and reproduce can significantly boost conservation efforts, particularly as populations remain vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoidance-behavior-by-female-whale-sharks">Avoidance behavior by female whale sharks </h2>



Whale sharks, which can grow up to 12 meters or more in length, have a global distribution in warm temperate and tropical waters. Despite their widespread presence, many aggregation sites show an overwhelming number of males.&nbsp;



“At Ningaloo Reef, and many aggregation sites around the world, males outnumber females with a ratio of one female to three males,” Barry said. The reasons behind this imbalance have puzzled scientists for years.



“This could explain why female whale sharks may be avoiding aggregation sites. Particularly for juvenile female sharks, the energetic costs of unwanted attention from males could imply a reason for strong male biases,” Barry added.&nbsp;



Female whale sharks, particularly younger ones, might seek refuge in areas with fewer adult males to steer clear of the stress and energy demands associated with repeated courtship attempts.&nbsp;



This avoidance behavior could be a crucial factor influencing whale shark population structures at various aggregation points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



One pressing question is what these findings mean for managing whale shark populations worldwide. As an endangered species, whale sharks already face numerous challenges, including interactions with fisheries, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/basking-sharks-are-exceptionally-vulnerable-to-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel strikes</a>, and habitat degradation.&nbsp;



Understanding their mating behavior, including how males and females interact at aggregation sites, can aid biologists and policymakers in deciding how to protect critical habitats - such as identifying areas where females can avoid male-dominated gatherings.



The annual expeditions at Ningaloo Reef also serve as a model for studying whale sharks in their natural environment without relying on anecdotal sightings.&nbsp;



By systematically gathering data and applying scientific methods, researchers can more accurately identify patterns and track changes in whale shark behavior over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continuation-of-whale-shark-research">Continuation of whale shark research</h2>



This new information about potential mating interactions is just the latest in a series of findings by Christine Barry, Dr. Meekan, and other scientists at Murdoch University’s School of Environmental and Conservation Sciences and partner institutions.&nbsp;



Their previous studies have covered topics ranging from the impact of tourism on whale shark well-being to prey dynamics in waters frequented by these fish.



Moving forward, the researchers intend to broaden their focus to include additional observational and genetic studies, in hopes of confirming how often such pre-mating behaviors occur and what leads to successful reproduction.&nbsp;



In this way, the data gleaned at Ningaloo Reef and other aggregation sites may help scientists develop clearer conservation strategies tailored to the unique reproductive needs of whale sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-largest-fish-in-the-sea">Saving the largest fish in the sea</h2>



The newly documented behaviors at Ningaloo Reef represent a pivotal step in unraveling one of the great mysteries of marine biology: how whale sharks reproduce.&nbsp;



While much remains to be learned about courtship and mating in these gentle ocean giants, the direct observations of following and biting offer valuable context for a species that has long eluded scientific understanding.



With further research, scientists hope to clarify whether female whale sharks avoid highly male-dominated sites as a means to reduce the stress and energy costs of unwanted attention.&nbsp;



Such knowledge could shape guidelines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> and responsible ecotourism that minimize disturbances to whale shark breeding practices.&nbsp;



Ultimately, uncovering the nuances of whale shark mating is a vital piece of the puzzle in ensuring the survival of these endangered animals for generations to come.



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Whale shark mating behaviors observed for the first time in the wild

A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp; This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp; Whale sharks, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp; Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is...

It may seem like science fiction but researchers at <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> proved it’s possible. The new study has recreated a complex bird song complete with pitch, tone and volume from nothing more than the bird’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-insects-have-more-than-200000-brain-cells/">brain</a> activity.

The research was focused on zebra finches, which are small, beautifully colored birds that are native to Australia. The experts implanted silicone chips into the birds brains to record the brain activity controlling vocal muscles while they sang. 

The readings were then fed into a computer algorithm where computers recreated the bird songs. In research such as this, the test animals are typically euthanized when the study has concluded. 

