When you think of macaws or parrots, the word "copycat" may come to mind. These charismatic birds have long been celebrated for their vocal mimicry skills, imitating human speech and other sounds with impressive accuracy.



An international team of researchers has recently uncovered an entirely new level to this mimicry. This time, it's about movement, not voice.



The study was led by Dr. Esha Haldar from the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence in collaboration with the Loro Parque Fundación.



The blue-throated macaw, a critically endangered species, turns out to be just as adept at copying physical actions as it is sounds. 



The scientists discovered this after testing the macaws' ability to imitate intransitive actions - movements that do not involve a physical object or specific outcome. Until now, this type of mimicry was thought to be unique to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imitation-and-cultural-evolution">Imitation and cultural evolution</h2>



Imitation of intransitive actions - those without specific goals - has long been a cornerstone of human cultural evolution.



From transmitting technical skills to adopting cultural conventions, humans excel at copying gestures with remarkable fidelity. This promotes social bonding and prosocial behavior.



Previous studies have shown automatic imitation in animals like dogs and budgerigars, but only in object-directed actions. 



The macaw study marks the first evidence of automatic imitation of intransitive actions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-regional-accents-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-human species</a>, widening the lens on how imitation shapes social and cultural dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imitation-skills-of-macaws">Imitation skills of macaws </h2>



The researchers trained macaws to perform two specific actions - “lift leg” and “spread wings” - by responding to hand signals. After training, the birds were divided into two groups to test their ability to mimic or not mimic actions.



In the "compatible" group, macaws were rewarded when they copied the action of another macaw, such as lifting their leg when the demonstrator did so.



Macaws in the "incompatible" group were rewarded only when they performed the opposite action, such as spreading their wings when the demonstrator lifted its leg.



The results revealed a natural tendency for macaws to imitate others. Birds in the incompatible group struggled significantly to suppress their urge to mimic. They made more mistakes and took longer to respond compared to the compatible group, highlighting their instinct for automatic imitation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-automatic-imitation-and-mirror-neurons">Automatic imitation and mirror neurons </h2>



“The findings are remarkable because they show, for the first time, a non-human animal involuntary imitation of intransitive actions,” said Dr. Haldar.



In humans, automatic imitation is linked to&nbsp;mirror neurons, which are special brain cells that activate when a person observes an action and also when they perform the same action themselves. 



These neurons help humans understand and replicate behaviors, playing a key role in learning and social interactions.



Although this study does not directly prove that parrots, like macaws, have mirror neurons, their behavior strongly hints at it. The macaws' ability to mimic movements without conscious effort suggests that similar neural mechanisms might be at work, supporting their advanced imitation skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaw-imitation-and-conservation-efforts">Macaw imitation and conservation efforts</h2>



“These highly social animals live in dynamic groups. Automatic imitation may enhance integration into new groups and foster social cohesion. It could underpin the cultural transmission of group-specific behaviors,” noted Dr. Auguste von Bayern from <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.



Such mimicry likely evolved independently in distantly related species, driven by similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infanticide-or-adoption-why-parrots-kill-each-others-chicks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social and environmental needs</a>.



The blue-throated macaw’s ability to imitate has promising implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-relocated-caribbean-parrots-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a>.



With fewer than 350 individuals remaining in the wild, reintroduction projects could benefit from this trait. Captive-bred macaws might learn natural behaviors from wild conspecifics, accelerating adaptation to their natural environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-macaws">A better understanding of macaws</h2>



Loro Parque Fundación’s long-standing conservation efforts include raising 465 macaws in captivity and investing over $2 million in their protection. 



These findings add a new dimension to the foundation’s mission, paving the way for innovative strategies to ensure the survival of these stunning parrots.



This study highlights the macaws' cognitive brilliance and its potential role in shaping social and cultural behaviors. 



From conservation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elusive-bird-night-parrot-pezoporus-occidentalis-thought-to-be-long-extinct-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary biology</a>, the findings open new doors to understanding the intricate lives of parrots and their remarkable similarities to humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)02741-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Blue-throated macaws have human-like imitation skills

When you think of macaws or parrots, the word "copycat" may come to mind. These charismatic birds have long been celebrated for their vocal mimicry skills, imitating human speech and other sounds with impressive accuracy. An international team of researchers has recently uncovered an entirely new level to this mimicry. This time, it's about movement, not voice. The study was led by Dr. Esha Haldar from the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence in collaboration with the Loro Parque Fundación. The blue-throated macaw, a critically endangered species,...

