A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp;



This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whale sharks</a>, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp;



Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is essential for crafting effective measures to protect them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collecting-data-on-whale-shark-behavior">Collecting data on whale shark behavior </h2>



At Ningaloo Reef, a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> on the northwestern coast of Western Australia, annual expeditions have taken place each May from 2009 to 2024. This specific timeframe captures the peak period when whale sharks migrate to the region and aggregate in considerable numbers.&nbsp;



Scientists have used these field seasons to observe and collect data on the behaviors of whale sharks, hoping to uncover patterns that would illuminate everything from feeding habits to potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-mating-behaviors-of-leopard-seals-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a>.



During the 2024 expedition, a research team documented a mature male whale shark engaging in what appeared to be following and biting behaviors toward a smaller female shark.&nbsp;



Although it remains unclear if this encounter culminated in mating, the new observations provide a rare glimpse into the courtship interactions of these elusive giants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-hand-accounts-of-unusual-behavior">First-hand accounts of unusual behavior</h2>



“Following and biting are common copulation behaviours in other species within the subclass of cartilaginous fish that the whale shark belongs to,” explained PhD candidate Christine Barry, a member of <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Murdoch University</a>’s Harry Butler Institute and the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



Barry and her colleagues noted that these behaviors have been observed in several other cartilaginous fish, including various shark species. Such actions typically denote an attempt by the male to stabilize or secure the female’s position during mating.



“This is also consistent with previous reports by fishers recounting behaviours they’d observed out on the water of sexually mature males towards females at different aggregation sites,” Barry added.&nbsp;



These anecdotes, now supported by direct evidence, add weight to the idea that whale sharks’ mating rituals may mirror those of other large sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-mating-clues">Piecing together mating clues</h2>



The research team, led by Barry alongside Dr. Mark Meekan of the University of Western Australia, published their conclusions in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1507072/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



According to Barry, it is unlikely that the encounter during this expedition resulted in a successful mating event. Nonetheless, the instance of following and biting strongly suggests that whale shark mating behavior follows a pattern akin to many other shark species.



By placing these newly documented behaviors in the broader context of whale shark biology, scientists can form hypotheses regarding the mating process of the species.&nbsp;



Additionally, the research group underscores that knowledge of how whale sharks court and reproduce can significantly boost conservation efforts, particularly as populations remain vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoidance-behavior-by-female-whale-sharks">Avoidance behavior by female whale sharks </h2>



Whale sharks, which can grow up to 12 meters or more in length, have a global distribution in warm temperate and tropical waters. Despite their widespread presence, many aggregation sites show an overwhelming number of males.&nbsp;



“At Ningaloo Reef, and many aggregation sites around the world, males outnumber females with a ratio of one female to three males,” Barry said. The reasons behind this imbalance have puzzled scientists for years.



“This could explain why female whale sharks may be avoiding aggregation sites. Particularly for juvenile female sharks, the energetic costs of unwanted attention from males could imply a reason for strong male biases,” Barry added.&nbsp;



Female whale sharks, particularly younger ones, might seek refuge in areas with fewer adult males to steer clear of the stress and energy demands associated with repeated courtship attempts.&nbsp;



This avoidance behavior could be a crucial factor influencing whale shark population structures at various aggregation points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



One pressing question is what these findings mean for managing whale shark populations worldwide. As an endangered species, whale sharks already face numerous challenges, including interactions with fisheries, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/basking-sharks-are-exceptionally-vulnerable-to-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel strikes</a>, and habitat degradation.&nbsp;



Understanding their mating behavior, including how males and females interact at aggregation sites, can aid biologists and policymakers in deciding how to protect critical habitats - such as identifying areas where females can avoid male-dominated gatherings.



The annual expeditions at Ningaloo Reef also serve as a model for studying whale sharks in their natural environment without relying on anecdotal sightings.&nbsp;



By systematically gathering data and applying scientific methods, researchers can more accurately identify patterns and track changes in whale shark behavior over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continuation-of-whale-shark-research">Continuation of whale shark research</h2>



This new information about potential mating interactions is just the latest in a series of findings by Christine Barry, Dr. Meekan, and other scientists at Murdoch University’s School of Environmental and Conservation Sciences and partner institutions.&nbsp;



Their previous studies have covered topics ranging from the impact of tourism on whale shark well-being to prey dynamics in waters frequented by these fish.



