Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp;



While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU) has compiled a reference framework of isotope compositions for modern reptiles. This dataset stands to improve our ability to identify the diets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient reptiles</a>, including dinosaurs.



“This reptile reference framework is a convenient toolbox that will enable us to better reconstruct the diet of extinct animals, such as dinosaurs,” Tütken explained. “A set of comparable data of this kind has not previously been available.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-diets-of-modern-reptiles">Diverse diets of modern reptiles </h2>



Today's reptiles showcase a remarkable range of diets, from strictly plant-based to exclusively carnivorous. Many also exhibit specialized feeding preferences, such as the marine iguana in the Galapagos, which eats only algae, or chameleons, which subsist solely on insects.&nbsp;



Gila monsters prefer eggs, while top predators like the saltwater crocodile and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/komodo-dragons-have-iron-tipped-teeth-to-rip-apart-flesh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragon</a> feed entirely on meat. “This diversity makes it difficult to reconstruct the nutritional habits of extinct animals,” Tütken said.



The oldest known ancestors of modern reptiles lived more than 300 million years ago; for instance, the 315-million-year-old Hylonomus resembled a lizard. These early reptiles often bore skulls, jaws, and teeth indicative of insectivory.&nbsp;



The point in geological history when they transitioned from insect-eating to purely carnivorous or herbivorous diets remains unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-geochemical-reference">Building a geochemical reference</h2>



In creating their new framework, Tütken’s team examined 28 modern reptile species by measuring calcium and strontium isotopes in their bones and teeth, which offer chemical clues about what these animals eat.&nbsp;



“To obtain a wide spectrum for comparison, we selected reptiles with pronounced herbivorous or carnivorous behavior, and we also included those with specialized dietary preferences,” Tütken noted. The list included alligators, monitor lizards, chameleons, and more.



Focusing on calcium isotopes, the researchers highlighted the ratio of calcium-44 to calcium-42. They observed a clear trend in which these isotope concentrations decreased at every step in the food chain.&nbsp;



“Overall, the values are highest in insectivorous reptiles, clearly differentiating these from animals with other feeding behaviors,” said lead author Michael Weber, a paleontologist at JGU.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-unique-feeding-patterns-nbsp">Detecting unique feeding patterns&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herbivores</a> showed lower isotope ratios, while carnivores presented the lowest levels. This approach even allowed them to detect unique feeding patterns, such as the algae diet of marine iguanas and the egg-based diet of other reptiles. The team also examined stable strontium-88 to strontium-86 ratios.&nbsp;



“We set up the first extensive reference system of stable strontium isotopes as a dietary proxy. The results for strontium are largely consistent with those for calcium isotopes in respect of the various nutritional forms,” explained study co-author and paleontologist Katrin Weber.&nbsp;



However, strontium is more vulnerable to alteration over time, making calcium isotopes the more reliable measure for extinct species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-reptiles-to-mammals">Comparing reptiles to mammals</h2>



In analyzing these isotopes, the researchers discovered that reptiles show greater calcium isotope variability than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, even under similar dietary regimes.&nbsp;



This phenomenon is believed to stem from physiological differences, and it illustrates why mammal-based data cannot directly determine the diets of prehistoric reptiles such as dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-wear-patterns-and-animal-diets">Teeth wear patterns and animal diets</h2>



Beyond chemical traces, the scientists also investigated the mechanical wear patterns on modern reptile teeth, collecting data in collaboration with Dr. Daniela Winkler at <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kiel University</a>.&nbsp;



Scratches on tooth surfaces reveal whether an animal consumed tough materials such as shells or bones, or softer foods.&nbsp;



When combined with isotope data, these wear patterns can distinguish faunivores that ingested abrasive substances from those relying on soft food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-diets-of-extinct-species">Discovering the diets of extinct species</h2>



“In order to understand and interpret the data for chemical and mechanical patterns of nutritional behavior from fossil finds, we first had to determine the corresponding information for related modern species with their known dietary preferences,” said Tütken.



“As a result, we now have a reference frame for comparison that enables the precise diet assessment and thus a more accurate reconstruction of the feeding habits of extinct species.”



The study forms part of a larger initiative led by Tütken, who in 2016 received an ERC Consolidator Grant to examine the feeding habits of early land vertebrates.&nbsp;



By combining geochemical and mechanical evidence, Tütken’s team has created an essential resource for scientists to unravel the mystery of what ancient reptiles - and possibly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> - might have eaten, guiding us toward a deeper understanding of evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Reptiles provide new clues about the diets of extinct animals

Scientists have long pondered how evolution resulted in the development of both herbivores and carnivores. To understand this, it is important to clarify what type of food did extinct vertebrates eat. But how can we know what the diets of these creatures were?&nbsp; While in living animals we can directly observe what they feed on, in the case of extinct species researchers must rely on morphological or chemical information supplied by fossils.&nbsp; Now, a research team led by professor Thomas Tütken from Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU)...