Forest animals often benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of monkeys, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>. The researchers found that animals eavesdrop on monkeys while they are eating in hopes of snatching up discarded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-swap-spit-to-share-food-and-special-fluids/">food</a>.



"Monkeys are messy eaters. After just a few bites of a fruit, they let it fall to the ground. Other species benefit from this habit. But to do so most effectively, they need to know where and when the monkeys are eating. Here, our study demonstrates that mammals use eavesdropping," said study lead author, Linnea W. Havmøller.



The team spent nine months in a rainforest in Panama studying how various types of fruit-eating animals, including coatis and agoutis, listen to capuchin and spider monkeys as they eat in the trees.&nbsp;



When the half-eaten fruit often falls to forest floor below, the researchers discovered that animals are ready to pounce the moment they hear the food hit the ground.



"It is clear that, when terrestrial animals hear monkeys in a tree, they head towards that tree. It’s as if their ears are telescoped, which lets them hear the lunch bell from wherever it’s ringing. This gives them access to food that would otherwise be inaccessible at the time," explained Rasmus W. Havmøller, a postdoctoral researcher at the Natural History Museum of Denmark.



The study authors explained that the eavesdropping strategy is not just a convenient way to get a little extra food for themselves – it can play a vital role for animals. There is a season each year when food becomes very scarce in Panama, and many species must depend on almond trees for the majority of their food, including the groups observed for the study.&nbsp;



"During this season, there is incredibly little to eat in the forest – other than the prodigious quantities of fruit from this one type of tree. However, terrestrial animals can’t access these fruits unless monkeys drop them. For these animals, the eavesdropping method means that they gain access to food in greater quantities and far sooner than the long time it would take if the fruits were left to fall on their own. And during some periods, it is crucial for their food gathering," said Linnea W. Havmøller.



Ramus W. Havmøller said that in the bigger picture, this means that in areas where monkeys have been removed from the local environment, there can be a negative cascading effect. "Not only will the species of mammals which depend on the fruit being dropped by monkeys suffer – there can be an impact on the entire rainforest ecosystem because terrestrial fruit-eating animals help disperse the seeds that allow the forest to reproduce."



For the investigation, the researchers collected data using GPS collars, cameras, speakers playing monkey sounds, and traps that collected fallen fruit. The analysis revealed that over 90 percent of the fruit which landed in the traps had bite marks and was half-eaten by monkeys. The fruit that fell outside of the traps was eaten almost immediately.



“I think we've underestimated how much mammals interact with each other and how many ways they're actually connected," said Rasmus Havmøller. "Eavesdropping between species is a new chapter in the behavioral biology of mammals, which provides us with important knowledge about how much the disappearance of one species can impact an entire ecosystem."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17447429">Biotropica</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of monkeys

Forest animals often benefit from the sloppy eating behavior of...

Through an analysis of fossil footprint tracks, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unirioja.es/">University of La Rioja</a> has found that, about 100 million years ago in what is now La Rioja province in northern Spain, two bipedal meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">theropods</a> reached running speeds of almost 45 kilometers per hour.



About 35 years ago, researchers discovered a few three-toed dinosaur footprints in La Rioja. Recently, further excavations at the site revealed more prints forming two short trails. The analysis of the footprints suggest that they were made by two medium-sized dinosaurs, each about four to five meters long and two meters tall, belonging to either the spinosaur or the carcharodontosaur family of predatory therapods.&nbsp;



By analyzing the distance between consecutive footprints (the stride length), a research team from the University of La Rioja has found that the two dinosaurs were incredibly fast, reaching speeds of up to 45 kilometers per hour. Moreover, abrupt changes in speed suggested that the creatures switched directions as they ran.



“High-velocity trackways are very scarce around the world,” said study senior author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Angelica-Torices">Angélica Torices</a>, a paleontologist at the University of La Rioja. According to her, speed helped these dinosaurs not only in hunting, but also in fleeing danger such as "bigger theropods that could see them as their prey."



"Their capacity to run very quickly and their maneuvering abilities surely allowed them to chase prey very efficiently. And of course I wouldn't like to be caught by this guy on a riverbank," added study lead author Pablo Navarro-Lorbes, a doctoral student at the same university.



"There are several factors that dictate the running ability of a dinosaur," Navarro-Lorbes explained. "One of them is size. Some paleontologists think that theropods with sizes between 100 and 1,000 kilograms (220-2,200 pounds) could have been some of the best dinosaur runners because of the relationship between their weight and muscular performance.” Another factor is the dinosaurs’ elongated legs, which was of crucial importance for allowing them reach such speeds.