The scientists hope to sacrifice a few birds for the good of disabled people by applying this research to humans eventually. The idea is to build a "vocal prosthetic" where someone can recreate their own verbal words simply by thinking them. 

“The current state of the art in communication prosthetics is implantable devices that allow you to generate textual output, writing up to 20 words per minute…Now imagine a vocal prosthesis that enables you to communicate naturally with speech, saying out loud what you're thinking nearly as you're thinking it. That is our ultimate goal, and it is the next frontier in functional recovery," explained study senior author Timothy Gentner.

While it may seem like a stretch to jump from bird song to human speech, anyone who has listened on a spring morning to the cacophony knows that bird’s songs can be quite complex. In fact, the researchers say that there are many similarities between the two. 

Previous research shows that if you delay the sound of a person’s voice, playing it back just a bit later, they will start to stutter. The same is true of birds when they sing.

Ultimately, the researchers hope that their prosthetic will be close in timing to actual speech. Something that can be reacted upon as we react naturally to hearing our own voice. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mind reading technology recreates bird song from brain waves

It may seem like science fiction but researchers at University...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has shown that mosquitoes could become active year-round in places where they are usually dormant in the winter. The experts found that mosquitoes can adjust to rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/">temperature</a> changes.

"In tropical regions, mosquitoes are active all year, but that isn't the case for the rest of the world. Outside of the tropics, winter temperatures cause mosquitoes to go into a kind of hibernation called diapause. We call these mosquitoes 'cold bounded' because their activity is limited by these lower temperatures," explained study senior author Professor Brett Scheffers.

"However, with climate change, we expect summers to get longer and winters to become shorter and warmer. What will that mean for those cold bounded mosquitoes? How will they respond?" 

To investigate, the researchers conducted experiments with mosquitoes collected at more than 70 sites in and around Gainesville, Florida, which is located on the dividing line between subtropical and temperate climates. 

Overall, about 1,000 mosquitoes were randomly sampled for lab testing. The experts analyzed how mosquitoes responded to changes in temperature while considering what time of year they were collected. 

"We found that the mosquitoes in our study are what we call 'plastic,' meaning that, like a rubber band, the range of temperatures they can tolerate stretches and contracts at different times of year," said Professor Scheffers.

The study revealed that the mosquitoes' tolerable temperature range stretched out in the spring to include both warmer days and colder nights. In the summer, when the nights are warmer, their suitable temperature range contracts. 

In autumn, when temperatures begin to cool off, the range stretches again, explained Professor Scheffers.

"That tells us that as climate change makes our autumns and winters warmer, mosquitoes in more temperate regions are well prepared to be active during those times," said Professor Scheffers.

"Our results suggest that to better understand how well populations and species may be able to tolerate ongoing climate change, we need to measure species thermal responses across different times of the year," said study first author Brunno Oliveira.

"This information would help us to deliver a more accurate representation of the temperature range a species can tolerate."

To establish the upper or lower temperature thresholds, the researchers monitored the activity of each mosquito, which was placed in a vial that was then put in a water bath. Over time, the researchers changed the water temperature. When the mosquitoes became inactive, it was a signal that the upper or lower threshold had been reached. 

"It was surprising to see how well these little creatures could tolerate high temperatures during the experiments, often well above the mean ambient temperatures measured by the weather stations," said study co-author Gécica Yogo.

According to the researchers, it is not yet clear what allows mosquitoes to adjust to rapid changes in temperature.

"Many people do not realize how quickly natural selection can act on short-lived animals," said study co-author Professor Daniel Hahn. 

"Whether the changes we are seeing in mosquito thermal properties are due to rapid natural selection across seasons, seasonal plasticity - much like a dog changing its coat - or a combination of both, is what we are working on now."

The experts noted that insights from this study can help communities better prepare for the impacts of climate change as they relate to mosquitoes, which spread diseases that affect humans and animals.