Moving forward, the researchers intend to broaden their focus to include additional observational and genetic studies, in hopes of confirming how often such pre-mating behaviors occur and what leads to successful reproduction.&nbsp;



In this way, the data gleaned at Ningaloo Reef and other aggregation sites may help scientists develop clearer conservation strategies tailored to the unique reproductive needs of whale sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-largest-fish-in-the-sea">Saving the largest fish in the sea</h2>



The newly documented behaviors at Ningaloo Reef represent a pivotal step in unraveling one of the great mysteries of marine biology: how whale sharks reproduce.&nbsp;



While much remains to be learned about courtship and mating in these gentle ocean giants, the direct observations of following and biting offer valuable context for a species that has long eluded scientific understanding.



With further research, scientists hope to clarify whether female whale sharks avoid highly male-dominated sites as a means to reduce the stress and energy costs of unwanted attention.&nbsp;



Such knowledge could shape guidelines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> and responsible ecotourism that minimize disturbances to whale shark breeding practices.&nbsp;



Ultimately, uncovering the nuances of whale shark mating is a vital piece of the puzzle in ensuring the survival of these endangered animals for generations to come.



-----



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Whale shark mating behaviors observed for the first time in the wild

A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp; This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp; Whale sharks, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp; Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is...

Giant Galapagos tortoises that live in human-dominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-of-rewilding-efforts-depends-on-the-landscape/">landscapes</a> have increased levels of antibiotic resistance, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</a>.

The experts found that the number of bacteria with resistant genes was higher in tortoises who had human contact compared to those that live in more isolated ecosystems.

"Human activities are facilitating the dispersal of resistance into the environment, which has already been observed in other parts of the world, but which has never been demonstrated on the Galapagos Islands," said study lead author Ainoa Nieto.

According to the World Health Organization, antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to public health. The WHO estimates that by 2050, resistance to antibiotics could cause more deaths than cancer, diabetes, or traffic accidents. 

The new study has detected antibiotic resistant bacteria in the Galapagos archipelago for the first time.

For their investigation, the researchers collected samples from 270 tortoises in two Galapagos sites with different characteristics - the island of Santa Cruz, which has the largest human population, and the remote volcano of Alcedo on the island Isabela.

Overall, 21 genes were analysed that codify resistance for eight of the antibiotic families most commonly used in human and animal medicine.

"We don't know the real implications that this discovery could have for the health of giant tortoises, but resistance is considered environmental pollution, and the fact that species as iconic as Galapagos tortoises are entering into contact with these resistant bacteria implies that the ecosystem in which they live is being contaminated," explained study co-author Casilda Rodríguez.

The researchers said their findings suggest that human activities in Galapagos have a negative impact on ecosystem health through the dispersal of antimicrobial resistant genes.

"This research highlights a new threat for the health and conservation of the unique wildlife of the Galapagos, their ecosystems, and the humans inhabiting this World Heritage Site," wrote the study authors.

"Our recommendation to local policy makers is to control and reduce the use of antibiotics in both human and animal health, thus helping enforce antimicrobial regulations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-pollution">Environmental Pollution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antibiotic resistance found in giant tortoises of Galapagos

Giant Galapagos tortoises that live in human-dominated landscapes have increased...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.mtu.edu/">Michigan Technological University</a> have uncovered new information on two iconic wildlife populations that inhabit Isle Royale - an island of the Great Lakes located northwest of Lake Superior. 

The researchers found evidence that wolves are thriving in the region, while the moose population appears to be in a state of decline.

The COVID-19 pandemic canceled the wintertime survey of wolves and moose on Isle Royale for the first time in 63 years. The MTU team visited the remote national park in the spring, gaining new insights into wolf and moose abundance. The experts report that the Isle Royale wolf population is likely growing. 

"We recovered footage of a group of four wolf pups taken in January 2021 by remote cameras at the east end of Isle Royale," said Professor Sarah Hoy. "Additionally, observations of tracks and scats left by wolf pups last fall at two different locations suggest that there were probably two different litters of pups living at the east end of the island in September 2020."