Further research is needed to clarify the precise mechanics characterizing these theropods’ movements, as well as their relations with other animal species with which they shared their environment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02557-9">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flesh-eating theropods were extremely fast

Through an analysis of fossil footprint tracks, a new study...

Turkish ichthyologists have made an amazing discovery of the critically endangered Batman River Loach, which had last been seen in 1974. In fact, this is the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-protect-corals-by-feeding-on-crown-of-thorns-starfish/">fish</a> to be found as part of a more ambitious plan. 



Nonprofit organizations Shoal and Re:Wild have teamed up to create a top 10 most wanted lost fishes list. The Batman RIver Loach is the first on this list to be found after the project launched in June 2021.&nbsp;



"When I first heard about the Search for the Lost Fishes project, I was very happy," said Cüynet Kaya, associate professor with Recep Tayyip Erdogan University in Turkey.



"Moreover, two of the 10 most wanted fish species were distributed in my country. It is a very different feeling when you see naturalists from foreign countries caring about an endemic species in your country and making efforts to save it."&nbsp;



"As a freshwater fish taxonomist, I thought that I should do my best for this project, and fortunately our efforts resulted in finding the first lost endemic and critically endangered Batman River loach.”&nbsp;



The Batman River Loach is the smallest loach in the Middle East. With a length of approximately 1.4 inches, it is smaller than any loaches in Europe.&nbsp;



Scientists had previously searched in the last known locations for the loach but to no avail. Kaya and Münevver Oral, a research fellow with Recep Tayyip Erdogan University together took a different approach.&nbsp;



The scientists analyzed the possible habitats where the Batman River Loach could survive and searched the Sarim Stream, upstream from the Batman Dam. Using tightly knit nets, they found 14 fish in Sarim Stream. Nine more fish were found in Han Stream.&nbsp;



The researchers said the population of fish seems stable but they worry about the impact of pollution, drought and invasive species. Such a small number of fish is inherently a fragile population.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Re:Wild



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish rediscovered after being lost for 50 years

Turkish ichthyologists have made an amazing discovery of the critically...

A,Shaggy,Woolly,Mammoth,Stands,In,The,Long,Grass,Of

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from the Klondike region of the central Yukon territory’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-melting-may-release-nuclear-waste-into-the-atmosphere/">permafrost</a>, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca/">McMaster University</a> in Canada has found that ancestral species such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammoths-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change-not-humans/">mammoths</a> or wild horses survived thousands of years longer than initially estimated.



The scientists used DNA capture-enrichment technology to isolate and rebuild in great detail the fluctuating animal and plant communities at different time points during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, an unstable climatic period 11,000 to 14,000 years ago when various species such as mammoths, mastodons, or sabre-toothed cats went extinct.



By analyzing tiny soil samples collected from Canada’s permafrost and containing billions of microscopic genomic sequences from animal and plant species, the researchers managed to shed more light on the status of ancient ecosystems at different historical periods.&nbsp;



They found that although mammoths and horses were already in steep decline before the period of climatic instability marking the passage from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, they did not immediately disappear due to human overhunting as it was initially believed. In fact, the DNA evidence shows that the wooly mammoth and the North American wild horse persisted until about 5,000 years ago – well into the mid-Holocene period.



“The rich data provides a unique window into the population dynamics of megafuana and nuances the discussion around their extinction through more subtle reconstructions of past ecosystems,” said study lead author Hendrik Poinar, an evolutionary geneticist and director of the <a href="https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/mcmaster-ancient-dna-centre">McMaster Ancient DNA Centre</a>.



The genetic analyses that the research team performed have also shown a strong continuity between the genomic structures of ancient and contemporary horses. “Although mammoths are gone forever, horses are not,” said study co-author Ross MacPhee, a senior curator at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“The horse that lived in the Yukon 5,000 years ago is directly related to the horse species we have today,&nbsp;Equus caballus. Biologically, this makes the horse a native North American mammal, and it should be treated as such.”



The researchers stress the need to collect and archive more permafrost samples, which are at risk of being lost forever due to global warming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammoths survived longer than initially thought

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from...

Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) have one of the longest periods of maternal care in the animal kingdom. Offspring are only weaned at between six and nine years of age, and spend all their time prior to weaning in constant, close contact with their mothers. Since they will be solitary as adults, young orangutans have to acquire all their feeding skills before they are weaned.&nbsp;



In order to become independent, immature orangutans must learn to locate, identify and process more than 200 different potential food items, many of which require specific skills in order to process and consume. During this time, mother orangutans are the role models, although the exact extent to which they actively teach their offspring these skills has not been established. 



An immature orangutan learns its foraging skills from its mother in two main ways. It ‘peers’ at its mother while she feeds, observing her every movement from a close range. Offspring tend to peer more intently and for longer when the mother is dealing with more complex food items.&nbsp;



Secondly, an offspring also solicits, or begs, food items from its mother, after which she may share the food or keep it to herself. In both of these orangutan social learning pathways the mother serves as the primary role model but appears to take no active part in teaching the offspring.



In a new study, however, a team of scientists uncovered the first evidence yet of active involvement by orangutan mothers in their offspring’s acquisition of feeding skills. The researchers analyzed the behavior and interactions between 21 immature Sumatran orangutans and their mothers, collected over 13 years, in the Suaq Balimbing forest in Sumatra, Indonesia. They observed 1390 instances of food solicitation and were able to examine the degree to which these interactions represented active teaching by the mother.



“It was puzzling that mothers always seemed so passive during these feeding interactions,” said Caroline Schuppli from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>, who led the study. “Mothers have so much time with their offspring, and maintain such a close connection, but they never appeared to be actively involved in the skill acquisition of their young.” The mystery was compounded by a lack of data. “Past studies had always examined skill learning from the point of view of the offspring, so we didn’t know the role of the role model.”



For the study, Schuppli teamed up with researchers from the University of Zurich in Switzerland, the Universitas Nasional in Indonesia, and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany to investigate the role of food solicitation in the acquisition of foraging skills by immature orangutans. Field researchers recorded each solicitation event and noted whether the mother let the immature take the food from her or not. They then correlated this behavior with information on the offspring’s age and the properties of the food items.



Some food items are easy for orangutans to eat, such as leaves and flowers that require no processing. Others, such as bark, require several steps before consumption – it must be loosened from the tree and have the pith scraped with the teeth to remove the nutritional parts. The most difficult foods require tools, such as sticks that are converted into brushes for excavating honey from bee hives.



The results showed that orangutan mothers do not always respond positively to their offspring’s food solicitation. Mothers adjust their responses depending on the age of the offspring and the skills required for processing the food item. 



Mothers are most likely to transfer food when the offspring is younger and at the age during which food recognition and food processing skills are being acquired. The older the offspring, the less likely it is that its begging will be successful. By doing this, mothers encourage their offspring to find and process their own food, as their competence levels increase.&nbsp;



In addition, orangutan mothers were most likely to transfer food items that were difficult to process, and they continued to do this for the longest time. For items that require tool use, for example, the mothers showed the highest tolerance for begging and remained tolerant throughout the dependency period of their offspring. 



On the other hand, for leaves, which can just be picked and ingested whole, they showed much lower levels of tolerance to begging and stop sharing these food items when the offspring reached a certain age.



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, show that mother orangutans adjust their behavior as their offspring become more skilled at finding and processing their own food.



"Our findings suggest that orangutan mothers are actively involved in their offspring’s skill learning," said Schuppli. "However, they do this in a reactive, rather than proactive way. Interestingly, there were very few incidents of active food sharing only. This means that orangutan immatures need to take the initiative during learning. This is very different from humans, where active teaching plays an important role and role models are much more proactive. It is also different from chimpanzees, where mothers seem to be more proactive.”



Whether or not these behavioral adjustments by orangutan mothers classify as functional teaching is still unknown. While the study’s results fulfil some criteria of the teaching definition, other criteria cannot be tested with the data set.&nbsp;



“These findings give us a special insight into the factors that lead to the evolution of teaching,” said Schuppli. “While teaching is quite rare in the animal kingdom, it occurs in widely separated species. Our study shows that these orangutans have at least some, and perhaps all, of the cognitive, ecological, and social conditions to support teaching ability.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Orangutan mothers are actively involved in helping offspring learn

Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) have one of the longest periods...

Due to the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and urbanization around the world, there is widespread loss of the swamps, marshes, and free-flowing rivers that dragonflies usually breed in, causing a significant worldwide decline of this species. These findings from the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>’s (IUCN) latest global assessment suggest that one out of six dragonfly species is at risk of extinction.