"The more mosquito activity there is, the greater the risk of these diseases spreading. Knowledge is power, and knowing that mosquitoes will be more active for more of the year can inform how we get ready for climate change," said Professor Scheffers.

"When we talk about how climate change might affect plants and animals, we are often talking about species moving to new areas because the conditions are changing -- in other words, the arrival of something new. However, climate change will also affect species we live with right now, like highly flexible mosquitoes, and that's another aspect to consider."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19399170">Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mosquitoes could become active year-round

A new study from the University of Florida has shown...

Krill populations in the Southern Ocean are projected to decline by about 30 percent this century, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">CU Boulder</a>. While the projected krill losses are tied to anthropogenic global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-three-heat-related-deaths-tied-to-global-warming/">warming</a>, this will not be obvious right away. 

The experts report that the human-driven effects on Antarctic krill habitat will be indistinguishable from natural climate variability for decades to come.

The research has important implications for the local food web, and also for the largest commercial fishery in the Southern Ocean that supports a $2 billion fish oil industry.

Krill are small shrimplike crustaceans that play a huge role in the aquatic food chain. In the Southern Ocean, krill serve as the primary source of nutrients and energy for most of the marine predators, including penguins, seals, and whales.

"Krill are what links the ecosystem together," said study lead author Zephyr Sylvester. "They're really important to the Southern Ocean for pretty much every predator species."

Human-induced climate change is not the only factor that is altering the Antarctic krill habitat. Natural variability is also driving major changes.

"Climate change is rapidly altering the habitat of Antarctic krill, a key species of the Southern Ocean food web. Krill are a critical element of Southern Ocean ecosystems as well as biogeochemical cycles, while also supporting an international commercial fishery," wrote the study authors. 

"In addition to trends forced by global-scale, human-driven warming, the Southern Ocean is highly dynamic, displaying large fluctuations in surface climate on interannual to decadal timescales."

"The dual roles of forced climate change and natural variability affecting Antarctic krill habitat, and therefore productivity, complicate interplay of observed trends and contribute to uncertainty in future projections."

In order to predict population numbers and plan harvest limits, experts must separate the trends associated with human-driven warming from those arising naturally in krill habitat.

"The thing that we really have to understand is: Is there enough krill to feed everything that needs to eat it in the Southern Ocean, as well as humans?" said study co-author Professor Cassandra Brooks. "My hope is that we can take this as a first step to understanding how to manage krill better."

Despite being one of the most abundant species on Earth, krill can only survive in a limited temperature range and are extremely sensitive to changes in their environment.

Fishing in the Southern Ocean is currently managed by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), an international body established as part of the Antarctic Treaty System. 

Four decades after CCAMLR was founded, however, catch limits on krill are still based on a stock assessment that does not account for natural environmental variability or climate change impacts.

While there is widespread recognition of the importance of understanding the impacts of climate change on this marine ecosystem, knowing how the climate naturally varies is an important prerequisite, explained Sylvester.

To investigate, the researchers ran a larger group of models many times, known as a large ensemble Earth system model. It is the first time this approach has been used for the Southern Ocean or for krill.

"Then we were able to look at the different trends and quantify how much the natural variability was masking the signal for climate change," said Sylvester.

The study is the first of its kind to use climate models to demonstrate that natural climate variability can obscure human-driven trends.

By being able to quantify how much change is likely to occur from natural variability, and separately from climate change, it allows everyone involved to plan better for the future and sustain krill for those who depend on it, said Professor Brooks.

"Even if we won't see this really strong signal from climate change until later, what's important for us to understand is that the Southern Ocean is a very dynamic system and we absolutely have to be managing for natural variability," explained Professor Brooks. "And we should be ready to manage the broader impacts of climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Krill face a double whammy of climate change

Krill populations in the Southern Ocean are projected to decline...

Turbulence serves a source of energy that birds can use to their advantage, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>. Instead of hindering the ability to fly, the experts found that turbulence seems to serve as a speed booster for birds. 