A new study has revealed that sea anemones use different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-blooms-can-release-neurotoxins-into-the-air/">toxins</a> for different purposes - defense, predation or digestion. Lauren Ashwood, a PhD researcher at the <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/">Queensland University of Technology</a>, has analyzed the toxins of the reef-based sea anemone Telmatactis stephensoni for their potential as drugs. 



"Unlike snakes which deliver their venom via fangs, T. stephensoni venom is a complex cocktail of toxins that is found in stinging cells throughout the sea anemone's structure," said Ashwood.



"Analysis of the sea anemone's three major functional regions: the tentacles, epidermis and gastrodermis -- found the locations of toxin production are consistent with their ecological role of catching prey, defence and digestion. This means when we study the toxins in the context of what they do, we have an idea of how they might be useful for therapeutics."



Toxins can be medicinal at different doses and things that in one context can kill you in a different one can cure you. In fact, toxins have been used as medicines at least as far back as the seventh century BC.&nbsp;



"Peptide toxins from venomous animals are being developed into therapeutics for conditions, including cardiovascular disorders, autoimmune diseases, diabetes, wound healing, HIV, cancer and chronic pain," explained Ashwood,&nbsp;



"In all we found 84 potential toxins in T. stephensoni including one that hadn't been seen before. A sample of this unknown toxin, named U-Tstx-1, has been sent to a specialised lab in Hungary for analysis.”



New analytical techniques have led to discoveries from cruder testing methods of using a toxin against a targeted problem to a toxin driven method.&nbsp;



"This new strategy allows for the discovery of peptides that might have remained undiscovered, for example, those which may not be highly abundant in the venom or which possess unanticipated mechanisms of action," said Professor Peter Prentis from the Centre for Agriculture and the Bioeconomy and the School of Biology and Environmental Science.



"Toxin-driven discovery to find therapeutic candidates, however, can be like finding a needle in a haystack and not all peptide toxins are likely to have the same success as pharmaceuticals."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Venomous sea anemone may lead to important drugs

A new study has revealed that sea anemones use different...

A&nbsp;Texas-based environmental conservation group called <a href="https://www.rewild.org/">Re:wild</a> that has famous actor Leonardo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-tree-in-cameroon-named-after-leonardo-dicaprio/">DiCaprio</a> as a member, has recently drawn up a new list of the “25 most wanted lost species,” as part of its quest to find animal species that have been lost to science and are possibly extinct.



Since starting its activity in 2017, Re:wild had confirmed the rediscovery through expeditions and scientific analyses of eight animal species, including a giant type of tortoise found in the Galapagos Islands, and the world’s largest bee, discovered in Indonesia. However, many more species remain lost to science, with an estimated of over 2,200 species across 160 countries that have not been spotted since more than a decade.&nbsp;



Among the species that the conservation group is hoping to rediscover in the wild and help protect are a blind salamander, a tap-dancing spider, a fat catfish, and a bullneck seahorse.&nbsp;



“The Blanco blind salamander has achieved near-mythical status among herpetologists, cave biologists and conservationists,” said Andrew Gluesenkamp, director of conservation at the <a href="https://sazoo.org/">San Antonio Zoo</a>. At the time of its scientific discovery in 1951 in a water-filled cave in the northeast of San Marcos, Texas, only four individuals of this amazing animal, which breathes through its skin gills, is depigmented, and lives in total darkness, feeding upon groundwater invertebrates,&nbsp; have been found.



The Fagilde’s trapdoor spider, a fascinating animal which builds horizontal traps and “tap dances to score dates” was discovered in 1931 in Fagilde, a small village in Portugal. While belonging to the spider genus “Nemesia,” it appears to be the only member of this genus which builds horizontal rather than vertical traps.



Another missing species is the fat catfish, which has not been seen in its known habitat in Colombia since 1957. This species is the only freshwater catfish with rings of fat tissue wrapped around its body, a feature which made scientists describe it as “the closest a fish could get to the Michelin man.”



Another tantalizing creature is the Bullneck Seahorse, a tiny species whose only known members have been collected on the coast of Eden, New South Wales, Australia, in 1996. Researchers believe this pigmy seahorse lives in sand beds at the bottom of the oceans, over 325 feet underwater. “No information is available about the Bullneck Seahorse’s population density, distribution, ecology, behavior, population trends, genetic structure or life history traits.&nbsp;Dedicated field surveys will require scuba diving and fisheries sampling,” said the Re:wild members.