After the latest update, IUCN’s Red List of endangered species has exceeded 40,000 for the first time. The assessment of the world’s dragonfly and damselfly populations reveals that 16 percent out of 6,016 species are at risk of extinction, due to significant deterioration of their freshwater breeding grounds.



“By revealing the global loss of dragonflies, today’s Red List update underscores the urgent need to protect the world’s wetlands and the rich tapestry of life they harbor. Globally, these ecosystems are disappearing three times faster than forests,”&nbsp;said&nbsp;Dr Bruno Oberle, IUCN’s Director General.&nbsp;



“Marshes and other wetlands may seem unproductive and inhospitable to humans, but in fact they provide us with essential services. They store carbon, give us clean water and food, protect us from floods, as well as offer habitats for one in ten of the world's known species.”



In South and Southeast Asia, over a quarter of dragonfly species are under threat, due to the clearing of wetland and rainforests for agricultural purposes, such as making room for crops like palm oil. In Central and South America, forests are cleared for residential and commercial purposes, while in North America and Europe, the greatest threat to dragonflies are the extensive use of pesticides and other pollutants, as well as the damage brought by climate change.



“Dragonflies are highly sensitive indicators of the state of freshwater ecosystems, and this first global assessment finally reveals the scale of their decline. It also provides an essential baseline we can use to measure the impact of conservation efforts,”&nbsp;said&nbsp;Dr Viola Clausnitzer, Co-chair of the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/ssc-groups/invertebrates/dragonfly">IUCN SSC Dragonfly Specialist Group</a>.&nbsp;



“To conserve these beautiful insects, it is critical that governments, agriculture and industry consider the protection of wetland ecosystems in development projects, for example by protecting key habitats and dedicating space to urban wetlands,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The report’s photos, summary statistics, and translations can be found <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/sh/jk57rxx7xjb29yu/AABZnX8JHqClF5ZV8-6FsHuma?dl=0">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hundreds of dragonfly species at risk of extinction

Due to the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and urbanization around...

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the likelihood increases that it will escape the neutralizing effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">vaccines</a> and other forms of treatment that have been developed to date. In response to this, scientists are intensifying their search for more powerful therapeutic solutions.



In a recent study, Rockefeller scientists&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/896-michael-p-rout/">Michael P. Rout</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/902-brian-t-chait/">Brian T. Chait</a>&nbsp;and their colleagues at the Seattle Children’s Research Institute tested the effectiveness of a range of over one hundred nanobodies that target different parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanobodies are like small antibodies that bind only to a specific section (domain) of an antigen such as the spike protein. They are found in members of the camel family, including llamas, alpacas and camels.



When llamas are immunized with small doses of coronavirus proteins their immune response is similar to that of humans after being vaccinated. However, instead of producing large, chunky antibodies as humans do, they produce small antibodies that bind to specific regions of the antigen only. These antigen-binding fragments are known as nanobodies.&nbsp;



The researchers collected blood samples from llamas that had been immunized and they identified a range of different nanobodies. They then located the genes in the llama’s genome that were responsible for coding these small antibody molecules and introduced the genetic information into bacterial chromosomes. The genetically modified bacteria were then cultured in the lab and produced large amounts of the nanobodies that could be used in analysis and testing.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests were done to find out which of the different nanobodies were most successful in neutralizing coronavirus particles. Some of the nanobodies targeted the region of the spike protein that attaches to receptors on human cells. This region is key to infection because, once the spike protein attaches to the host cell receptor, viral and host cell membranes fuse and the virus can enter into the host’s cell. Other nanobodies under investigation targeted different regions of the spike protein.



The results showed that several of&nbsp;the nanobodies were highly effective in neutralizing the original coronavirus, as well as its Delta, Beta and Gamma variants.&nbsp; The small size of nanobodies allows them to access hard-to-reach spots on the SARS-CoV-2 virus that larger antibodies may be unable to access. Furthermore, the research showed that up to three different nanobodies could bind to the same small region of the spike protein at the same time, increasing the chances of neutralizing the virus.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that different nanobodies were even more effective when combined. They suggested that this enhanced effect was due to the action of hitting different parts of the virus at the same time, thereby minimizing its chance of escaping neutralization.&nbsp;



“One of the most amazing things we observed with the nanobodies is that they show extraordinary synergy,” Chait says. “The combined effect is much greater than the sum of its parts.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists hope to develop cocktails of nanobodies that target different regions of the virus at the same time, reducing the chance that the virus can escape detection and neutralization. New studies are even underway to test the effectiveness of this technology on the Omicron variant.&nbsp;



Nanobodies are small and nimble, able to squeeze into hard-to-access folds of the viral spike protein. They are also inexpensive to mass-produce&nbsp;using genetically modified yeast or bacteria. This property, along with the fact that they are remarkably stable even in high temperatures and during long periods of storage, means that nanobodies could be developed into a drug suitable for use in different settings all over the world. This is particularly urgent in many developing countries where citizens still await access to vaccines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llama antibodies have potential to treat coronavirus variants

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the...

Complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-develop-larger-sex-organs-when-co2-levels-are-high/">organs</a> in our own bodies are composed of numerous different types of cells and tissues, all working together cooperatively to achieve a particular function. For example, a heart contains muscle tissue, valves, ligaments and nerves, all of which act to pump blood efficiently. The question is, how did these different types of tissues originally come together to work as an organ?



This question has puzzled evolutionary biologists for decades. Now it seems that new research on a species of rove beetle may be able to cast some light on the issue. Published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, the research shows how two different types of cells form a specialized gland in the beetle’s abdomen, with the function of making and secreting noxious chemicals for defense.&nbsp;



Rove beetles live in the leaf litter and soil of ecosystems all over the world and use cocktails of unpleasant chemical substances to keep would-be predators at bay. The beetles smear themselves and other, threatening insects, with the secreted compounds, which have the effect of triggering pain receptors in the recipient. In this way, some species of rove beetles are even able to live inside ant colonies without suffering any negative consequences.



“These beetles are fantastic models for understanding how new kinds of ecological relationships emerge during evolution, through changes at the molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels,” says senior author Joseph Parker of the California Institute of Technology.&nbsp;



“As part of this question, we’re very interested in how rove beetles have pieced together these glandular structures in their abdomens, which are made of different cell types that work together. These structures are the embodiment of a major conundrum: how complex organs evolve that are often composed of many different cell types that appear to seamlessly cooperate with each other. How this cooperativity emerges during evolution is challenging to explain.”



Parker and his colleagues focused their research on Dalotia coriaria, a species of rove beetle that synthesizes and releases a defensive chemical from tergal glands in its abdomen. The substance is composed of two different types of compounds: benzoquinones, which are highly toxic solids, and solvents that consist of a blend of an alkane and esters. The solvents, on their own, are harmless, but when they dissolve the benzoquinones, they turn the resultant cocktail into a serious weapon.



Each tergal gland contains two types of cells engaged in synthesizing the different compounds to be used in defense. “One cell type makes the benzoquinones and the other makes the solvents,” Parker explains. “Both are needed to create a functional secretion that confers adaptive value.”



In the study, the investigators used single-cell transcriptomics to uncover novel enzyme pathways that are used in the creation of these substances in each cell type. They then used these findings to dig deeper, exploring how each cell type’s pathway was constructed from pre-existing components that functioned in other, more ancient cell types, elsewhere in the beetle.&nbsp;



“We were able to discover the biosynthetic pathways in each cell type and could then ask how these pathways were stitched together during evolution,” noted Parker.&nbsp;



Interestingly, one of the cell types – the solvent cells that make the alkane and esters – was found to be a hybrid of cuticle cells and other ancient metabolic cells used originally to make pheromones and to produce and store fats. The solvent cells now carry out their function using a mixture of enzymes from each of the ancient parental cell types.&nbsp;



“The beetle has recruited a major gene expression program from these ancient metabolic cell types and installed it into a patch of cuticle, creating a gland,” said Parker.



Further experimental work with the beetles showed that, when the metabolic pathway for the production of either the solvent or the benzoquinones was rendered non-functional (by genetic knockdown), the beetles lost their defensive capabilities.&nbsp;



Since both pathways are needed for the beetles’ chemical defense system, they would both have been under the influence of natural selection during the beetles’ evolutionary history. Thus, the researchers propose that the evolution of each cell type was shaped by coevolution between the two cell types.&nbsp;



“The solvent cells created a niche for a second cell type to produce the solid benzoquinones, which could dissolve in the alkane and esters. A highly toxic secretion emerged that massively raised the gland’s adaptive value, locking the two cell types into a unit where they cooperate. In essence, a new organ emerged,” said Parker.



According to the researchers, their findings illustrate how cooperation between cell types arises, generating new, organ-level behaviors. This new understanding has implications for mapping out the evolution of more sophisticated organs found across the animal kingdom, including in humans.