"Wolf foraging behavior seems driven by minimizing the risks associated with killing large prey, like moose, even when the differences in vulnerability among individual moose might seem relatively subtle compared to when predators are choosing between different prey species."

The moose population is particularly sensitive to nutritional stress, which has concerning implications for how the animals will respond to a warming climate. 

"We found that the nutritional health of moose was importantly influenced by how hot it is during the summer, and also by how deep the snow is in winter," said Hoy. "Moose tended to be more nutritionally stressed during winters with deep snow, which may be because deeper snow makes it more difficult for moose to move around and find food."

The moose population is likely declining, and Hoy noted that moose really struggled to find enough food this past winter. 

"Because there have been such large numbers of moose on the island over the last five years and moose ate branches faster than the trees can recover and replace them, the amount of food available to moose during winter has been getting progressively worse each year since 2017."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Iconic wildlife populations are declining on Isle Royale

Scientists at Michigan Technological University have uncovered new information on...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>, researchers have used trail cameras to study interactions between white-tailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cortisol-levels-can-be-used-to-predict-mortality-in-newborn-deer/">deer</a> fawns and their predators in human-dominated landscapes. The investigation revealed that when fawns feel that they are constantly in danger, they seem to relax instead of trying to head for cover. 

The experts compare this phenomenon to the effects of "burnout" in humans who endure chronic stress. The results of the study suggest that prey animals experience their own version of burnout.

"And you can understand why they do," said study lead author Asia Murphy, who recently graduated with a doctorate from Penn State's Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Ecology. 

"Less than half of whitetail fawns live to see their first birthday, and many are killed by predators, such as coyotes, black bears and bobcats. Fawns instinctively 'know' they are in constant danger."

Ironically, said Murphy, the presence of humans - who would protect the fawns if they could - only ratchets up the stress the young animals experience. The fawns instinctively avoid areas with people, which further limits the part of the landscape they can use to feed and evade predators.

"The presence of people creates an environment where the danger seems so high that the animals basically stop having vigilance behaviors," said Murphy. "That was the surprising thing about my research - when fawns perceive that there is so much danger coming from so many sources, their behavior seemed like they just relaxed, like there's no point in being ready to hide or flee. I saw that in older deer, too."

Murphy noted that in areas where there are many predators and people present, fawns seem to relax instead of acting hypervigilant. "Like so much constant stress leaves them burned out."

The research was designed to investigate how human-dominated landscapes influence interactions between humans, black bears, coyotes, bobcats and fawns. The researchers compared camera trap data from surveys in six forested sites across Pennsylvania. The sites had different surroundings, including forest, agriculture, and developed areas.

The researchers found that bears, bobcats, coyotes, fawns, and adult deer all had more frequent overlaps in the agriculture and development sites compared to the mostly unbroken forest site. 

"By taking into account the different antipredator behaviors that can be detected and the different scales at which these behaviors might occur, we were able to gain a more comprehensive picture of how humans reduce available niche space for wildlife," said Murphy. 

"It was clear that disturbed landscapes - agriculture and development - create more time and space overlap between predators and fawns."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Constant danger leaves deer fawns in a state of burnout

In a new study from Penn State, researchers have used...

A devastating heatwave in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia has killed hundreds of millions of sea creatures. Mussels, clams, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-waters-disease-predator-sea-star/">sea stars</a>, crabs, and other animals literally baked in the heat as temperatures soared over 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

During the last week of June, dozens of cities in the Northwestern U.S. and western Canada broke their all-time record high temperatures - some by four or five degrees. The heat dome lingered over the region for at least five days, killing hundreds of people and triggering nearly 200 wildfires in British Columbia alone.

Professor Christopher Harley, a marine biologist at the University of British Columbia, has been studying how the heatwave impacted marine animals on a Vancouver-area beach. He estimates that nearly one billion sea creatures were essentially cooked alive in the heat. 

"This is a preliminary estimate based on good data, but I'm honestly worried that it's a substantial underestimate," Professor Harley told <a href="https://www.npr.org/">NPR</a>. He compared what he has seen of the mass mortality event to a post apocalyptic movie.

"I've been working in the Pacific Northwest for most of the past 25 years, and I have not seen anything like this here. This is far more extensive than anything I've ever seen."