Other mysterious, currently missing animals include a long-beaked echidna named after famous British naturalist David&nbsp;Attenborough, a ground-dwelling Togo mouse, a flying squirrel, a Himalayan quail, a New Zealand short-tailed bat, and a pink-headed duck. A full list of the 25 species and their descriptions can be found on Re:wild’s <a href="https://www.rewild.org/lost-species/top-25-most-wanted-lost-species">website.</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Searching for the 25 most wanted lost species

A&nbsp;Texas-based environmental conservation group called Re:wild that has famous actor...

Populations of large predators like lions are in decline in Africa, chiefly because of the loss of suitable habitats, declines in prey populations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poaching-has-long-term-impacts-on-elephants/">poaching</a> and conflict with humans. Keeping track of the mortality rates of large predators is largely achieved by monitoring deaths through trophy hunting, but few assessments have been made of carnivore mortality or injury due to other anthropogenic causes.&nbsp;



In a new study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>, biologists Paula White and Blaire Van Valkenburgh from UCLA assess the incidence of snaring and shotgun injuries on lion and leopard populations in two wildlife areas in Zambia. The experts made use of a low-cost forensic technique involving analysis of the skulls of carnivores killed by trophy hunters in the Luangwa Valley and the Greater Kafue Ecosystem.&nbsp;



While conducting research in Zambia, White noticed that some of the trophy skulls of lions had pronounced, horizontal notches on their teeth. These were not made through natural wear and tear, and White deduced they were the result of attempts by the lions to chew their way out of a snare.&nbsp;



Snares are wire nooses that are illegally set by poachers to trap wild animals for food, but they are indiscriminate and carnivores can also get entangled in them. Some skulls also had lead shot pellets embedded in the bone, evidence that the lions had been in conflict situations with humans who had used shotguns to control them.



“While investigating natural age-related tooth wear and damage and naturally-occurring skull injuries for another study, we detected abnormal tooth wear that was determined to be diagnostic of wire snare damage, and old shotgun pellets embedded in skulls,” explained White, director of the Zambia Lion Project and a senior research fellow with the Center for Tropical Research at UCLA’s Institute for the Environment and Sustainability.&nbsp;“We realized that an individual's history of past (non-lethal) injuries could be determined through simple forensic examination.”



“It was an odd mix of thrilling to figure out the cause of the notches and horrifying to realize that so many animals had been entangled in a share at some point in their lives,” she said.



The researchers used photographs of lion and leopard skulls to determine tooth damage from snaring and to locate embedded shotgun pellets. They looked at samples of 112 lions and 45 leopards from the two areas in Zambia.



Of these animals, 37 percent of the lions and 22 percent of the leopards had snare scars and tooth notches. This incidence was much higher than they had expected. 



Evidence of shotgun pellet injuries was only found among lions, with 27 percent of sampled individuals having shotgun pellets embedded in their skulls. Double injuries from both snare damage and shotgun pellets were found in 16 percent of lions from the Kafue area and 7 percent of lions from Luangwa.



The researchers had expected to see more injuries among carnivores from the Luangwa Valley, where the human population is larger and conflicts more likely. However, these anthropogenic injuries were more prevalent among lions and leopards in the Greater Kafue area.&nbsp;



“The Luangwa Valley and the Greater Kafue Ecosystem are two premier wildlife tourism areas in Zambia. Our findings indicate that even in these well-protected systems, poaching and human-wildlife conflict represent significant threats to large carnivores,” said White.



“Our procedure of forensic examination of carnivore skulls and teeth, some of which can be applied to live-captured animals, allows for improved detection of cryptic, non-lethal anthropogenic injuries," explained the study authors."&nbsp;



"Further, our methods represent a consistent and economical way to track changes in the frequency of such injuries over time and between regions, thereby providing a direct measure of the effectiveness of conservation programs that seek to reduce poaching and human-wildlife conflict.”



“Despite the alarmingly high frequency of non-lethal injuries that we detected, we know that our findings are an underestimate," said White. "Our methods may serve to improve future assessments of the total impacts that humans have on wildlife and provide a measure of the effectiveness of select conservation programs.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tooth damage in lions reveals human impact on wildlife

Populations of large predators like lions are in decline in...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-disease-is-decimating-amphibians-in-baja-california/">Amphibian</a> loss worldwide has been a cause for outcry by scientists. Now, researchers have a new reason to care about the extinction of frogs and salamanders: the loss of their poisons. A recent review by Rebecca Tarvin and Kannon Pearson reminds us how little we know about endangered harlequin toads and their poisons.



