Saber-toothed predators are the poster animals of prehistoric times, dominating the spotlight in countless narratives of Earth's history. Among them, the infamous Smilodon stands out as one of the most recognized icons of ancient wildlife.



Yet, the story of these formidable hunters continues to evolve as new insights reveal the "optimal function" of their extreme teeth - remarkably efficient tools for sinking into their prey with precision and power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-adaptability-of-saber-toothed-predators">Limited adaptability of saber-toothed predators </h2>



But if these fangs were so perfect, why did saber-toothed predators vanish? Ironically, their greatest strength may have also led to their downfall.



Saber-tooth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fangs</a> acted like an "evolutionary ratchet," ensuring the hunting prowess of animals but limiting their adaptability. When ecosystems shifted and prey grew scarcer, their reliance on these specialized adaptations left them increasingly vulnerable to extinction.



It may come as a surprise that saber-toothed predators evolved multiple times across different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapsids-worlds-oldest-ancestor-of-mammals-discovered-so-far-had-saber-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> groups. This fascinating discovery emerged from a study led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and Monash University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-extreme-adaptations">The evolution of extreme adaptations</h2>



The team set out to analyze whether the saber-tooth shape was the ideal mix for two competing demands. The teeth needed to be sharp and slender enough to penetrate prey efficiently, while being blunt and robust enough to resist breakage.



To investigate, the scientists used a combination of 3D-printed steel tooth replicas, advanced computer simulations, and biting experiments. They studied 95 different carnivorous mammal teeth, including 25 sabre-toothed species.



“Our study helps us better understand how extreme adaptations evolve - not just in saber-toothed predators but across nature," explained Dr. Tahlia Pollock, a member of the Palaeobiology Research Group in Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-strategies-of-saber-toothed-predators">Hunting strategies of saber-toothed predators </h2>



Traditionally, saber-toothed predators were categorized into two groups: "dirk-toothed" and "scimitar-toothed." The latest study disrupts that notion, revealing a continuum of saber-tooth shapes.



From the long, curved teeth of Barbourofelis fricki to the straighter, more robust teeth of Dinofelis barlowi, a wide variety of fang structures were discovered.



This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> employed a more diverse array of hunting strategies than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-biology-and-biomechanics">Evolutionary biology and biomechanics</h2>



The experts plan to widen their research to encompass all tooth types, aiming to uncover the biomechanical trade-offs that have influenced dental structures' evolution across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealth-inequality-exists-in-the-animal-kingdom-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>.



Professor Alistair Evans, from the School of Biological Sciences at Monash University, elaborated on the implications of the research.



“The findings not only deepen our understanding of saber-toothed predators but also have broader implications for evolutionary biology and biomechanics,” said Professor Evans. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-diversity-of-saber-toothed-predators">Evolutionary diversity of saber-toothed predators</h2>



Saber-toothed predators were not confined to a single species or era. Their distinctive fangs evolved independently across various mammalian groups, including felids, nimravids, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-saber-toothed-marsupial-fossil-found-in-the-tatacoa-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marsupials</a>.



This repeated evolution suggests a powerful advantage conferred by this trait under specific environmental conditions. 



However, the researchers found that these adaptations were not one-size-fits-all. Each group tailored its tooth shape to its unique ecological niche, creating a spectrum of hunting strategies rather than a rigid dichotomy of "dirk-toothed" and "scimitar-toothed" predators.



By combining 3D-printed replicas and biomechanical simulations, scientists identified how subtle variations in tooth design impacted both hunting efficiency and durability. 



For example, the elongated, curved fangs of some species were ideal for deep punctures, while straighter, sturdier teeth could withstand the strain of subduing larger prey.



This diversity challenges the traditional narrative, painting a picture of predators that were as varied as the ecosystems they once roamed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



Understanding the biomechanics of saber-toothed predators is more than a window into the past; it has significant implications for modern science and engineering.



The principles uncovered in this study could inspire innovations in materials science, particularly in designing tools and structures that balance sharpness with durability. For example, engineers could apply these insights to develop surgical instruments or industrial cutting tools optimized for specific tasks.



Additionally, this research highlights the fragility of specialized adaptations in the face of environmental change. 



As we grapple with rapid biodiversity loss in the present day, the fate of saber-toothed predators serves as a cautionary tale. Their extinction highlights the importance of maintaining balanced ecosystems where species can adapt and thrive.