While the flight of birds may appear easy and graceful to earthbound spectators, winged animals are actually navigating air flow that is structured, textured and constantly in flux, explained Professor Gregory Bewley, who led the team.

For the investigation, the researchers partnered with two groups, Conservation Science Global and Cellular Tracking Technologies. The scientists captured a female golden eagle in Alabama and equipped the bird with a solar GPS telemetry unit that weighed less than three ounces.

Over the next 17 days, the eagle migrated north along the Appalachian Mountains toward Canada. During this time, the GPS "backpack" transmitted more than 200 hours of data including location, altitude, and speed through cellular networks.

The team also obtained wind speed data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction, and compared it to the eagle's flight measurements. This allowed the experts to identify the bird's various flying and non-flying behaviors.

The researchers identified a "highly irregular, fluctuating pattern" in the eagle's accelerations. This pattern resembled the typical trajectories of particles in turbulent airflows.

For time periods ranging from 0.5 to 10 seconds, or approximately 1 to 25 wingbeats, the eagle's accelerations were completely in sync with atmospheric turbulence.

Professor Bewley believes there are opportunities to harness the energy of turbulence, particularly for autonomous transport and small reconnaissance aircraft.

"If you could find a path in which every vortex is pushing you the right way, then obviously you get there a little faster with a little less energy," said Professor Bewley. "We're still working hard to understand turbulence by itself. I think it's fascinating that there might be some practical empirical knowledge embodied in wildlife that we don't appreciate yet."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Turbulence gives birds a speed boost

Turbulence serves a source of energy that birds can use...

Biodiversity hotspots along streams and rivers in California are threatened by intensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ducks-balance-water-pressure-while-diving/">water</a> management. Rare plant species living in streamside forests can benefit from water that humans are diverting for their own needs, but these benefits are only short term, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.esf.edu/">SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry</a>.

The experts report that natural communities have become dependent on an artificial water supply, threatening their long-term survival.

As water is rerouted from rivers, an environment is created that promotes a "live fast, die young" strategy among the trees in streamside forests. These trees peak and decline within a few decades, according to the report. 

Furthermore, the extensive changes to streams and river channels are fixed in place, which means that there are no new floodplain areas where young trees can become established.

Plants and animals in California rely on the rainy winter and spring seasons to replenish their water supply. Trees in streamside forests, including willows, cottonwoods, and oaks, seek out groundwater to survive dry summers. 

The researchers analyzed five years of vegetation greenness data from Google Earth satellite imagery. They found that many streamside forest ecosystems are dependent upon "subsidies of water" provided by human regulation of rivers, agricultural canals, and discharges from wastewater treatment plants. 

Rohde said the discovery of this artificially stable environment was a "mind bender." In the most arid regions of the state, altered streamside communities remained greener for longer into the dry season. These ecosystems were less responsive to changes in groundwater levels.

California's Central Valley produces a third of the produce for the United States. This is also site where many of the most-altered stream ecosystems were identified. 

The researchers noted that 95 percent of the natural floodplain woodlands have been cleared across the region since the Gold Rush of the 1850s. The isolated streamside forests that remain provide important habitats for many endangered species.

"We call these forests the 'living dead' because the forest floor is devoid of saplings and younger trees that can replace the mature trees when they die," said study lead author Melissa Rohde.

"California is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world, containing more species than the rest of the United States and Canada combined."

"In the midst of the sixth mass extinction, the long-term sustainability of California's river ecosystems and the preservation of the rare and endemic species that live within them now rely on the deliberate, coordinated management of resource and government agencies." 

Insights from the study will be used to provide scientific guidance to California natural resource agencies for sustainably managing streamside ecosystems.

"We need to be more intentional in incorporating ecosystem water needs when we manage water - both for aquatic organisms and species on land," said Rohde. 