Of the 113 known species of harlequin toads of the genus Atelopus, most are in decline a fourth of them might already be extinct. Other animal toxins have proven useful for drugs, so if we lose the harlequin toad, we also lose potential pharmaceuticals useful to humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"In Central America, there's nine species of Atelopus, and seven of them have been assessed for toxin diversity and quantity," said Tarvin, <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a> assistant professor of Integrative Biology. "But the majority of the Atelopus species actually live in South America, where a minority of the studies have been done."



"There are entire countries, like Bolivia and Guyana, where not a single species has been assessed. We don't know of any reports of whether Indigenous people use them. We don't know if they're toxic or not. One of the takeaways from our paper is that by losing these animals, we're probably losing some chemical diversity, as well. They have some toxins that are found nowhere else in the world."



Tarvin mainly researches toxicity in animals from butterflies and shellfish to reptiles and amphibians. Many animals evolve to sequester toxins from plants or host toxic bacteria, all without suffering ill effects. Some harlequin toads have a novel origin of their toxicity - they host skin bacteria that produce toxins.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"One of the very first research projects I did was with Atelopustoads in Ecuador, and I just love them," said Tarvin, who also is assistant curator of herpetology at UC Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. "But from a scientific perspective, there's a lot that's unknown, and they are a huge conservation concern. So, I feel like they're kind of a priority. Some of the species are doing fine, but they were really hit hard by chytrid (a fungal disease). A lot of species were completely wiped out."



Once these toads were commonplace but are increasingly rare, like so many other species and face the possibility of extinction. Ecuadorian graduate student, María José (Majo) Navarrete-Méndez who wasn’t involved in the current study has heard first hand accounts of the toad’s decline,&nbsp;



"My grandparents lived in the countryside -- they were campesinos -- and they remembered that (the toads) were extremely abundant," said Navarrete. "I started realizing that we are in a race against time, and if it is not me, and if it is not now -- we still have them available, and we have the technology and the resources to study them -- it might be too late later."



Like many groups of animals, we could lose harlequin toads before we understand them and their chemical defenses very well if nothing changes.&nbsp;



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Losing the harlequin toad means losing potential medicines

Amphibian loss worldwide has been a cause for outcry by...

Caribou (known as reindeer in Europe) are large, herbivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-are-vanishing-in-the-uk/">mammals</a> that are famous for making extensive migrations in order to avoid severe weather and gain access to forage. They make the longest seasonal migrations of any mammal, moving up to 2,500 miles each year. But not all caribous have the same propensity to migrate.



A recent study, led by Maria Cavedon from the University of Calgary, investigated the genes that influence migratory behavior in caribou and found that an individual’s genetic background is what makes it more or less likely to undertake extreme migrations.&nbsp;



The researchers followed 139 caribou (Rangifer tarandus) females using GPS tracking. Some of the animals lived in tundra habitats, while others inhabited woodlands distributed across western North America.&nbsp;



In addition, DNA sequencing of the caribou was carried out to investigate the genetic factors that influence migratory behavior.&nbsp;Over 50 genetic mutations associated with migratory behavior were identified. The experts noted that 27 of these mutations were located on genes involved in brain activity, fat and energy metabolism, body development, or hormone production.&nbsp;



Furthermore,&nbsp;the researchers found that the genetic sequences clustered into two distinct geographical groups – one northerly and the other southerly. These genetic subpopulations are descended from ancestral caribou that were separated from one another during the last ice age.&nbsp;



Having evolved in Beringia more than two million years ago, caribou became adapted to living in the cold conditions of north eastern Russia and Alaska. But around 300,000 years ago, during a relatively warm interglacial period, caribou populations spread throughout the northern half of North America.



However, when conditions began to cool again at the start of the last ice age, glaciers formed across Canada and the caribou range was cut in two. Those to the north of the continental ice sheets, in Beringia, continued to live in cold conditions while those trapped south of the glaciers became adapted to living in woodland habitats and warmer conditions.&nbsp;



These two groups of caribou remained isolated from each other, on opposite sides of the Rocky Mountains, throughout the duration of the ice age, which ended around 11,700 years ago.



The genetic and GPS analyses of the 139 caribou in the current study showed that individuals with a greater proportion of genes from northern ancestors were more likely to migrate longer distances. During the research, the more migratory individuals travelled nearly 250 kilometers on average, which was ten times further than the sedentary caribou.&nbsp;



These findings, published today in the open-access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/">PLOS Genetics</a>, indicate an evolutionary legacy from the last glaciation, when northerly caribou populations continued to migrate in order to survive in harsh tundra environments, while southerly populations living in forests were more sedentary. The study is the first to investigate the genes influencing migration in an endangered terrestrial mammal.&nbsp;



Seasonal migrations enable animals to follow vital food resources that change from summer to winter. But they also make these animals particularly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. Conserving key habitats along their seasonal migration routes could help to preserve the genes underpinning the world’s longest terrestrial migration, the authors say.