Studying the evolutionary trade-offs that led to their rise and fall provides valuable lessons for understanding the vulnerabilities of modern predators and prey alike.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01626-9?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982224016269%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Saber-toothed predators evolved the perfect fangs for hunting

Saber-toothed predators are the poster animals of prehistoric times, dominating the spotlight in countless narratives of Earth's history. Among them, the infamous Smilodon stands out as one of the most recognized icons of ancient wildlife. Yet, the story of these formidable hunters continues to evolve as new insights reveal the "optimal function" of their extreme teeth - remarkably efficient tools for sinking into their prey with precision and power. Limited adaptability of saber-toothed predators But if these fangs were so perfect, why did saber-toothed predators vanish? Ironically,...

Nature is not the mechanical clinking of cogs, preordained by certain ecological laws. It is dynamic - animals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">plants</a> form complex and flexible relationships in their individual, contingent contexts. A new study revealing the differing sexual politics in giraffe society illustrates just that. The study shows that male giraffes are more socially connected than females.



“The degree to which an animal is connected to others in its social network influences reproductive success and population ecology, spread of information, and even how diseases move through a population. Information about sociality therefore can provide important guidance for conservation," explained study co-author Derek Lee, an associate research professor of Biology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>.



Professor Lee and a team of researchers followed the movement, behavior, and social interaction of a population of Masai giraffes in the Tarangire ecosystem of northern Tanzania. They found that, while female giraffes form closer, more intimate relationships with their peers, male giraffes had a tendency to cast a wider social net.&nbsp;



“We found that male giraffes overall had higher social connectedness than females, which means males interact with greater numbers of other individuals than females,” said Professor Lee. “Older males had the shortest social path length to all the other giraffes in the network. This might reflect the mating strategy of males, who roam widely across the landscape searching for females to mate with and make connections in the process."&nbsp;



"Young males had the most social ties and moved most often among groups, reflecting social exploration as they prepare to disperse away from their mothers.”



The findings feed into the existing body of research that appears to show adult females forming communities among friends and relations. The males maintain these social ties by moving from community to community, establishing what has been termed “super-communities.”&nbsp;



“Among giraffes, adult females have enduring social relationships and form distinct and stable social communities with a relatively large number of other females, while, in their perpetual search for mating opportunities, adult males connect the adult female communities, forming super-communities," said study co-author Monica Bond of the University of Zurich.



"This type of complex society has evolutionary and conservation advantages, because the dynamics of the social system should allow gene flow between groups, which is an important part of maintaining a healthy and robust population.”



While we are accustomed to thinking that elephants, dolphins, and primates (animals that are considering intelligent in terms that we humans understand) form these complex social webs, we don’t often imagine hoofed ungulates such as giraffes maintaining a complex body of relationships. Studies like this illustrate how much we have yet to learn about the ever-evolving world of animal society.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male giraffes have social connections beyond their own community

Nature is not the mechanical clinking of cogs, preordained by...

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease that affects both humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iconic-wildlife-populations-are-declining-on-isle-royale/">wildlife</a>, and is endemic to parts of Africa. Experts are reporting on a rare case of anthrax in which three wild cheetahs in the Namib Desert died within 24 hours after feeding on a zebra that was positive for the disease.&nbsp;



Since 2015, the <a href="https://www.cheetah-research.org/">Leibniz-IZW Cheetah Research Project</a> (CRP) and the Namibian Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) have been conducting surveys to gain insight into cheetah populations and conservation status in Namibia. As part of this important and ongoing research, a group of three male cheetahs was captured and collared with GPS trackers. Flights over the cheetah habitat regularly downloaded data from the collars while passing overhead. During one such flight, the body of a tagged cheetah was discovered.&nbsp;



“The GPS data of the collared cheetah revealed that they died within a time window of six hours a few days before we found them," said CRP scientist Ruben Portas.



"Evaluating their most recent movements, we identified a cluster of GPS locations approximately two kilometers away from the location where they were found dead.”



When visiting the cluster where the cheetahs had spent 20 hours the day before their death, the research team found the remains of a dead zebra infected with anthrax.&nbsp;



The data suggests that the cheetahs fed on the zebra and were subsequently infected with anthrax themselves. Carnivores are usually less susceptible to the disease but can sometimes succumb to it.



"When a high load of bacteria is ingested, for example with meat from a contaminated carcass, their potent constitutive innate immunity might be overloaded," explained CRP project head Bettina Wachter.



