Just imagine a world where humans no longer exist, who would take over? Well, it may not be another mammal. Believe it or not, octopuses could be the ones to dominate Earth after humans. 



Scientists have recently made a riveting claim that these eight-limbed, marine invertebrates could become the dominant species on Earth should homo sapiens vanish from existence. It's an intriguing idea, but how is it possible?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hypothetical-world-without-humans">Hypothetical world without humans</h2>



What if humanity were utterly wiped out through wars or climate change? It's a grim concept but it is fascinating to wonder about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-inspire-more-human-like-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential successors</a> of our civilization.



According to leading experts, octopuses possess the "physical and mental attributes necessary" to evolve into the next civilization-building species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-taking-over-humans">Octopus taking over humans</h2>



Tim Coulson, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, presents an interesting case for these eight-legged creatures. His argument hinges on the octopuses' "dexterity, curiosity, ability to communicate with each other, and supreme intelligence."



These traits, according to Professor Coulson, equip octopuses with the potential to develop complex tools and methodologies necessary to birth a vast Atlantis-like civilization under the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-primates">Why not primates?</h2>



One might think that primates, our closest relatives, have the best shot at stepping into our shoes if we were to vacate the world. They have opposable thumbs, use tools, and walk on two legs, right? But according to Professor Coulson, it's not that simple. 



He reasons that primates would face the same threats that could potentially wipe out humanity and thus are also at risk of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-competing-with-humans">Octopuses competing with humans</h2>



In an interview with The European magazine, Professor Coulson, who has held positions at institutions like <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> and <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge University</a>, elaborates on why octopuses are a strong contender.



He refers to them as "the most intelligent, adaptable, and resourceful creatures on Earth," lauding their abilities to solve complex problems, manipulate objects, and even camouflage themselves with near-perfect precision.



Their decentralized nervous system and advanced neural structure, coupled with their exceptional problem-solving skills, make octopuses uniquely suited for an unpredictable world. 



Professor Coulson sees these intelligent cephalopods as an underappreciated contender who could step up as the planet's next intelligent species after humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptable-survivalists">Adaptable survivalists</h2>



If humans were to go extinct, most scientists concur that the creature to "replace" us should be dextrous. Dexterity, in this context, pertains to the ability to modify their environment and colonize the planet using complex tools, much like humans.



Octopuses' abilities to distinguish between real and virtual objects, solve puzzles, manipulate their surroundings, and adapt to a broad range of environments make them a viable candidate for future rulers of Earth. 



They are also adept at surviving in harsh conditions and are formidable hunters with a wide variety of prey including clams, shrimp, lobsters, fish, sharks, and even birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-and-human-like-settlements">Octopuses and human-like settlements</h2>



With relatively short lifespans, from between 1.5 to five years, one could argue that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> are on the back foot for the long evolutionary race. But here's a counterintuitive thought. 



What if their hasty reproduction and quick intellectual maturity actually give them an advantage in rapidly changing environments, thereby accelerating their evolutionary progress?



According to our Professor Coulson, while octopuses are unlikely to evolve into land-based animals due to their lack of a skeleton and associated challenges with mobility out of water, they could potentially develop underwater cities and towns akin to human settlements on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-yes-probable-maybe">Possible? Yes. Probable? Maybe.</h2>



In the end, as Professor Coulson reminds us, these are all just speculations. "It's important to remember that these are just possibilities, and that it's impossible to predict with any degree of certainty how evolution will unfold over extended periods."



However, given the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a>' remarkable intelligence, adaptability, and diverse range of survival strategies, they could indeed emerge as a potential successor to humanity.



Now, whether the octopuses would build vast underwater cities or venture onto land to hunt terrestrial mammals is yet to be determined, and we may never really know.



For now, we will continue to marvel at these fascinating creatures and their potential for becoming the torchbearers of intelligent life on Earth, albeit in the far-flung future.



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Octopuses could dominate Earth if humans vanish

Just imagine a world where humans no longer exist, who would take over? Well, it may not be another mammal. Believe it or not, octopuses could be the ones to dominate Earth after humans. Scientists have recently made a riveting claim that these eight-limbed, marine invertebrates could become the dominant species on Earth should homo sapiens vanish from existence. It's an intriguing idea, but how is it possible? Hypothetical world without humans What if humanity were utterly wiped out through wars or climate change? It's a grim...