“Wide-ranging animals, including migratory species, are significantly threatened by the effects of habitat fragmentation and habitat loss,” said Cavedon. “We examined migratory behavior of GPS-collared endangered caribou in western North America and carried out genomic scans for the same individuals. We detected genes associated with migratory behavior, and we determined that propensity to migrate depended upon the evolutionary history of caribou."&nbsp;



"If, as we report, migratory behavior is influenced by genes, caribou could be further impacted by the loss of the migratory trait in some isolated populations already at low numbers.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caribou migratory behavior is reflected in their genes

Caribou (known as reindeer in Europe) are large, herbivorous mammals...

Archerfish live in streams, rivers and estuaries where they inhabit mostly the surface shallows. They are renowned for their ability to "shoot down" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-tend-to-each-others-wounds/">insect</a> prey by spitting beads of water out of the mouth with incredible accuracy. In this way, they target insects sitting on vegetation on the bank, as well as airborne insects that fly overhead.



There is no parental care in archerfish and so the juveniles have to learn how to aim and shoot their jet-propelled water bullets without adult guidance. They also have to learn to distinguish between what is a potentially juicy insect meal from a worthless piece of vegetation.&nbsp;



“Object recognition is critical for animal survival," said Ronen Segev from <a href="https://in.bgu.ac.il/en/pages/default.aspx">Ben-Gurion University of the Negev</a>, referring to the skill that these fish exhibit in respect of distinguishing dinner. But exactly how do these remarkable fish differentiate a tasty treat from an unpalatable plant? “It’s a complex task,” said Segev, who recently published a research paper on this topic. He and his colleagues were interested in establishing which visual features archerfish depend on when identifying an insect for dinner.&nbsp;



Initially, the researchers wished to find out whether archerfish could recognize individual objects. Fortunately, the fish can be trained to squirt their water jets at images on a computer screen, in return for a food pellet. Segev and Svetlana Volotsky first trained the sniper fish to aim at images of one specific spider while at the same time trying to distract them with an image of a piece of vegetation.&nbsp;



Volotsky then presented the fish with images of the same spider, but taken from unfamiliar angles. If the fish had really learned to recognize the spider, they should be able to identify it from a completely new and unexpected view, even when presented simultaneously with an image of a different spider or a piece of vegetation. Indeed, the fish selected the initial spider for a target, irrespective of the novel view they were presented with. They could clearly recognize individual objects. But would they recognize that an insect they had never before set eyes on was also a potential prey item?&nbsp;



In the next set of experiments, Volotsky trained the fish to spit at images of a variety of insects, ranging from ants and beetles to flies and spiders, while still trying to distract them with images of plants. Once the fish had learned to aim their water jets at the insects, she tried presenting them with images of unfamiliar insects, to see whether the fish could recognize that any old insect is an animal, and not a plant. Astoundingly, the fish still targeted the insect images, even though they had never seen those creatures before.&nbsp;



“Archerfish can generalize from examples to make object recognition of natural object classes,” explained Segev.



The researchers, along with colleagues Ohad Ben-Shahar and Opher Donchin, then tested what visual cues the fish were actually using to enable them to distinguish plants from animals. They broke down images of insects, flowers and leaves into 18 different component features and built a computer program (known as a support-vector machine), that can learn to classify different types of information. Using this program, they mimicked the decision-making process of the fish to find out which features are necessary for archerfish to distinguish between animals and plants.&nbsp;



Amazingly, the fish only needed six essential features to distinguish animals from plants. These included the loose perimeter encircling the object, how jagged or smooth the shape was, and the texture of its surface. The first two factors were the most important in identifying the object correctly as an animal.&nbsp;



These findings, published today in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, are even more remarkable because humans use a similar, although more elaborate, strategy to recognize each other’s faces.&nbsp;



The research team hopes to apply the lessons they have learned from archerfish to understanding visual recognition in other animals and to design man-made object recognition systems.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Archerfish can recognize unfamiliar insects that are potential prey

Archerfish live in streams, rivers and estuaries where they inhabit...

A new study found the first evidence of a dinosaur with what appears to have been a respiratory infection. The dinosaur was a diplodocid or “long neck” dinosaur, similar to brontosaurus. The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, helps us to understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-disease-is-decimating-amphibians-in-baja-california/">diseases</a> that infected dinosaurs.