"Cheetahs scavenge only rarely, which reduces their exposure to anthrax infected prey. As a result, they do not produce high antibody titres, which would be another line of defence. Thus, cheetahs die quickly when infected, as studies in Etosha National Park in northern Namibia have shown.”



This case may be important for the assessment of the status of cheetahs, especially in the Namib desert, where the disease hadn’t been discovered before.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Anthrax kills three cheetahs in the Namib Desert

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease that affects both humans and...

As a favor to grazing interests, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is planning to forcibly remove half of the wild horse population of the southwestern part of Wyoming. The horse population in the Great Divide Basin, Adobe Town, Salt Wells Creek, White Mountain and Little Colorado Herd Management Areas (HMAs) is estimated to be around 5,100 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/action-needed-to-save-australias-plants-and-animals/">animals</a>, which is twice the number that the bureau considers an appropriate management level.&nbsp;



Removing half of this population is set to be the largest wild horse roundup in history. The action is driven partially by a 2013 consent decree between the Rocks Springs Grazing Association and the BLM.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://americanwildhorsecampaign.org/">American Wild Horse Campaign</a> claims that if the bureau goes ahead with this plan, it is ignoring the wishes of the public and pandering to ranchers. A Rock Springs City council member points out that wild horses are an important draw for tourism in the area, adding that "this is not a management plan but in fact, an eradication plan."



“The removal of 3,555 wild horses from 4 million acres in the largest roundup in history is a clear example of the Bureau of Land Management's race to remove as many of these animals from our public lands as possible with no consideration for the very uncertain fate that faces them," said wildlife photographer Carol Walker.



"Our wild horses belong on our public lands, wild and free with their families, not in long-term feedlots or dumped at kill auctions by greedy and heedless adopters.”



This comes on the heels of recent wild horse roundups in Colorado that drew criticism as the BLM violated its own protocols for horse welfare. Foals were separated from their mothers overnight in the chaos of the roundup, and horses were herded at dangerous speed during threateningly high temperatures. The roundup was halted early by Colorado’s Governor Jared Polis.&nbsp;



The biased management plan seems to prioritize ranching over wild horses, an animal with a complicated history in North America. If the BLM goes forward with its plans, it will begin removing almost half of Wyoming’s entire wild horse population starting in early October.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Suzanne Roy, executive director of the American Wild Horse Campaign, said in a statement that all Americans should have a say in the future of these lands, which have been designated as habitat for federally-protected horses in the state.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

BLM plans to remove half of Wyoming’s wild horses

As a favor to grazing interests, the Bureau of Land...

The current model for explaining the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-depend-on-social-interactions-for-language-development/">language</a> is that human ancestors joined call sounds together in order to increase the chances that the signal’s content would carry over a distance to potential recipients. This model was developed by mathematicians who proposed that the linking together of sounds would effectively convey messages across distances, even if individual elements of the calls became degraded or distorted along the way.&nbsp;



Researchers in the Department of Psychology at University of Warwick set out to test this model. They used recordings of orangutan calls from which they selected consonant-like and vowel-like signals. These were individually broadcast over the rainforest habitat and re-recorded at distances of 25, 50, 75 and 100 meters. The re-recorded sounds were then analyzed for quality and content.&nbsp;



“We used our bank of audio data recordings from our studies of orangutan in Indonesia,” explained Dr. Adriano Lameira, an evolutionary psychologist who led the study. “We selected the clear vowel-like and consonant-like signals and played them out and re-recorded them over measured distances in a rainforest setting."



"The purpose of this study was to look at the signals themselves and understand how they behaved as a package of information. This study is neat because it is only across distance that you can hope to assess this error limit theory - it disregards other aspects of communication like gestures, postures, mannerisms and facial expressions.”



The results showed that, although the quality of signals may degrade over distance, the message carried by the vowel-like and consonant-like signals was retained, even though they were not joined together with other sounds. The informational content of the calls actually remained uncompromised until they became inaudible. This is contrary to the prediction of the current model used to explain the origin of human speech development.



“The results show that these signals seem to be impervious to distance when it comes to encoding information,” explained Dr Lameira.



“It calls into question the existing thinking based on the model set out 20 years ago by Harvard scientists.&nbsp; Their work assumes that the signals that our ancestors were using were reaching an error limit – a moment when a signal is received but stops being meaningful. They concluded that our ancestors linked sounds together to increase the chance of content travelling over distance.”&nbsp;



“We know sound degrades the further away from the source you are. We have all experienced this effect when shouting for your relative or your friend. They don’t hear all the words you say – but they recognize you are talking to them and that it is your voice."