"These forest ecosystems are in a precarious state because we have disrupted the natural hydrologic processes that these plant species rely upon to support and sustain key life processes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

California's streamside forests are threatened by water management

Biodiversity hotspots along streams and rivers in California are threatened...

The analysis of two 99 million-year-old fossils of the genus Oculudentavis has yielded some surprising results. Now that researchers have painstakingly examined the second fossil, they can confirm that the first was actually a lizard, even though it was initially believed to be a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-changing-which-birds-visit-your-backyard/">bird</a>. 

The species represented by the second fossil was named Oculudentavis naga in honor of the Naga people of Myanmar and India. The specimen, which is preserved in amber, consists of a partial skeleton, a complete skull, and visible scales and soft tissue.

The first fossil of this genus, Oculudentavis khaungraae, was mistakenly labeled as a hummingbird-sized dinosaur. Its original description as the smallest known bird was retracted last year. 

A team of experts led by Arnau Bolet of Barcelona's Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont used CT scans to digitally analyze and compare each bone in the two species. They found physical characteristics which confirmed that the tiny animals were lizards. 

Oculudentavis is so strange, however, it was difficult to categorize without close examination of its features, explained Bolet. "The specimen puzzled all of us at first because if it was a lizard, it was a highly unusual one."

"From the moment we uploaded the first CT scan, everyone was brainstorming what it could be," said Professor Juan Diego Daza of Sam Houston State University. "In the end, a closer look and our analyses help us clarify its position."

The characteristics that distinguished Oculudentavis as a lizard were the presence of scales, teeth attached directly to its jawbone, lizard-like eye structures and shoulder bones; and a hockey stick-shaped skull bone that is universal among scaled reptiles.

The team discovered that the skulls of both specimens had deformed during preservation. The distortions highlighted birdlike features in one skull and lizard-like features in the other, said study co-author Edward Stanley of the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>.

"Imagine taking a lizard and pinching its nose into a triangular shape," said Stanley. "It would look a lot more like a bird."

The two skulls did not closely resemble one another at first, but the researchers said their shared characteristics became clearer as they isolated each bone and compared them with each other. 

"We concluded that both specimens are similar enough to belong to the same genus, Oculudentavis, but a number of differences suggest that they represent separate species," Bolet said.

Professor Daza noted that the Cretaceous Period, 145.5 to 66 million years ago, gave rise to many lizard and snake groups on the planet today, but tracing fossils from this era to their closest living relatives can be difficult.

"We estimate that many lizards originated during this time, but they still hadn't evolved their modern appearance," said Professor Daza. "That's why they can trick us. They may have characteristics of this group or that one, but in reality, they don't match perfectly."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Strange prehistoric lizard was mistaken for a bird

The analysis of two 99 million-year-old fossils of the genus...

Some butterflies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-and-moths-are-struggling-to-adapt-to-climate-change/">moths</a> have achieved the ultimate self-defense mechanism. Species like the glasswing butterfly, Greta oto, have evolved transparent wings that make them nearly invisible to predators.

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> (MBL) set out to investigate how transparent structures, which are far more common in marine animals, developed in the glasswing butterfly.

"It's an interesting biological question because there just aren't that many transparent organisms on land," said study lead author Aaron Pomerantz, a PhD candidate at UC Berkeley. "So we asked the question, what is the actual developmental basis of how they create their transparent wings?"

The colorful patterns found on butterfly wings are created by tiny chitinous scales that reflect or absorb various wavelengths of light. 

Pomerantz explained that although scale coloration has been intensively studied, investigating the developmental origins of transparency in land-based butterflies hadn't been done before. "Transparency is sort of the opposite of color."

The current research was inspired by the work of students in MBL's Embryology course, which is taught by study co-author MBL Director Nipam Patel.

"I decided to bring some of the transparent butterfly and moth species I had in my collection, which I never really looked at in detail, to the course and present it as a challenge for the students to look at how these wings were transparent," said Patel.