Rising numbers of free-roaming stray <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-to-tell-whether-you-cat-is-a-psychopath/">cats</a> is a global problem. They are considered one of the world’s most invasive species, posing a health risk to humans and destroying large numbers of wildlife. Nevertheless, people are reluctant to cull them, as they usually do with pests such as rats or cockroaches. A new study led by the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/en">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> (HUJI) has now investigated the impact of different protocols to control stray cat populations over a period of 12 years.



At the moment, the most popular and widespread population-control method is TNR - in which street cats are Trapped, Neutered, and Returned to the location where they were initially found.&nbsp;



“Although this method has been implemented in various parts of the world, there was controversial evidence regarding its effectiveness for reducing cat populations and no hard evidence regarding its effectiveness in reducing cat-related nuisances or improving their welfare,” said study lead author Eyal Klement, an expert in Veterinary Epidemiology at HUJI.



Professor Klement and his colleagues focused on one Israeli city (Rishon LeZion) where they tried out different population-control measures during three four-year periods. While in the first period there was no intervention, in the second one the scientists organized an intensive program of neutering cats in half of the city, using the other half as a control group. Finally, in the third period, neutering was applied city-wide.



Surprisingly, neutering cats in only half of the city did not seem to reduce cat populations at all. According to the researchers, the migration of unneutered cats into the area can explain this unexpected finding. While in the third case, a seven percent annual reduction of cat population was achieved, a rebound increase in the number of kittens was later on noted, most probably due to an increase in their survival rates due to lack of competition with the neutered, less aggressive cats.&nbsp;



“Intact cats are more territorial than their neutered counterparts.&nbsp;Once they move into a neighborhood with neutered cats, they tend to thrive and take over,” explained Professor Klement.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



These results and further analysis suggest that, ideally, 70 percent of stray cat populations should be neutered on a continuous basis. Moreover, in order to avoid the rebound effect, cat food resources should be controlled in parallel to the TNR campaign.&nbsp;



“This can be achieved by setting up feeding stations in agreed-upon locations and by prohibiting feeding in other public areas,” said Professor Klement. Such a method would make sure that the cats are properly fed and the neutering procedures could be implemented efficiently, by catching the cats when they come to eat.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2119000119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How can we control the growing issue of stray cats?

Rising numbers of free-roaming stray cats is a global problem....

People have a stronger connection to their dogs than previously thought, according to a recent survey conducted by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.onepoll.us/">OnePoll</a>&nbsp;in partnership with&nbsp;<a href="https://www.puppyspot.com/">PuppySpot</a>. Out of the 2,000 American dog owners surveyed, 69 percent considered their dog their best friend, 73 percent claimed that having a dog has improved their emotional well-being, and a staggering 83 percent of respondents who also had children strongly agreed that taking care of their dogs is as important as taking care of their children.



“As a community of dog lovers, we know firsthand about the various ways dog parents show love and affection to their fur baby, and how these moments build trust and create a life-long bond,” said Claire Komorowski, the CEO of PuppySpot. “Whether it’s through long walks, special treats, new toys or, simply some cuddles, every dog needs to be cared for in a way that shows them just how special and adored they are.”



Indeed, the survey results show that dog owners love pampering their pet companions with “treats and cuddles,” “new toys,” or “long walks.” Three quarters of the respondents claimed they spend over 300 hours per year looking for the best treats and toys available on the market, while 57 percent of the participants never failed to celebrate their dogs’ birthdays.



Dog “parents” also seem to have a tough time staying away from their pups. Many take their dogs with them when they have to run errands (51 percent) or when they are meeting their families and friends (40 percent). Moreover, two in five dog owners look for restaurants that allow pets, while 35 percent of the respondents prioritize pet-friendly vacation spots.



Most respondents recall bringing home their newly acquired dog as the happiest day of their lives (72 percent), and highly cherish other memories, such as when their dog first jumped or fell asleep on their lap. Finally, the fact more than 8 in 10 participants who also had children did not hesitate to declare that they consider their dogs as important as their children is further proof that, for most people, their relationship with their furry companions is highly significant, offering strong emotional rewards.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People have deep emotional connections with their dogs

People have a stronger connection to their dogs than previously...