"By using actual great ape communication sounds, which are the closest to those used by our hominid ancestors, we have shown that although the sound package is being distorted and pushed apart, the content remains unaltered. It’s a call to the scientific community to start thinking again about how language evolved.”



Orangutan calls were chosen by Dr. Lameira and his team because their sounds are thought to be the closest to the sounds used as precursors to human language. Orangutans were the first species to diverge from the great ape lineage but are the only great ape that uses vowel and consonant sounds in a complex way.&nbsp;



“We still don’t know what they are referring to, but right now what is completely clear is that the building blocks of language are present. Although other animal sounds and signals are complex, they are not using the same building blocks. We are focused here on the building of language – exactly the component the great apes use. It gives us the parallel to human language," explained Dr. Lameira.



“The Harvard model has been the accepted theory for years and if you ask a mathematician if language origins were still a puzzle they’d say no - but evolutionary psychologists are still working on it. But we haven’t solved the puzzle either - if anything we have just gone deeper down the rabbit hole.”



The results of the study are published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Great ape messages retain their meaning over a distance

The current model for explaining the origin of language is...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97870-87e0f25c8-6f71-4fde-b0a3-51ae780d063e">Scientific Reports</a> suggests that bones recently found on the Isle of Wight belong to two new species of spinosaurids, a type of predatory theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-birds-the-only-dinosaurs-that-survived-on-earth/">dinosaurs</a> closely related to the giant Spinosaurus. Scientists believe that these creatures’ huge crocodile-like skulls allowed them to hunt their prey both on land and in the water.



The only spinosaurid skeleton previously discovered in the UK was found in 1983 in Surrey and belongs to the genus Baryonyx. The newly discovered bones belong to different species, previously unknown to science.&nbsp;



“We found the skulls to differ not only from&nbsp;Baryonyx, but also one another, suggesting the UK housed a greater diversity of spinosaurids than previously thought,” reported lead study author Chris Barker, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton.</a>



The first specimen has been named Ceratosuchops inferodios (“horned crocodile-faced hell heron”), and has a series of low horns in its brow region. As in the case of herons, this dinosaur probably had an eclectic hunting style and a flexible diet, feeding on both aquatic and terrestrial prey. The second one was named Riparovenator milnerae (“Milner’s riverbank hunter”) in the honor of late paleontologist Angela Milner, who had previously studied and named Baryonyx.&nbsp;



The discovery of these dinosaurs on the Isle of Wight was something scientists expected. “We've known for a couple of decades now that&nbsp;Baryonyx-like dinosaurs awaited discovered on the Isle of Wight, but finding the remains of two such animals in close succession was a huge surprise,” said study co-author Darren Naish, an expert in British theropod dinosaurs.



“It might sound odd to have two similar and closely related carnivores in an ecosystem, but this is actually very common for both dinosaurs and numerous living ecosystems,” added study co-author David Hone, a senior lecturer in Zoology at the <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a>.



The scientists estimate that both dinosaurs measured around nine meters in length and had one meter-long ferocious skulls, perfectly evolved for catching and devouring a large variety of prey. With their large rivers housing a varied ecosystem, the Early Cretaceous rocks on the Isle of Wight provided dinosaurs with many hunting opportunities.&nbsp;



“This work has brought together universities, Dinosaur Isle museum and the public to reveal these amazing dinosaurs and the incredibly diverse ecology of the south coast of England 125 million years ago,” concluded project supervisor Dr. Neil J. Gostling.



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<hr class="wp-block-separator"/>



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Image Credit: Anthony Hutchings

Two new predatory dinosaurs found on the Isle of Wight

A new study published in the journal Scientific Reports suggests...

Having big eyes may not only have helped the wolf to see Little Red Riding Hood better. A recent study also suggests that having larger eyes makes some bird species less likely to be selected as hosts by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-birds-can-learn-sounds-before-theyve-even-hatched/">birds</a> that are brood parasites.



Birds that lay their eggs in the nests of other species relieve themselves of the burden of raising their own chicks. By recruiting the services of numerous hosts, brood parasites such as cuckoos can end up with a higher reproductive success than if they simply raised their own chicks.



Some host species can recognize an imposter’s egg and will pierce it or turf it out of the nest. But if the foreign egg is not detected, the host parents will end up devoting large amounts of energy to feeding and caring for a chick that does not carry their genes.