“Across the animal tree of life, you see complex multicellular organs that are composed of many different cell types functioning collectively,” said Parker. “Think of something like the mammalian eye, which has about 70 different cell types all functioning together to enable our visual system. The scenario we find playing out in the tergal gland – an organ made of only two cell types – you can imagine could go through further rounds as cell types create niches for new ones to be added, eventually generating really elaborate, multicellular complexity.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beetle glands help explain how complex organs evolved

Complex organs in our own bodies are composed of numerous...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Canada has found that dogs are able to understand 89 words and phrases on average, with some canines being able to comprehend up to 215. These words include their names, as well as various commands such as “sit,” “come,” “wait,” or “lie down.”&nbsp;



As early as 1928, scientists attempted to assess dogs’ ability to understand what humans tell them, when psychologists C.J. Warden and L.H. Warner documented the ability of Fellow, a male German Shepherd, to respond to his owner’s spoken commands. According to the psychologists, Fellow was able to respond appropriately to 68 words or phrases.



In the new study, researchers surveyed 165 dog owners of various breeds and ages, by using a questionnaire modeled after parent word checklists used to assess infants’ language. The participants had to identify words to which they believed their dogs were responding. According to the owners, dogs responded to between 15 and 215 words, with a mean of 89, most of the words being commands.



“Due to their evolutionary history and close association with humans, domestic dogs have learned to respond to human verbal and nonverbal cues at a level unmatched by other species. Their ability to respond to communicative cues is critical for the numerous professional and family roles they play in our lives,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Based on owner reports, dogs seem to vary greatly not only in the number but also in the kinds of words to which they purportedly respond. The current study is consistent with existing research suggesting that dogs may be particularly adept at responding to commands rather than object words.”



Moreover, the researchers found that certain dog breeds, such as herding dogs (Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Cardigan Welsh Corgi, German Shepherd, Miniature American Shepherd, and Shetland Sheepdog), and toy-companion dogs (Bichon Frise, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Chihuahua, and multiple poodles) responded to more words than other breeds.



“There may be breed-related differences in the number of words to which dogs may learn to respond, although additional research is necessary to determine if such differences exist between breeds themselves or between owners of different breeds,” the authors wrote.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105513">Applied Animal Behaviour Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs can understand up to 215 words

A new study led by Dalhousie University in Canada has...

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that the marine birds need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-chimpanzees-need-protection-from-human-development/">protection</a>. The research, published in the September issue of <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-policy">Marine Policy</a>, comes as the UN is negotiating a treaty on the sustainable use of international areas in the high seas.&nbsp;



“In the marine environment, coastal states typically retain management of waters up to 200 nautical miles from their shorelines, but beyond that, the high seas, which represent 64 percent of the ocean’s surface and 95 percent of its volume, are considered global commons," explained study first author Jean-Baptiste Thiebot, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nipr.ac.jp/english/">National Institute of Polar Research</a>.



"Penguins are, largely, ocean wanderers: they venture well offshore during some - or all - of their life stages. Hence, while the public may not think of penguins as traveler animals, we show that penguins are indeed extremely mobile. This mobility also widens the range of threats that they may face at sea, and, in particular, human activities that are intensifying in the high seas.”



According to Thiebot, much of this penguin movement is wide ranging and involves international migration.&nbsp;



“Transboundary movements, notably to areas beyond national jurisdiction, are remarkably prevalent among penguin species - there are at least 120 cases of penguins, representing 13 species, using such areas. We highlight that in 16 of the 18 species examined, the birds may undertake spectacular migrations, seasonally or through life-cycle stages.”



Due to their mobility, as well as to the wide range of threats posed to them by pollution, fishing, and climate change, Thiebot suggests there is a need for flexible conservation.



“We show that the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguin species varies throughout the year, a dynamic pattern supporting the pertinence of developing innovative protection tools, such as mobile marine protected areas,” said Thiebot.



Although the research focused on penguins, it can be seen as part of a greater call for more care of the high seas.



“The current paper is part of a large effort by scientists worldwide to explain the stakes of protecting this biodiversity in the high seas. In the present paper, we examined to what extent penguins are known to use the high seas, and to what extent the conservation of penguins may depend on these legally binding developments.”



The scientists see this paper as just the first step with more research needed in the near future.&nbsp;



“Building on our first-step general approach, further analyses will be required to identify exactly which sites in areas beyond national jurisdiction are a priority for conservation," said Thiebot.