Honey bees are pollinators of flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-flower-colors-help-plants-survive/">plants</a> all over the world and are therefore critical for the production of food crops. In recent decades, honey bees have been subjected to numerous environmental and management stresses that have impacted their survival rates. Among these, the most devastating has been infection by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor.&nbsp;



Varroa is an external parasite of Asian and European honey bees. Not only does it attach to the bodies of adult and larval bees and suck out nutrients, but it also carries at least five viruses that are devastating to the bees. The parasite’s original host was Apis cerana, the Asian hive bee, but it was introduced to the European honey bee, Apis mellifera, in the mid-1800s. Since then it has spread to all continents and regions of the world, except Australia and Antarctica.&nbsp;



Interestingly, Asian honey bees show certain behavioral traits that help keep infestations of varroa mites under control. These behaviors include grooming mites off their own and other bees’ bodies, as well as getting rid of larvae that have been infected with mites. Such hygienic strategies have genetic components and are heritable. It is likely that, since the Asian honey bees have been exposed to varroa mite infestations over evolutionary time, natural selection has gradually favored the survival of colonies where bees practice these behaviors. As a result, Asian honey bees are largely resistant to the parasite.



In the U.S., scientists have spent 20 years breeding a line of European honey bees that also shows hygienic behavior towards infestations of varroa mites. Beekeepers in this country, as in many others, have resorted to using pesticides and other chemical agents to control varroa mites in bee colonies. This has meant that natural selection for more resistant bees has not been able to take place and apiculturists are faced with large losses in colony numbers each year.&nbsp;



In a new study, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, experts from the universities of Louisiana and Exeter, and from the Agricultural Research Service of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), tested the survival rates of these varroa resistant “Pol-line” bees in the field. The study took across three US states (Mississippi, California, and North Dakota), where commercial beekeepers move tens of thousands of colonies annually to provide pollination services for large-scale agriculture. The survival of colonies of varroa resistant bees was compared with the survival of standard bees that had not been selectively bred for hygienic behavior.



“The&nbsp;Varroa&nbsp;mite is the greatest threat to managed honey bee colonies globally,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Thomas_OShea-Wheller">Dr. Thomas O’Shea-Wheller</a> of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/esi/">Environment and Sustainability Institute</a>&nbsp;at Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“So far, new methods to control the mites – and the diseases that they carry – have had limited success, and the mites are becoming increasingly resistant to chemical treatments. It’s a ticking time-bomb.”&nbsp;



The results of the study showed that the mite-resistant bee colonies were more than twice as likely to survive the winter (60% survival compared to 26% in standard honey bee colonies). The standard honey bees experienced high losses unless extensive chemical treatments were used. Colony survival over the winter is particularly important for beekeepers, because honey bees are needed in early spring to pollinate many valuable crops.&nbsp;



“By selectively breeding bees that identify and remove mites from their colonies, our study found a significant reduction in mite numbers, and crucially, a two-fold increase in colony survival,” explained Dr. O’Shea-Wheller. “While this is the first large-scale trial, continued breeding and use of these bees has shown consistently promising results.”



Although European honey bees are not naturally resistant to varroa mite infestations, they do show some of the specific hygienic behaviors that are common in Asian honey bees. The incidence of the cleaning behaviors is very low but it does indicate that the genes for these behaviors are present. By selectively breeding for these behavioral traits, colonies can been produced that automatically protect themselves from infestation, while maintaining large colony sizes and ample honey production.



“The great thing about this particular trait is that we’ve learned honey bees of all types express it at some level, so we know that with the right tools, it can be promoted and selected for in everyone’s bees,” said research molecular biologist Dr. Michael Simone-Finstrom, of the USDA Agricultural Research Service.



According to Dr. O’Shea-Wheller: “This kind of resistance provides a natural and sustainable solution to the threat posed by&nbsp;Varroa&nbsp;mites, and does not rely on chemicals or human intervention.”