<a href="https://sib.illinois.edu/profile/mhauber">Mark Hauber</a> is a professor of&nbsp;E<a href="https://sib.illinois.edu/eeb/">volution, Ecology and Behavior</a>&nbsp;at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>, who co-led the new research with&nbsp;<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/ian-ausprey/about-me/">Ian Ausprey</a>, a recent doctoral graduate from the University of Florida.&nbsp;



“The failure of some host birds to recognize foreign eggs in their own nests is somewhat perplexing,” said&nbsp;Professor Hauber. “Birds have much better vision overall than we do as humans. They have four color receptors instead of our three. They also can see into the ultraviolet range. What we did not know before this study was whether their eyes are adapted to egg rejection.”



To investigate the relationship between eye size and nest parasitism, the researchers used data originally collected in the 1970s by Stanley Ritland, a student at the University of Chicago. Ritland measured the eyeballs of more than 4,000 species of birds in museum collections. Ausprey and colleagues digitized this data and have previously used it to study the impacts of eye size on different traits.&nbsp;



The results, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>, show that bird species that are brood parasites have larger eyes than bird species that are hosts. This difference was present even after allowing for the larger body sizes of brood parasites. In addition, the researchers found that birds with larger eyes relative to their overall body mass were less likely to have their nests parasitized.&nbsp;



“Non-host birds tend to have larger eyes than hosts,” said Professor Hauber. “One interpretation of that is that the parasites go for birds with poorer eyesight.”



“Having larger eyes is similar to having a bigger camera lens,” said Ausprey. “By collecting more light, large eyes improve a bird’s visual acuity, its ability to resolve an image in dim conditions and at long distances.”&nbsp;



In addition, within the range of host birds, those with larger eyes were more likely to recognize a foreign egg in their nest, unless the egg closely resembled the hosts’ own eggs.



This research is the first to show how eyes and other sensory systems contribute to the relationship between parasite and host species in birds. The study is a major step forward in understanding the evolution of such interactions between birds. &nbsp;



“Nest parasitism exerts enormous selective pressure on host populations, with major implications for population demography and local species persistence,” said Ausprey. “It’s incredible that such a simple trait as eye size can provide a powerful window into the sensory systems that mediate the coevolutionary arms race between nest parasites and their hosts.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brood parasites target host birds with small eyes

Having big eyes may not only have helped the wolf...

Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are often maligned and feared because they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-help-scavengers-take-over-the-alpine-habitats-of-arctic-foxes/">scavenge</a> carcasses and are associated with dark nights and eerie, whooping or cackling calls. Some even see them as the embodiment of evil.&nbsp;



But in certain towns in Ethiopia - Mekelle and Harar, for example - hyenas are an accepted part of town life and may even bring benefits to the townsfolk.&nbsp;



In a recent study, a University of Michigan conservation ecologist and two colleagues attempted to quantify the health and economic benefits brought by the population of hyenas that scavenge at the landfill outside the town of Mekelle, the capital of northern Ethiopia's Tigray region.&nbsp;



“This is an important contribution to a growing body of work that highlights the benefits of predators and scavengers, rather than focusing only on their costs to humanity,” said study senior author Neil Carter, an assistant professor at the School for Environment and Sustainability.



Mekelle has a population of 310,000 people and 120,000 livestock. Animals are slaughtered for consumption and their carcasses are mostly disposed of on the town’s landfill or simply on the roadsides. Hyenas visit these sites every night to scavenge and, in so doing, remove the unwanted waste. The researchers investigated whether the hyenas prevent the spread of pathogens to people and livestock by consuming these remains.&nbsp;



The team first estimated the size of the spotted hyena population that visits the town by night. They did this by broadcasting pre-recorded hyena distress calls from the roof of a vehicle at five sites around the town. During each hour-long survey, hyenas that responded to the calls were counted using night-vision binoculars. The researchers estimated that 210 hyenas visit the town at night to scavenge.&nbsp;



Next, the researchers used night-time observations of hyena feeding behavior at the landfill to determine the number and identity of carcasses scavenged. The results showed that each adult hyena consumes around 2,100 lb of carcass waste in a year, and that this mass is made up mostly from horse carcasses.&nbsp;



Chicken carcasses are the most commonly eaten item, but waste from cattle, horses, sheep and goats is also consumed. The total mass of waste consumed by the hyenas is 207 metric tons per year, which represents 4.2 percent of the total animal carcass waste disposed of by the town’s residents and businesses.



The field data were collected and analyzed by study lead author Chinmay Sonawane, a former student of Carter's who is now a doctoral student at Stanford University.