"A group of students took that on by imaging the wings with various microscopes. And they realized that pretty much any way you could think to make the wing transparent, some butterfly or moth had figured out how to do it. That's what got us looking in more detail at the development of transparency."

The team used an advanced electron microscopy technique to construct a developmental time scale of how transparency emerged in the glasswing butterfly from the pupal stage to adulthood. 

The study revealed that the glasswing butterfly's wings do not develop in the same way as other opaque species. 

"What Greta oto does is to make fewer scales and to make them in these very different, bristle-like shapes," explained Patel. "But getting the scales out of the way is only part of the problem of creating transparency." 

"Aaron also made a series of observations about nanostructures on the wing that prevent glare in bright sunlight. When light hits these little arrays of nanostructures, it doesn't reflect off - it goes straight through. So that gives much better transparency."

"As humans, we think we're so brilliant because we figured out how to put anti-glare coating on glass, but butterflies basically figured that out tens of millions of years ago."

Beyond their unusual wing scales, the experts identified a second layer of waxy hydrocarbon nanopillars over the wing surface that enhance the anti-reflective properties. The researchers removed this waxy layer to compare the reflectivity of the wings with and without it. 

"We measured the amount of light that reflected off the wing," said Pomerantz. "Those experiments demonstrated that that upper layer was very important for helping to reduce that glare." 

Further research is needed to explore how these remarkable transparent structures evolved. Pomerantz noted that learning more about how nature creates new types of nanostructures could be very informative for human applications.

The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The glasswing butterfly has a unique type of transparency

Some butterflies and moths have achieved the ultimate self-defense mechanism....

Sweet Pittosporum is a fast-growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-forests-release-greenhouse-gas-emissions-in-tree-farts/">tree</a> that has become invasive in parts of Australia where it is not indigenous. The tree almost completely extinguishes the surrounding vegetation, but experts report that clearing the trees could allow this native vegetation to return.

In a new study from <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, scientists have investigated how clearing Pittosporum trees may affect birds such as the threatened Powerful Owl. The researchers found that the richness and abundance of birds is greatly reduced in areas with dense Pittosporum canopies.

"The almost complete absence of any understory vegetation and no ground cover means there is very little for birds to eat in invaded sites," said study lead author Dr. Ben O'Leary.

"Most habitat components for birds exists within the Eucalyptus overstorey and mid canopy. The presence or removal of Pittosporum doesn't appear to greatly influence ground storey bird species, which have been in long-term decline."

The study also showed that there are also fewer carnivorous birds in sites that have been invaded by Pittosporum trees, which is likely due to the lack of vegetation and prey on the ground.

"While invaded sites are not great habitat, restoration projects need to ensure that the full range of habitats continue to be available during the transition period," said Dr. O'Leary.

The removal of an invasive tree species without affecting other wildlife can be a challenge. In certain circumstances, the trees provide structural value to local flora and fauna. 

"The trick is balancing the progression of weed control with the retention of enough structure to support local plants and animals," said Dr. O'Leary.

Study co-author Ros Gleadow is a professor in the School of Biological Sciences who has been studying Pittosporum for over 40 years.

"It is important to get rid of the Pittosporum now," said Professor Gleadow. "Not only does it suppress the understorey, but in all these years, I have never seen a eucalypt seedling growing under a Pittosporum canopy."

"Once the old eucalypts at a site die, that's it and it of both native vegetation and birds is impossible without major intervention."

"For areas where Pittosporum is native, like around Sydney, management is philosophically complicated but there is no doubt that clearing will to help preserve biodiversity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26888319">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive Pittosporum trees are destroying owl habitats

Sweet Pittosporum is a fast-growing tree that has become invasive...

Butterflies and moths are resorting to drastic measures to cope with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-sunscreen-helps-blue-rice-corals-adapt-to-warming-climate/">climate</a> change. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a>, researchers have found that some moth and butterfly species in Finland have successfully adapted to a changing climate by advancing their flight period and moving farther north. 