"I'm also looking for all these dead barnacles. I've been hearing from people about dead clams and crabs and intertidal anemones and sea stars. And once you really start factoring in all these different species, it's been a huge catastrophe for marine life."

Professor Harley told NPR that while extreme heat in the Pacific Northwest is "exceptionally rare," he's seen estimates from other scientists that similar heat waves could start occurring once every five to ten years. "If it happens that frequently, the system won't have time to recover in between the die-offs."

The majority of the sea creatures lost were mussels, and losing so many at once could lead to devastating impacts - both in the water and on land. 

"Mussels are what's known as a foundation species because a lot of the ecosystem depends upon them... so losing the mussel bed would be losing all the apartment buildings in a city core," explained Professor Harley.

"The craziest thing is that it's just the tip of the iceberg," Professor Malin Pinsky of Rutgers University told NPR. "We can see the mussels because they're on the shoreline, but to a large extent, oceans are out of sight, out of mind, so we're likely to learn the magnitude of what's happening only much later."

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hundreds of millions of sea creatures killed in historic heatwave

A devastating heatwave in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia...

For three decades, Professor Hisayoshi Nozaki has collected algae samples from the Sagami River an hour outside of Tokyo, Japan. This work was part of a research project aimed at gaining a deeper understanding of sexes. Now, that research is finally paying off. 

Samples first collected in 2007 and 2013 from a dam lake show a strange species of algae. What makes the algae species, Pleodorina starrii, interesting is that it comes in three sexes. 

Individuals of each of the sexes breed in pairs. The third sex which scientists are calling ‘bisexual’ can produce both male and female sex cells. 

This may sound like a case of hermaphroditism but it’s subtly different. Hermaphrodites are indeed organisms that produce both male and female sex cells, however this is due to abnormal gene expression. 

In the case of P. starrii, the third sex is completely normal. A few other plants and some invertebrate animals have three sexes, although this is the first case of an algae with three sexes. 

“It seems very uncommon to find a species with three sexes, but in natural conditions, I think it may not be so rare," explained Professor Nozaki.

There are even ancient organisms with sexes referred to as ‘plus’ and ‘minus’ rather than male and female. Later in evolution, sexes evolved to be quite different from one another, such as in mammals the small sperm cells and large egg cells. 

P. starrii is a good model organism for studying the evolution of sex because, it has a different reproductive strategy than its closest relatives, representing an evolutionary change. 

To study their reproduction, colonies of different sexes are reared in the lab and forced to reproduce sexually. Males grow sperm packets which are released, and the sperm swim until they come into contact with a female colony. 

The researchers discovered that this third sex in P. starrii has previously isolated both the male and female genes in the algae. It is their hope to continue research and make more discoveries about the nature of sex.

"This finding was possible because of our very long-term experience of going on field collection trips and our practice growing and studying algae," said Professor Nozaki.

"Continued, long-term studies are very important to unveil the true nature of species in the natural world."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15585646">Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Algae species with three sexes discovered in Japan

For three decades, Professor Hisayoshi Nozaki has collected algae samples...

Spotted hyenas live in clans, sometimes numbering as many as 100 individuals. Within a clan, the status of each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jumping-spiders-know-the-difference-between-animals-and-objects/">animal</a> is determined by its standing in the social hierarchy. 

Female hyenas are dominant to males and the leader of each clan is an alpha female. High-ranking individuals tend to have better rates of survival and reproduction.

While researchers understand the dynamics of hyena social hierarchies quite well, they have never uncovered how the status of a mother is passed on to her offspring, when no genetics is involved in this inheritance.

In a recent study by biologists from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, it was established that young hyenas not only copy their mother’s behavior, but they also inherit their mother’s network of “friends."

"We knew that the social structure of hyenas is based in part on one's rank in the agonistic hierarchy, which we know is inherited from mothers," said study co-author Professor Erol Akçay. "But what we found, that affiliative, or friendly interactions, are also inherited, hadn't been shown."

The study was based on 27 years of observations on hyena social behavior, collected by study co-author Kay Holekamp of Michigan State University. In particular, the proximity of an individual to others was used to map out social networks among clan members. 