The data were then used in a model of disease transmission to predict the number of anthrax and bovine tuberculosis infections that would arise in humans and livestock due to contact with infected carcass waste. The model predicted that hyena scavenging prevents five infections of anthrax and bovine tuberculosis in Mekelle residents and 140 infections in cattle, sheep and goats, during the course of a year. This disease-control service potentially saves the city $52,000 annually in treatment costs and livestock losses avoided.



“Yes, the effects are modest. Even so, this study totally upends the traditional narrative around hyenas - that they are a nuisance and should be removed,” said Carter.



“In comparison to the large cattle enterprises in the Global North, the benefits that we found are quite small,” said Sonawane. “However, losing even a single cow to anthrax or bovine tuberculosis can cause significant financial stress to cattle owners in Ethiopia, who tend to own much smaller herds of cattle than cattle owners in other parts of the world.”



“In addition, we only estimated the benefits accrued from hyenas within 5 kilometers of the city. It is very, very likely that hyenas from much further than 5 kilometers away are also coming into Mekelle and consuming even more waste.”



The study authors note that the benefits of hyena presence must be weighed against the costs of hyena attacks each year. A 2011 study reported 10 nonfatal hyena attacks on humans annually in Mekelle, along with an estimated economic loss of $2,928 from 33 fatal attacks on cattle and small ruminants annually. It is clear that in order to preserve and extend the health and financial benefits provided by the hyenas of Mekelle, the population of these scavengers must be managed to minimize the inherent risks to the humans with which they coexist.&nbsp;



“By maintaining the hyenas' access to waste, human-hyena conflict can be mitigated in Mekelle, and the sanitation and disease control benefits provided by hyena scavenging can be preserved or even increased,” wrote the researchers.&nbsp;Excluding hyenas from scavenging the animal carcasses may force them to hunt livestock, which would increase the human-hyena conflict.&nbsp;



Currently, the activities of the hyenas of Mekelle help fulfil three of the UN Sustainable Development Goals: they ensure good health, help provide clean water and sanitation, and promote terrestrial diversity. Furthermore, waste generation will increase in Mekelle as the population gets larger, and the sanitation situation is unlikely to improve, given the financial constraints in this low-income region.&nbsp;



“Hyena scavenging may, therefore, be even more valuable in the future,” concluded the researchers.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hyena scavenging brings health and economic benefits

Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are often maligned and feared because...

Asian elephants in the Myaing Hay Wun Elephant Camp in Yangon, Myanmar, are semi-wild and live in social groups. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-disrupts-flight-calling-behavior-of-thrushes/">behavior</a> naturally involves different forms of cooperation, for example with the protection of genetically related siblings, that enhances the survival of members in the group.&nbsp;



In new research conducted by Li-Li Li from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Yunnan, China, and colleagues, nine elephants in this Camp were given a simple cooperative task and their behavioral responses were observed. The elephants were presented with two trays of food that could only be accessed by pulling two ropes simultaneously. Elephants had to cooperate in pairs, each one pulling a rope, in order to open up the two trays of food.&nbsp;



The researchers found that pairs of elephants cooperated successfully in 80 percent of trials, but there were also individuals that cheated by stealing part of the reward from a cooperating pair. The elephants used behavioral strategies to maintain cooperation, and also to mitigate conflict when cheating occurred. These strategies included resisting individuals that attempted to cheat or moving to a different side of the tray to feed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



However, when the researchers repeated the trials with a single food tray, the stakes were raised and one partner in the pair could dominate the other. When resources were limited in this way, the elephants became competitive and showed more costly behavior, like fighting, to gain access to the food. Elephants that had previously cooperated in pairs quickly became competitors and their mitigation behavior broke down.&nbsp;



The authors explain that elephants are generalist browzers and grazers in the wild and would be unlikely to encounter a scenario where individuals could monopolize a food source. They feel that this may explain why behavioral cooperation broke down once the elephants had to compete for a limited supply of food.&nbsp;



This is the first experiment to test cooperative behavior between elephants in a rope-pulling task, although similar results have been found for non-human primates. This may suggest that such behavior has evolved in distantly related species in order to maintain cooperation between members in social groups.&nbsp;



“We found that Asian elephants have a diverse repertoire of behaviors to use when cooperating with others, and are careful about how to mitigate competition based on their relationships,” adds Li. “This is an exciting demonstration of how flexible and socially intelligent elephants are!”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLoS Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephants can be very cooperative, until the food gets scarce

Asian elephants in the Myaing Hay Wun Elephant Camp in...