The current study also monitored the levels of three debilitating viruses present in the varroa resistant colonies. These viruses (DWV-A, DWV-B and CVPV) are carried by the mites and transmitted to the bees. The results showed that the colonies bred for varroa resistant behavior also had significantly lower levels of these viruses. This is explained by the fact that cleaning behavior by the bees removes mites from the colonies and therefore also removes the viruses.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Interestingly however, when examined separately from levels of mite infestation, these viruses were not strong predictors of colony losses.



“A lot of research is focused on the viruses, with perhaps not enough focus on the mites themselves,” said Dr. O’Shea-Wheller.



“The viruses are clearly important, but we need to take a step back and be rigorous in delivering the best practical outcomes, because if you control the mites, you automatically control for the viruses that they transmit.”



Dr. O’Shea-Wheller said that breeding and testing is expensive and takes time, but that breeding mite-resistant bees is cost-effective in the long term, and is likely to be the only sustainable solution to deal with the&nbsp;Varroa&nbsp;pandemic.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breeding “cleaner” bees may stop varroa mites in their tracks

Honey bees are pollinators of flowering plants all over the...

The Las Hoyas fossil site is situated in the Las Hoyas Basin in central eastern Spain. It was declared a Paleontological and Historical Heritage Site in 2016 but has been excavated since 1992. The site is well known for its exceptionally preserved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-a-previously-unknown-mass-extinction-event/">fossils</a> of many different lifeforms, including algae, invertebrates and vertebrates. In one area of the site, a large track of dinosaur footprints has been exposed, revealing some unusual aspects.



Fossilized tracks of animals, known as trackways, are an excellent source of information about the locomotion and behavior of extinct animals. The so-called magenta trackway in Las Hoyas was discovered in 2010 and was researched by Carlos M. Herrera-Castillo of the Autonomous University of Madrid, and his colleagues. The six footprints were made by a large theropod dinosaur that walked across the surface of the wetland some 129 million years ago.&nbsp;



At the time that this bipedal dinosaur left its very characteristic three-toed footprints, the surface of the wetland was covered by a microbial mat, a thin layer of living organisms including filamentous cyanobacteria, anaerobic photobacteria, and different types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. As the dinosaur walked along on this substratum, its feet sank into the microbial mat and very clear and detailed imprints were left behind. These traces were filled with sediment and became fossilized with time.&nbsp;



Herrera-Castillo and his colleagues used several different techniques to characterize and analyze the six footprints. They also compared them to a large sample of other bipedal dinosaur trackways that had been studied previously. Their results are published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.



The researchers found that this set of footprints had an unusually wide step pattern, as though the individual was walking with its legs spread apart more than normal. In addition, they noted that the left foot and right foot imprints were significantly different. Whereas the right foot displayed all three toes splayed out evenly, the left foot appeared to have lost the innermost toe (digit II), or to have it dislocated and curled backwards underneath the foot.&nbsp;



The footprints of the left foot were significantly shorter than those of the right foot, and the researchers suggested the dinosaur had either sustained an injury to that foot, or had a congenital deformity. The gait of the animal appeared to be adjusted to accommodate the abnormality, specifically by putting more weight on the right leg while favoring the left.&nbsp;



The authors state that the dinosaur walked in a straight line, with a constant direction, while maintaining a consistent stride. They feel this is evidence of a constant walking speed and a regular walking pattern, indicative that the dinosaur remained functional and active, despite its deformity. From the length of the stride and the overall size of the normal footprints, the researchers estimate that the dinosaur was around 2 meters high at the hips.&nbsp;



There are other instances where fossilized trackways show evidence of foot pathology in dinosaurs, and one of the most common abnormalities involves the very same digit, digit II. This toe is sometimes missing, but may also show swelling, torsion or backward displacement.&nbsp;



The authors conclude that the magenta trackway at Las Hoyas is “one of the best trackways of a theropod dinosaur, which combines a foot pathology and a fairly regular gait, although with a forced wide-trackway.” Their results support the idea of this very large dinosaur with an injured foot that strode slowly and consistently across a shallow wetland with sediment that was covered in a microbial mat, while assorted fishes also swam along and left their traces in the same sediment.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Unusual dinosaur tracks likely made by a therapod with an injury

The Las Hoyas fossil site is situated in the Las...