"With hyenas, if one individual gets within a few meters of another, that suggests they have a social connection," explained Amiyaal Ilany, a senior lecturer at Israel's Bar-Ilan University.

Once researchers had a picture of each individual's social connections, they could compare the networks of mothers and offspring. Clearly, while a cub is young it spends most of its time with its mother and both of them interact with the same individuals. But even when cubs grow older and spend less time with their mothers, they maintain the same social connections.

This pattern was particularly strong for high-ranking mothers and their female cubs, where network similarity was still very high, even when cubs were six years old, according to Ilany.

In Holekamp’s opinion, hyena cubs form relationships with their mothers’ close allies early in life, thus cementing their own social standing and rank for the duration of their adult lives.

This study illustrates that genes are not the only factors that can influence evolutionary processes, such as reproductive success and survival. 

"A lot of things that are considered by default to be genetically determined may depend on environmental and social processes," said Ilany.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

–—

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hyenas inherit their mother's social network

Spotted hyenas live in clans, sometimes numbering as many as...

Whereas most animal species breed throughout their lives, humans and a few species of whales experience menopause. This is a time when the older females no longer reproduce but rather invest their energy and knowledge in helping their offspring and grand-offspring to survive. 

Scientists have long puzzled over why menopause exists and how it evolved. Studies on killer whales have provided new evidence in this field. Killer whales occur in oceans throughout the world but are divided into distinct ecotypes based on differences in their hunting tactics and social behavior. 

Previous research on the ecotype known as “resident” killer whales has shown that females spend around 30% of their lives in a post-reproductive state. Resident killer whales feed mostly on salmon and live together in large groups. Females in the group become more and more genetically related to the group over time (since their offspring remain in the group), so it makes sense that “grandmothering” would be a useful evolutionary strategy for mature females. 

New research has recently been conducted on a different ecotype, known as Bigg’s killer whales. These particular whales specialize in hunting seals, which is a widely dispersed food item in comparison to a large shoal of salmon. For this reason, Bigg’s killer whales live in small groups and individuals tend to leave the group on reaching maturity. 

"Some sons and daughters stay with their mother, but overall we predict a weaker pattern of increased relatedness to fellow group members as a whale ages,” explained study lead author Mia Lybkær Kronborg Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. Weaker relatedness implies less evolutionary reason to stop reproducing and enter menopause. 

The study used more than 40 years of data on Bigg's and resident whales, and found that females from both ecotypes were post-reproductive for around 30% of their adult years. 

According to Professor Darren Croft, it is not immediately clear why the age at menopause and the length of the post-reproductive lifespan seems to be the same in both.

Further research is needed in order to understand these findings. In future, drones will be used to investigate how “grandmothering” by mature whales contributes to the survival of their offspring and grand-offspring. 

"Not only do the results contribute to a better understanding of animal evolution, they have significant implications for conservation by shedding light on the importance of social structure for the recovery of these populations," explained study co-autor Thomas Doniol-Valcroze.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.

–—

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Is “grandmothering” in killer whales a stable evolutionary strategy?

Whereas most animal species breed throughout their lives, humans and...

Scientists have long known that a rat will try to help another rat in distress, but only if it belongs to the same ingroup. Now researchers at <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a> have identified the brain regions that are active when rats experience empathy and when they decide whether to help or not.

For the study, the behavior and brain activity of unconstrained rats were monitored when they were in the presence of another rat trapped in a small, transparent cylinder. Brain imaging techniques such as photometry, immunohistochemistry and calcium imaging enabled researchers to conclude that all the rats experienced empathy in response to the distressed rat's signals. 

During the rats’ experience of empathy, the brain’s sensory and orbitofrontal regions were activated, as well as the anterior insula. These regions are also active when humans and other animals experience empathy.

However, the experience of empathy only led to helping behaviour when the trapped rat was part of the same ingroup. Then an unconstrained rat would lean on, or butt its head against, the door to release the captive.  

The rats’ decision to help was associated with activity in the nucleus accumbens, a reward center in the brain, with neurotransmitters that include dopamine and serotonin. Similar neural networks are involved in empathic helping in humans. 

"Surprisingly, we found that the network associated with empathy is activated when you see a distressed peer, whether they are in the ingroup or not," said Daniela Kaufer, study senior author and professor of neuroscience and integrative biology at UC Berkeley. "In contrast, the network associated with reward signaling was active only for ingroup members and correlated with helping behavior."