On the other hand, roughly 40 percent of butterfly and moth species in Finland have not been able to make the necessary adjustments. As a result, their populations are declining.

"Roughly 45% of the species that we studied had either moved northward or advanced their flight period," said study study co-author Maria Hällfors. 

"They fared much better than the 40% of the species which had not responded in either way. On average, the populations of these poorly responding species had declined."

"The largest increase in abundance was seen in the 15% of the species that both moved northward and advanced their flight. This demonstrates that the ability to respond to a changing environment is vital for species."

The researchers emphasized that, in order to preserve biodiversity as climate change intensifies, it is of utmost importance to provide species with high quality, interconnected habitats that make it possible for them to adjust to the challenges generated by climate change.

In collaboration with the Finnish Environment Institute, the researchers analyzed the flight patterns, potential boundary shifts, and changes in abundance of 289 species of moths and butterflies over the course of about two decades. 

The study showed that nearly half of the species had moved northward, while only 27 percent had advanced their flight period.

"This finding deviates from observations made elsewhere in Europe where advancing the flight period has been much more common among Lepidoptera," said study co-author Juha Pöyry.

A lack of suitable habitat may explain why most species did not respond optimally to climate change by both advancing their flight and moving northward.

"For organisms to be able to respond to climate change by shifting their range further north, sufficient amounts of suitable habitats of high-quality are needed," said study co-author Mikko Kuussaari.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Butterflies and moths are struggling to adapt to climate change

Butterflies and moths are resorting to drastic measures to cope...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.calpoly.edu/">California Polytechnic State University</a>, researchers have found that noise and light pollution have a major influence on which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-can-control-single-muscle-fibers-while-singing/">birds</a> are visiting our backyards. The experts report that birds across the United States tend to avoid backyard feeders in areas with excessive noise, especially when light pollution is also present.

The experts obtained data from <a href="https://feederwatch.org/">Program FeederWatch</a>, which collects information from birdwatchers in thousands of communities throughout North America. The researchers focused their investigation on more than 3.4 million observations of 140 different bird species across the continental United States.

"Broadly speaking, we are just starting to dive into the consequences of light and noise for animals," said study lead author Ashley Wilson. "Most studies focus on a single species' responses to noise or light pollution. As such, our study involving 140 species provides the most comprehensive assessment of how noise and light influence which birds we see in our backyards and neighborhoods."

Many common bird species were found to avoid areas with excessive noise, including American goldfinches, cedar waxwings, and white-breasted nuthatches. In areas with both light and noise pollution, even more species avoided backyard feeders. 

"These responses would have been overlooked completely if we only focused on the influence of light or noise individually rather than considering the total exposure to both sensory pollutants," said Wilson. "Our overall influence on sensitive species could be more widespread than we originally thought."

The study revealed that noise and light pollution affect birds differently across distinct environments. For example, birds in forests were found to be more sensitive to pollutants than those that live in grasslands.

Seasonal patterns, such as the length of night, had an influence on how the birds responded to light pollution. During longer nights, nearly 50 species increased in abundance with light pollution.

"That many species are more abundant in lit areas when nights are longer could be because winter nights present challenging conditions, especially farther North where temperatures drop below freezing and birds use a lot of energy to stay warm and survive," said study senior author Professor Clint Francis. 

"It is possible that light at night provides the opportunity to stay active and continue eating into the night time hours. Still, exposure to light could create problems that we could not measure in this study, like altered sleep patterns and increased stress."

Noise and light pollution are expanding globally each year, and are even spreading into protected areas.

"If birds cannot tolerate the increased intensity and presence of these pollutants, then we may end up seeing fewer species in brightly lit and loud places, even in protected areas."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noise pollution is changing which birds visit your backyard

In a new study from California Polytechnic State University, researchers...

Approximately half a billion people, as well as 25 percent of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-circling-behavior-discovered-among-marine-mammals/">marine</a> life, depend on coral reef ecosystems. Despite being one of the most valuable types of ecosystem on the planet, coral reefs are declining at an alarming rate. 