The dinosaur nick-named “Dolly” was found in Montana and dates back about 150 million years to the Jurassic. Cary Woodruff, along with colleagues from the Great Plains Dinosaur Museum of Malta Montana, examined vertebrae from the dinosaur's neck. The research revealed anomalies, including protrusions that probably would have penetrated the neck air sacs in life. The air sacs are part of Dolly’s complex dinosaur respiratory system. CT imaging suggests that the anomalies are probably a response to a respiratory infection.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Given the likely symptoms this animal suffered from, holding these infected bones in your hands, you can’t help but feel sorry for Dolly,” Woodruff said. “We’ve all experienced these same symptoms – coughing, trouble breathing, a fever, etc. – and here’s a 150-million-year-old dinosaur that likely felt as miserable as we all do when we’re sick.”



The research suggests that Dolly might have suffered from a fungal infection, such as aspergillosis, which infects the respiratory systems of modern birds and reptiles. Aspergillosis can lead to bone infections like those found on Dolly. This is also the first case of such an infection found on a dinosaur fossil.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This fossil infection in Dolly not only helps us trace the evolutionary history of respiratory-related diseases back in time, but gives us a better understanding of what kinds of diseases dinosaurs were susceptible to,” Woodruff said.



If Dolly was infected with an aspergillosis-like illness, she probably suffered flu-like symptoms - coughing, fever, trouble breathing and weight loss. Eventually the infection might have led to her death.&nbsp;



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study finds first evidence of a dinosaur with a respiratory infection

A new study found the first evidence of a dinosaur...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04408-7">Nature</a> is the first to identify a direct physiological link connecting food consumption and mating behavior in the animal kingdom. A research team led by the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> has found that protein-rich food triggers the release of diuretic hormone 31, or “Dh31” - a signaling molecule produced in fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-respond-to-danger-like-humans/">flies</a>’ gastrointestinal tracts which makes them switch from a feeding-focused behavior to a mating behavior.&nbsp;



“We found the transition from feeding to mating and were very surprised that&nbsp;a single molecule&nbsp;would have such a profound influence on behavior decisions,” said study senior author Jing Wang, a professor of Neurobiology at the UC San Diego. “Our study provides a mechanistic explanation of how the Dh31 neuropeptide acts on the brain to change the motivational drive of two evolutionarily critical behaviors.”



Professor Wang and his colleagues discovered this amazing molecule by using genomic analyses, three-photon microscopy, and&nbsp;fluorescence imaging. To confirm their findings, the scientists performed a series of genetic experiments. In a first type of experiment, Dh31 was knocked out of fruit flies. When this happened, the flies kept feeding and held off any type of mating behavior. In a different kind of experiment, when this molecule was activated by the researchers, the flies rapidly flipped to courtship.



“These results indicate that Dh31 is a signaling molecule that reorders the priority of these two contending behaviors: feeding over courtship in the absence of Dh31 and courtship over feeding when Dh31 is released from the gut,” explained Professor Wang.



This study offers new insights into decision-making processes in cases when animals switch from a behavior promoting survival, such as feeding, to a fundamentally different behavior such as mating. Further research is needed to clarify how gut hormones function beyond feeding, and how they factor into gut-to-brain communication.



“This work embodies a multidisciplinary approach to understand behavioral prioritization at multiple levels, from molecules to neurons and circuit function. This line of work provides us with an empirical paradigm to study the hierarchical organization of different need-based behaviors, a framework established by Abraham Maslow 80 years ago to explain the orderly transition of human behaviors,” concluded Professor Wang.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut molecule makes animals switch from eating to mating

A new study published in the journal Nature is the...

Millions of migratory birds collide with buildings in the city of Chicago each migration season. They are affected by the bright lights and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-extreme-weather-impact-marine-ecosystems/">weather</a>, and inadvertently crash into the buildings in the dark and fall to the ground. The corpses of birds killed in this way were collected between 1978 and 2016, and this dataset has been used in a new study and has revealed some interesting trends.&nbsp;



Many species of migratory birds have shrunk in size as the temperatures have increased during the past 40 years. The sizes of sparrows, songbirds and thrushes from the Chicago dataset have decreased significantly in that time, even though the absolute changes have been small. And the reduction in body size is so pervasive a phenomenon that scientists have suggested it may be a universal response to warming conditions.



However, the new research study, published today in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>, indicates that not all birds are equally affected when it comes to reductions in body size. Birds with bigger brains relative to body size have not shrunk as much as their lesser brained counterparts.