"We have found that the group identity of the distressed rat dramatically influences the neural response and decision to help, revealing the biological mechanism of ingroup bias," said Professor Kaufer.

The findings suggest that altruistic behavior in rodents, and probably in humans too, is influenced by social relationships and familiarity rather than purely by sympathy. 

This has bearing in the modern world where conflicts between different racial, religious, and ethnic groups are increasing, globally; this study suggests that social integration and fostering of a common group identity would be most effective in boosting cooperation between people in these circumstances.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

–—

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rat brains are wired to help their loved ones in times of crisis

Scientists have long known that a rat will try to...

A new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a> looks at the ability of jumping spiders to use their peripheral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australian-bees-adapted-their-vision-to-forage-at-night/">vision</a> to distinguish between objects and living creatures. 

Being able to detect other animals allows the finding of mates, stalking of prey, and the avoidance of predators. Animals betray a pattern of movement because of their jointed limbs across vertebrates and many invertebrates. 

Scientists have known for a long time that most vertebrates can quickly notice this pattern. Now, the experts report, jumping spiders have proven their own ability to notice other animals in their surroundings. 

To come to this conclusion, the researchers caught and partially restrained 60 jumping spiders (Menemerus semilimbatus) on a round treadmill. On either side of the treadmill, video screens flashed patterns of light that were only visible to outside eyes. Some of the patterns were random, while others mimicked movement patterns of animals. 

The results showed that the spiders were more likely to turn and face the random patterns than those showing animal movement patterns. 

It may seem counterintuitive that the spiders would prefer to face the random patterns, but the researchers explain that the spiders do this to focus their other eyes on a movement they don’t recognize and investigate, rather than watch organismal movement that they do recognize. 

Interestingly, complex vision evolved separately in vertebrates and invertebrates, so the ability to identify living things with peripheral vision almost certainly evolved separately as well. This convergent evolution shows how important it is to be able to identify potential prey, predators, and mates. 

The research says a lot about the evolution of sight in general as well, since this ability was only known of in vertebrates previously. The scientists are excited to see what other secrets jumping spiders may be hiding.    

"Jumping spiders' secondary eyes confirm themselves to be a marvelous tool," said study lead author Massimo De Agrò of Harvard University. "In this experiment, we observed how they alone can tell apart living from non-living organisms, using the semi-rigid pattern of motion that characterize the formers and without the aid of any shape cue." 

"Finding the presence of this skill, previously known only in vertebrates, opens up new and exciting perspectives on the evolution of visual perception. My co-authors and I can't wait to see what other visual cues can be perceived and understood by these tiny creatures."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">Plos Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jumping spiders know the difference between animals and objects

A new study published by PLOS looks at the ability...

The spiny genitalia of male seed beetles promote reproductive success and good genes, according to a new study. Despite the risk of potential injury, females who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-dragonflies-are-thriving-in-a-warmer-climate/">mate</a> with these beetles also have something very important to gain - healthier offspring. 

The new insights will help scientists understand how complex mating interactions have evolved between males and females. 

Study lead author Göran Arnqvist is a professor of Animal Ecology in the Department of Ecology and Genetics at Uppsala University.

"This helps us understand is connected with the evolutionary dance between males and females of all animal species, and the resulting differences between them - sexual dimorphism - that we observe," said Professor Arnqvist.

"It's important to understand this evolutionary dance that we're all caught up in. We can show that this intricate process is influenced and governed by several different processes at the same time."

The mechanisms that underlie mating interactions are complex, and have developed throughout evolution. 

In the case of insects, it is pretty common for males to develop spiny sex organs for reproductive success. There is a trade-off, however, in that these structures can damage the reproductive tract of the females.  

For the investigation, the researchers bred various strains of the seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus. Some of the males had mating organs with large spines, while others had organs with small spines. 

The study revealed that the male beetles with the longest thorns spines had the greatest success with the opposite sex. At the same time, the females suffered severe injuries during mating. 

Despite their injuries, the females had more viable offspring. In other words, there is a genetic link between big spines and good genes.