A new longitudinal study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has found that, as a consequence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-threatens-the-base-of-the-polar-food-web/">climate</a> change, great tits (Parus major) in Britain are nesting and laying their eggs two weeks earlier than they did 60 years ago. Scientists believe that these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/phenology">phenological</a> modifications were connected to changes in the oak trees’ blooming patterns caused by global warming, as well as to the health of the oak trees located nearby the birds’ nesting areas.



In order to examine the impact of global warming on birds, researchers used breeding data gathered over six decades about more than 13,000 great tits living and nesting in a 385-hectare woodland in Oxfordshire.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“When we consider data for the population as a whole between 1961 and 2020, both female laying date and the annual timing of peak abundance of winter moth larvae have advanced by over two weeks,” explained the study authors.



Great tits belong to a comprehensively studied food-web, feeding on caterpillars, which in turn feed on newly-emerging oak leaves. Due to climate change, early onsets of springs are making the oak trees bloom earlier, and are thus changing both caterpillars’ and great tits’ timing of crucial biological events.



"A significant predictor of the variability in laying date was the health of oak trees located within 75 metres of each nest box," explained the researchers. "For example, birds breeding in boxes surrounded by healthy oaks advanced their laying by 0.34 days per year, while those nesting in areas with oaks in poor health advanced by only 0.25 days per year. Great tits breeding in oak-rich territories tend to breed earlier and have higher reproductive success.”



This research has important implications for understanding the capacity of organisms to survive and adapt to climate change. Studying the modifications in the timing of biological events of species such as the great tit can shed new light on how animals can adapt to changing environments.



“Further work should test how phenological change varies at different spatial scales in a range of systems and explore both the underlying mechanisms and the ecological and evolutionary consequences of these processes,” the study authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://go.skimresources.com/?id=55199X1584066&amp;isjs=1&amp;jv=15.2.0-stackpath&amp;sref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailymail.co.uk%2Fsciencetech%2Farticle-10033377%2FGreat-tits-Britain-laying-eggs-two-weeks-earlier.html&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41558-021-01140-4&amp;xguid=&amp;xs=1&amp;xtz=-180&amp;xuuid=fe8e4493e515587e777ab8b1cd755010&amp;xjsf=other_click__auxclick%20%5B2%5D">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Great tits are nesting earlier due to climate change

A new longitudinal study led by the University of Oxford...

Honeybees can be infected by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-could-cause-a-surge-in-coronavirus-cases/">virus</a> that makes their wings develop in an abnormal manner and causes them to fly poorly, or even lose their ability to fly altogether. The infection has also been shown to affect the ability of bees to learn and remember, which means that they may lose their way and not return home after a foraging trip. Bees that do not return to the hive at night are likely to die.



Bee colonies have been declining in number globally, and this has serious consequences for the pollination of important food crops. Scientists suggest this decline is due, in part, to the effects of the numerous different pathogens that infect bees.&nbsp;



The results of a recent study, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>, indicate that a cheap, naturally occurring compound can prevent and even reverse the effects of Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) on infected honeybees.&nbsp;



“Pathogens are definitely a stressor for bees,” said study first author Cheng-Kang Tang at National Taiwan University. “But the beekeepers don’t want to use pesticides because of food safety concerns. So, we set out to find some compounds that can increase the strength of bees.”



The scientists found that DWV suppresses the expression of genes associated with nerve impulse transmission and other processes related to learning and memory in bees. Past research has shown that feeding aged mice with sodium butyrate (NaB), a common compound found in plants and in human intestines, can significantly improve their memories. Furthermore, NaB is known to increase the expression of genes in a range of different animals.&nbsp;



A previous study by the same authors demonstrated that including NaB in the diet of honeybees resulted in a significant increase in the expression of genes involved in immunity as well as in learning and memory. NaB also restored learning ability in bees that had been treated with neonicotinoid, an ingredient in some pesticides. Therefore, the researchers set out to test whether adding NaB to the diet of honeybees would improve their ability to resist the effects of infection with DWV.&nbsp;



A team led by Yueh-Lung Wu at National Taiwan University initially fed bees with NaB-laced sugar water for a week before infecting them with DWV. More than 90 percent of these bees remained alive after five days, while 90 percent of the infected bees that didn’t get NaB died over the same period.