Study lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://biology.wustl.edu/people/justin-baldwin">Justin Baldwin</a> is a PhD candidate in the lab of&nbsp;<a href="https://biology.wustl.edu/people/carlos-botero">Carlos Botero</a>, assistant professor of Biology at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a>. “As temperatures warm, body sizes are decreasing,” said Baldwin. “But larger-brained species are declining less strongly than small-brained species.”



The researchers analyzed information on some 70,000 birds that died when they collided with buildings in Chicago between 1978 and 2016. They also supplemented this vast dataset with brain volume measurements and lifespan data that they collected for 49 of the 52 species.&nbsp;



They found that birds with very big brains relative to body size have shown only about one-third of the decrease in body size that other bird species have undergone in that time period. In birds, relative brain size is often considered an indicator of behavioral flexibility, and having a larger relative brain capacity has advantages for birds.



“Relative brain size correlates with increased learning ability, increased memory, longer lifespans and more stable population dynamics,” said Baldwin. “In this case, a bigger-brained species of bird might be able to reduce its exposure to warming temperatures by seeking out microhabitats with cooler temperatures, for example."



This is the first time that scientists have been able to show a direct link between cognition and phenotypic responses to climate change.



“One of the first things that jumps out to me from these findings is that we can already see that climate change is having a disproportionate effect on species that have less capacity to deal with environmental change through their behavior,” said Professor Botero.&nbsp;



“This doesn’t mean that climate change is not affecting brainy birds, or that brainy birds are going to do just fine. What our findings suggest is that climate change can have a much stronger effect on the less-brainy birds.”



North America has lost nearly one-third of its birdlife in the last half-century, with migratory species experiencing particularly acute declines. The findings of this recent study, therefore, have important practical implications for management and conservation strategies.&nbsp;



“Rapid changes in the environment often produce a few winners and a whole lot of losers, which is really unfortunate,” said Professor Botero. “Many wildlife populations have moved toward colder places as the planet has warmed. Selection forces those that don’t move to adapt, for example, by changing their body size.”



Baldwin’s analysis reveals that smaller-brained species might be experiencing particularly strong natural selection pressure currently, a fact that planners may need to take into account for conservation management.



“When it comes to climate change mitigation and planning, a major goal is to maintain population-level connectivity,” said Baldwin. “We want to allow species to move toward the poles or upslope in elevation, to keep up with warming climates. Our findings suggest that this type of intervention could be especially important for smaller-brained species.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Big brains may help birds cope with climate change

Millions of migratory birds collide with buildings in the city...

More than 85 percent of grouper and snapper are overfished on Florida's coral reefs, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> (UM) Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. The experts report that this issue is a direct result of increasing human demand for seafood.



"The economic and ecological importance of coral reef fishes makes their sustainability a key conservation concern," wrote the study authors. "In southern Florida, commercial and recreational fisheries are worth about $6 billion per annum and are closely tied to healthy essential habitats that are part of the regional coral reef ecosystem."



"Threats to coral reef ecosystems are well known and include human impacts from global warming, such as bleaching and disease. Local impacts related to development and pollution also occur. However, related to fisheries in south Florida, overfishing is by far the most serious threat to their sustainability - and also around the world."



For the investigation, the experts analyzed population data for 15 coral reef fish species over 30 years using their length-based risk analysis (LBRA) framework. The species examined for the study - five grouper species, eight snapper species, and two grunts - are central to South Florida’s fisheries.&nbsp;



The study showed that all of the snapper fish, three grouper species, and both grunt species were below the 40 percent minimum spawning potential ratio. This is an index created by marine fisheries that represents what is necessary to sustain fish populations.



The researchers estimate that increasing the current minimum catch size of black grouper from 24 inches to 44 inches would boost the spawning population to 40 percent. This would be enough progress to produce the number of new juveniles needed to sustain the population.



In this scenario, the researchers said it would take approximately 10 years for the population to recover to a point where it was minimally sustainable, and 22 years to reach equilibrium where a sustainable catch becomes possible.



“The situation is analogous to your bank account,” said study lead author Professor Jerald Ault. “That is, without a significant account balance, in this case fish in the water, you can’t get meaningful interest— significant numbers of large fish to catch, but also to spawn and replenish the reef.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/fisheries-research">Fisheries Research</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Overfishing is a major threat to coral reef fish

More than 85 percent of grouper and snapper are overfished...

Last year was a bad one for manatees, when more than 1,000 of the loveable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-900-manatees-have-died-this-year-in-florida/">mammals died</a> in Florida. The main cause of the mass mortality event was starvation, which was due to a lack of seagrass, the manatee’s favorite food. Seagrass was scarce in the Indian River lagoon, a 156-mile-long estuary along Florida’s east coast.&nbsp;



The seagrass was likely killed by a chain reaction from pollution runoff, and some non-profits<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-groups-sue-the-epa-over-manatee-deaths/"> sued the EPA </a>over their handling of the pollution. The runoff caused phytoplankton blooms, which in turn blocked light from the grass.