"Our experiments indicate that the females do pay a high price for mating with successful males -getting injured - but also that the females simultaneously obtain genetic advantages for their offspring," said Professor Arnqvist.

"Our results provide support for a more nuanced view of mating interactions in the animal world, where behaviors can be shaped by several effects, and seemingly different evolutionary forces, at the same time."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spiny genitalia of seed beetles linked to reproductive success

The spiny genitalia of male seed beetles promote reproductive success...

Waterfleas are known to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-changes-in-birds-evolved-separately-from-earlier-migrations/">evolve</a> incredibly quickly in response to predation. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>, researchers have taken a close look at 300 variable genes that make up roughly three percent of the waterflea genome. 

These variable genes seem to be the basis for life-saving changes in behavior and life history that come as a response to predators. The changes spread through a population very quickly - within only a couple of generations.

Rapid genetic changes are possible because of high genetic diversity that is already present in the population. 

"We were able to quantify the genetic diversity of one particular Daphnia population over nearly two decades and show clearly how rapid evolution took place in response to environmental pressures," said lead researcher Dr. Anurag Chaturvedi.

"This type of research will be invaluable for understanding the potential impacts of future environmental changes on animal populations."

The study highlights the importance of genetic diversity in a population of animals, and could translate into conservation decision making. Waterfleas themselves are important to the ecology of freshwater ponds as integral strands of the food web.  

The waterfleas were reared and exposed to fish, their genetics closely monitored to show changes to the genome in direct response to fish predation. 

Interestingly, the research showed that no more than five waterfleas from a regional set were required to supply enough genetic diversity to allow anti-predation evolutionary responses. These results show that genetic diversity in quickly evolving animals can be maintained at the landscape level, an important lesson for conservation biology.   

"Our ability to investigate populations that evolve across decades is invaluable for both fundamental and applied science discoveries," said Dr. Chaturvedi.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>. 

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By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Waterfleas evolve in just a couple of generations

Waterfleas are known to evolve incredibly quickly in response to...

Scientists have long known that single-celled algae called dinoflagellates are essential for the health of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-sunscreen-helps-blue-rice-corals-adapt-to-warming-climate/">corals</a>. In a classic case of symbiosis, the algae photosynthesize inside of corals, providing essential nutrients. The corals, in turn, provide shelter in the stony structures they build to the vulnerable dinoflagellates.

Recently, this relationship has become threatened by warming oceans and pollution, which contribute to coral bleaching. This is when stressed corals expel their dinoflagellate symbionts, leading to dead and ghostly pale reefs. Seeking to understand the symbiotic relationship of corals and algae, <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">OIST</a> researchers have taken a closer look at the most common type of tropical corals.

Corals from the Acroporidae family are the main stony reef building coral found in tropical and subtropical waters. These corals are also especially vulnerable to bleaching. 

“For coral reef conservation, it's vital for us to fully understand the partnership between stony coral and the algae that live inside these animals, at the level of a single cell. But until recently, this was very hard to achieve," explained study co-first author Professor Kaz Kawamura of Kochi University.

Historically, corals have been extremely difficult to grow in the lab, and scientists had to rely on close relatives of corals to stand in for them in research sometimes. In April of this year, the research team changed that, publishing details of their success of raising coral in a culture. 

Roughly 40 percent of the newly cultured coral polyps reached out to make contact with dinoflagellates. Within about thirty minutes, the algae were engulfed by the corals. 

Some of the corals actually broke down their would-be symbionts for food, the rest successfully became hosts. The fact that some of the dinoflagellates were actually consumed by the coral hints at how the relationship may have evolved by accident so long ago. 

"It may be that originally, the ancestors of coral engulfed these algae and broke them down for food. But then over time, they evolved to use the algae for photosynthesis instead," said study co-first author Dr. Satoko Sekida.

Hopefully, the researchers learned some things that may help corals survive a long time into the future. Next, they hope to achieve a stable culture where both the coral cells and dinoflagellates can reproduce together.

"This would be very exciting as then we can ask new questions, like how the corals react when placed under stress," said Professor Satoh. "This could give us a more complete understanding of how bleaching occurs, and how we can mitigate it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Individual corals seen engulfing algae for the first time

Scientists have long known that single-celled algae called dinoflagellates are...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...