“Our findings show that feeding the insects with NaB before virus exposure can counteract the negative impacts of the pathogen,” said Wu. “We also found previously that NaB can upregulate some immune response genes in bees, and this can help suppress viral replication and improve bees’ chances at survival.”



After finding this result, Wu’s team monitored the numbers of bees leaving and returning to several different beehives on a bee farm. The data, collected over a month, showed that in hives infected with DWV, only half of the foraging bees managed to return to the hive, while more than 80 percent of the bees fed with NaB sugar water were able to return.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It is a really interesting study because we tested the effect of NaB on bees across different scales, from the genetic level, to behaviors in the lab, then in the field under a natural scenario,” said Wu.&nbsp;



“Sodium butyrate is really cheap. So, if we can prove its benefits, it would be an easy and affordable approach for beekeepers to keep their bees. Honeybees are important pollinators of myriad fruits and vegetables with economic importance worldwide and therefore are crucial for maintaining the balance of the ecosystem”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compound may help diseased honeybees find their way home

Honeybees can be infected by a virus that makes their...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03889-2?utm_medium=affiliate&amp;utm_source=commission_junction&amp;utm_campaign=3_nsn6445_deeplink_PID100032693&amp;utm_content=deeplink">Nature</a> has found that wild seafood and other aquatic foods (“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-foods-are-healthy-and-environmentally-friendly/">blue foods</a>”) have a much smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-mountain-forests-store-huge-amounts-of-carbon/">carbon</a> footprint than red meat or dairy products, and thus present an opportunity for more sustainable diets.&nbsp;



A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.american.edu/">American University</a> in Washington D.C. analyzed the greenhouse gas emissions associated to 23 marine species that make up nearly three quarters of the animal species humans consume.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that the emissions associated with wild seafood were significantly lower than those connected to beef (one-sixth), lamb and mutton (one-fifth), or even cheese (half). Thus, a single burger basically generates the same amount of CO2 as 9 lbs of wild sardines.



This low environmental impact is caused by the fact that blue foods use little or no land to cultivate, compared to other foods, such as beef, which requires more than five square feet of land in order to produce a single protein.



Among the wild seafood and fish that the scientists analyzed, farmed seaweeds, clams, mussels, and scallops had the smallest environmental impact, with anchovies, herring, mackerel, and other pelagic fish coming not very far behind.&nbsp;



In the case of farmed fish and crustaceans, researchers found that salmon and trout used the least land and water resources. Silver and bighead carp had the lowest associated greenhouse gas, nitrogen, and phosphorus emissions, but the highest water usage.



“The food system occupies half of all ice-free land and is responsible for three-quarters of global consumptive water use,” explained study lead author Jessica Gephart, an environmental scientist at the American University.&nbsp;



“As a critical source of nutrition generating relatively low average environmental pressures, blue foods present an opportunity to improve nutrition with lower environmental burdens. Blue foods already have great potential for reducing food system environmental stressors,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild seafood has one-sixth the carbon footprint of red meat

A new study published in the journal Nature has found...

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a>. They’re small, common rodents that live in underground burrows made of sandy soils. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www3.nd.edu/~ammidnat/">The American Midland Naturalist</a>, researchers have made a surprising discovery about pocket gophers - they glow under ultraviolet light.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research was inspired by flying squirrels and opossums, which were already known to glow under ultraviolet light. 



"A bunch of people, myself included, were curious about other animals," said study lead author PhD candidate J.T. Pynne. "We tested it on the flying squirrels we had, and sure enough, it worked. So, I said, 'Well, what else do we have?'"&nbsp;



While a student at <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">UGA</a> Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, Pynne focused his research on pocket gophers, so it was natural for him to test their biofluorescence too.



"And it turned out, pocket gophers, flying squirrels and opossums were the only animal specimens that fluoresced. And I'm thinking, of course my strange little animals do this," said Pynne.



Other known animals that glow under UV light are the platypus, spiders, some birds and more. "We have known for a long time that arthropods fluoresced. Any time I catch a scorpion or a spider or a millipede and I have my black light, they're bright blue," said Pynne.



Finding all of these glowing animals naturally leads to the question - why do they glow? Unfortunately, there is no clear answer from scientists yet. For some like Pynne, it’s simply an interesting way to explore the natural world - go out on a dark night with a UV flashlight and see what glows out there. 



"Although unknown, the adaptive significance of biofluorescence in pocket gophers is likely similar to that documented in terrestrial and arboreal species previously, including communication or predator evasion," wrote the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pocket gophers glow under UV light

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic animals. They’re small, common rodents that...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...