Now, a new study published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a> seeks to remedy the problem by investigating the loss of seagrass and assisting with ecosystem restoration.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Light is mandatory for growth and survival of seagrasses,” said study co-author Dr. Dennis Hanisak, a research professor at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) Harbor Branch. “Reduced light causes changes in the physiology and the size and shape of seagrass, such as decreased leaf length, leaf width, leaves per shoot, and shoot growth. Seagrasses can cope with reduced light for short periods, however, once poor clarity becomes chronic or recurrent, detrimental effects on survival, resilience, and recovery arise.”



The study showed that from 1943 to 1994, about 7,400 acres of seagrass were lost. Between 2011 and 2019, approximately 58 percent of seagrass was lost.&nbsp;



"Multiple anthropogenic stressors affect seagrasses by reducing water clarity, particularly at the deep edge of a bed or the light-limited depth of colonization," wrote the study authors.



"Reduced light also causes changes in the physiology and morphology of seagrass, such as decreased leaf length, leaf width, leaves per shoot, and shoot growth."



"Seagrasses can cope with reduced light for short periods, but once poor clarity becomes chronic or recurrent, detrimental effects on survival, resilience, and recovery emerge."



The researchers noted that reduced availability of light is not the only stressor affecting seagrass. They explained that salinity and temperature are two additional stressors, which are not related to physical disturbance or excessive nutrient loads. The research team is working to grow seagrass in an effort to restore some of what has been lost.&nbsp;



“We are maintaining the seagrass nursery in a ‘ready mode’ so that we can readily partner with agencies and other interested parties in experimentation or pilot studies for seagrass restoration efforts,” said Dr. Hanisak.



This effort to understand the loss of seagrass is critical in reversing the trend and restoring the habitat to hopefully support a healthy population of manatees into the future.&nbsp;The Florida Power &amp; Light Company (FPL) is providing the funding to operate the nursery for at least three years.



“This gift and continued support from FPL is helping our ongoing research in marine science and technology and addressing critical issues affecting our marine ecosystems,” said Dr. Jim Sullivan, executive director of FAU Harbor Branch.&nbsp;



“With this funding, our researchers are applying unique techniques to help repair the damages to the crucial aquatic plants that are essential to the health of the Indian River Lagoon, and moreover, critical for the survival of our beloved lagoon manatees that are dependent on this dietary staple.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seagrass restoration could help save starving manatees

Last year was a bad one for manatees, when more...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.gsu.edu/">Georgia State University</a> has found that, similarly to humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-monkeys-go-fishing-to-survive-during-the-winter/">monkeys</a> can become stressed when they need to perform in high-pressure situations. Thus, the phenomenon of “choking under pressure” does not seem to be a consequence of humans’ advanced cognitive skills coupled with societal pressures, as scientists previously thought, but rather a phylogenetically older response shared by other animals.



In order to assess if non-human primates experience such phenomena, the researchers built an experimental protocol involving tufted capuchin monkeys living in groups at Georgia State’s <a href="https://lrc.gsu.edu/">Language Research Center</a>. The monkeys were given a computerized matching task with some trials typical in difficulty and others cued to be harder, and having higher rewards and timeout consequences for wrong answers.



The scientists found that there was significant variation in how individual monkeys responded to the trials when the difference in difficulty was removed, suggesting that, for some monkeys, the pressures related to high stakes significantly impacted performance.



“There are several different explanations for why humans might ‘choke’ or ‘thrive’ under pressure, but all of these explanations have traditionally considered this sensitivity to pressure to be a human-specific trait,” said study lead author Meg Sosnowski, a doctoral student at Georgia State University.



“Our new results provide the first evidence that other species also might be susceptible to this influence of pressure, and that our responses to that pressure are, in part, the result of individual variation in an evolutionarily common stress response.”



The scientists also discovered that levels of cortisol (a naturally occurring biomarker of stress) were strongly related to the monkeys’ performance. Higher levels of cortisol were associated with a lower ability to successfully complete the high-pressure tasks, adding evidence to the hypothesis that an individual’s long-term stress state can impact cognitive performance.



“This opens the door not just to explore how responses to pressure might have impacted the evolution of cognition, but also provides clues pointing us to potential avenues that might mitigate performance deficits, both in humans and in other species,” concluded Sosnowski.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-04986-6">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monkeys, like humans, can “choke under pressure”

A new study led by Georgia State University has found...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...