In a new study from <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au/">Southern Cross University</a>, experts report that if the trend of decline continues at the current rate, coral reefs could stop calcifying by 2054. 

Coral growth is called calcification because corals take up calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to produce their skeletons. As the chemistry of seawater changes, calcification rates change as well.

The opposite of calcification is coral dissolution, which is when the skeletons release CaCO3 back into the water. Coral dissolution is typically a result of environmental stressors  such as ocean acidification and rising temperatures.

To investigate how coral reefs are responding to environmental stress, the researchers analyzed 116 studies from 53 papers published since the late 1960s. 

"It is known that coral reefs have been degrading over time. Our study relies on historical data to quantify the current rate of decline and indicates what could be happening in the future," said project leader Dr. Kay Davis.

"Our work complements quite a few other studies that indicate net coral reef dissolution by mid-century, between 2030 and 2080."

The research was focused on coral reefs all over the globe, including those in Australia, Japan, Hawaii, the Red Sea, French Polynesia, and Bermuda.

"Repeat observations at the same sites can provide insight into how coral reefs are responding to changing environmental conditions on a global scale," said Dr. Davis. "But these repeat surveys of calcification and productivity have only been carried out at seven sites."

The declining health of the remaining coral may be contributing to reduce global calcification rates, explained the researchers.

"We found that rates of coral ecosystem calcification are significantly declining at an average rate of 4.3% ± 1.9% yr-1 with a concurrent reduction in mean coral cover of 1.8% yr-1. This suggests that loss of coral cover may not be the sole contributor of declining calcification," said Dr. Davis.

"Stress events, like coral bleaching, can impact calcification, even without coral death. Corals improve their chances of survival during stressful times by temporarily reducing calcification."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coral reefs could completely stop growing by 2054

Approximately half a billion people, as well as 25 percent...

Sound plays a major role in the battle between a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-mantis-shrimp-are-ferocious-predators/">predator</a> and its prey, and moths have found a way to use acoustics to evade bats, according to a new study. 

The experts report that some moths have developed a form of acoustic camouflage in the form of structures on their bodies and wings that can absorb ultrasound. This decreases the strength of a bat's echolocation call that is used to detect nearby prey.

During the 180th Meeting of the <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a>, Thomas Neil from the University of Bristol will discuss how moths have developed anti-bat defenses in their wings.

"The wings of a moth will produce strong echoes to a hunting bat owing to their large size," said Neil. "As such, it is important the moth cloaks the wing with sound-absorbing material, so it matches the acoustic camouflage brought about by the fur on the body." 

"The only way to create the much thinner sound absorber allowed on the wings is by developing a resonant absorber, and we discovered moth wings have evolved this approach."

According to the researchers, the scales covering moth wings allow as much as 70 percent of the sound hitting them to be absorbed. What is even more amazing is that the scales are individually tuned to different frequencies. Together, they create broadband absorption by acting as the first known acoustic metamaterial in nature

Neil said that the strategies identified in moths have already been partially explored from a theoretical and technical standpoint. 

One of the advantages of using a metamaterial design is that the absorbers can be much thinner than the wavelength of the sound they absorb. For example, moths have absorbers that are 100 times thinner than the wavelength of a bat's vocalization.

"In theory, we could take inspiration from the moths and build sound absorbing panels made from lots of differently tuned resonating paddles, with the goal of achieving sound absorption that is on par with traditional sound absorber panels but being just a fraction of the width," said Neil. 

"With this approach, we would be getting close to a much more versatile and acceptable sound absorber wallpaper rather than the typically bulky absorber panels we use today."

The research will be presented at the <a href="https://www.emedevents.com/online-cme-courses/live-webinar/180th-meeting-acoustical-society-of-america-asa">180th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Moth wings have structures that help them avoid bats

Sound plays a major role in the battle between a...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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