"In the meantime, the ongoing expansion of tracking studies will be key to provide a more complete perspective on the use of areas beyond national jurisdiction by penguins across species, sites and seasons.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Penguins are more mobile, and more threatened, than expected

The analysis of 131 papers on penguins has confirmed that...

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">coral reefs</a> in the Indo-Pacific. They are a major contributor to coral loss, since they feed on the living tissue of several hard coral species. 



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26786-8">Nature Communications</a> has found that reef fish such as tropical snappers, emperors, or rock cods, help keep the numbers of crown-of-thorn starfish in check on the Great Barrier Reef in the Indo-Pacific, thus protecting coral populations.



“More than 50 years ago concern was raised that removal of predators may contribute to starfish outbreaks. However, at the time only one predator of the starfish was known, the giant triton sea snail,” explained study lead author Dr. Frederieke Kroon, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> (AIMS).



“Recent studies have revealed nearly one hundred species of coral reef organisms feed on different life stages of the starfish. Eighty of these are fish, including popular seafood species such as emperors, tropical snappers, and rock cods. Our study is the first to explore how fisheries harvests of these fish species may affect starfish abundance.”



Dr. Kroon and her colleagues compared long-term starfish and reef fish abundance data collected at reefs open and closed for fishing. They discovered that, on reefs closed for fishing, the biomass of emperors, rock cods, and snappers was 1.4 to 2.1 times higher and starfish densities almost three times lower than those on reefs that were open to fishing.



“It is well known that no-take marine reserves increase fish biomass and diversity of large fishes. Previous studies have suggested marine reserves could also influence starfish numbers, but our study provides strong evidence there are fewer crown-of-thorns starfish on reefs with more predatory fish,” said Dr. Kroon.



These findings may help develop new tools for controlling starfish outbreaks on the Great Barrier Reef and the Indo-Pacific region, such as targeted fisheries-based management.



“Starfish outbreaks continue to be a major cause of coral loss, but unlike other pressures like climate change, can be managed at local and regional levels,” Dr Kroon said. “Targeted fisheries-based management, in combination with current crown-of-thorns starfish management interventions such as direct manual control, could assist in further controlling outbreaks.”



“Large-scale, long-term data such as those used this study, as well as experimental studies are the best scientific tools we have to help understand the complexities of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks, and to implement effective and efficient management interventions for their control,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish protect corals by feeding on crown-of-thorns starfish

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster&nbsp;spp.) are native to coral reefs in the...

Researchers have discovered that African and Asian primates evolved a certain resistance to diurnal cobra venoms. The research shows that the last common ancestor of humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-give-us-clues-about-early-human-evolution/">chimpanzees</a> and gorillas had evolved an even greater resistance to venom.&nbsp;



“As primates from Africa gained the ability to walk upright and dispersed throughout Asia, they developed weapons to defend themselves against venomous snakes, this likely sparked an evolutionary arms race and evolving this venom resistance,” said Richard Harris, a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>.



It’s not just resistance to venom that primates evolved in response to snakes or other predators. The scientists speculate that other traits we take for granted such as good vision could be related to avoiding snakes as well, explaining that primates in areas with fewer venomous snakes have poorer eyesight.&nbsp;



“But Madagascan Lemurs and Central and South American monkeys, which live in regions that haven’t been colonized by or come in close contact with neurotoxic venomous snakes, didn’t evolve this kind of resistance to snake venoms and have poorer eyesight," said Harris.&nbsp;



"It’s been long-theorized that snakes have strongly influenced primate evolution, but we now have additional biological evidence to support this theory.”&nbsp;



The researchers, looking at the reaction between various venoms and synthetic nerve receptors, compared Asian and mainland African primates with those of Madagascar and the Americas. Cobras live in Africa and Asia, there are no venomous snakes in Madagascar and the cobra-related coral snake of the Americas is small and burrowing.&nbsp;



“Our movement down from the trees and more commonly on land meant more interactions with venomous snakes, thus driving the evolutionary selection of this increased resistance," said Professor Bryan Fry.



"It is important to note that this resistance is not absolute – we are not immune to cobra venom, just much less likely to die than other primates.”



Resistance to cobra venom has a cost - receptors that are resistant to cobra venom don’t work quite as well. To develop them, pressure to survive a cobra bite is necessary. This research is just one piece of a greater puzzle of human evolution enmeshed in the greater evolution of all life on Earth.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Early humans developed an immunity to cobra venom

Researchers have discovered that African and Asian primates evolved a...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...