Given the recent focus on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-pollen-protect-pollinators-from-pathogens/">pathogens</a> can be transmitted from animal to human populations, veterinary nutritionists from the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine wondered about the extent to which pet owners follow the FDA guidelines for the hygienic handling and preparation of pet food. They decided to carry out a survey of pet owners to understand the common practices used when handling pet food and pet feeding bowls.



Pet food and dishes need to be handled in such a way that the potential health risks for dogs and people alike are minimized. Young children are particularly prone to picking up infections as their immune systems are not fully developed and they frequently put their hands in their mouths. In addition, people with compromised immune systems may be susceptible to pathogens from pet foods and dishes that are not handled hygienically.&nbsp;



Because of these factors, the FDA has issued guidelines and protocols for safe pet food and dish handling procedures. This information is available online but is rather limited. In order to understand the impact of these guidelines, Dr. Emily Luisana of North Carolina State University in Raleigh, and colleagues, conducted a survey of 417 dog owners. The results of this research are published today in the open-access journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.



The researchers visited dog owners at their homes and collected data on pet feeding and food dish hygiene. They also swabbed 68 food dishes to test for the presence of bacteria. They then assigned the owners of these 68 dishes randomly into one of three groups.



In the first group, the owners were asked to follow the FDA guidelines for pet food and dish handling for the following week. In the second group, the owners were told about these FDA guidelines but were not specifically instructed to do anything different when preparing their dog’s food. Owners in the last group were asked to follow specific hygiene guidelines extrapolated from the Human Food Code when preparing their pet’s food during the following week. After the week had passed, the researchers tested all 68 food bowls again for bacterial contamination.&nbsp;



The researchers found that less than five percent of the dog owners surveyed had heard of the FDA guidelines on pet food and dish handling. Only 34 percent of owners washed their hands after preparing dog food and 33 percent prepared their dog’s food on the same surface that was used for the preparation of human food. Of the households surveyed, 36 percent of them included immunocompromised individuals or children under the age of 13.&nbsp;



In the follow-up analysis of food bowl contamination, the bowls of owners who had followed the FDA or the Human Food Code protocols all showed a reduction in bacterial concentrations. In comparison, there was no reduction where owners had not specifically been instructed to follow more hygienic procedures. In the follow-up survey, only eight percent of pet owners who had followed the guidelines for more hygienic practices said they would continue with these practices in future.&nbsp;



Dog feeding dishes and water bowls have been found to harbor potentially harmful bacteria in a number of previous studies. Bacterial species such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium difficile have all been recorded in samples from pet feeding dishes or water bowls. A 2006 study found that pet food bowls had the ninth highest levels of bacteria out of 32 household items analyzed. This supports the idea that dog dishes can be a source of bacterial contamination in a household setting.



The researchers concluded that, although their study was small, the application of FDA or Human Food Code guidelines resulted in a decrease in the bacterial contamination of pet feeding bowls. They found that washing bowls after use reduced bacterial levels and that washing with hot water was most effective.&nbsp;



The experts feel that pet owners need to be better educated and informed about hygienic ways to prepare, handle and store pet food. These guidelines should be written and need to be accessible on dog food packaging and in the veterinarian’s rooms in order to reach as many pet owners as possible.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I hope this study makes pets happier and healthier!” said lead author Emily Luisana. “Pet owners should know that pet food bowls can harbor bacteria and that recommendations exist for minimizing that risk.”



“Most pet owners are unaware that pet food bowls can be a hidden source of bacteria in the household. Knowing how to mitigate this risk and practice proper pet food storage and hygiene may make for a happier, healthier household," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most U.S. dog owners don’t follow hygienic practices when preparing pet food

Given the recent focus on how pathogens can be transmitted...

Between parasites and hosts there is often a high stakes evolutionary arms race. As hosts develop defenses to ward off parasites, the parasites in turn evolve abilities to avoid these defenses. Such is the case of social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-birds-and-the-bees-boost-coffee-production/">bees</a>, Exoneura, and their social parasite bee species, Inquilina.



Social parasites live in the colonies of their hosts, essentially getting a free ride. The scientists wanted to take a look at evolution and this case of social parasitism, so they conducted a study.&nbsp;



“These parasitic species spend their entire life cycle within the nest of the host species and have extreme adaptations to social parasitism, they are not able to survive without their hosts,” explained study first author Dr. Nahid Shokri-Bousjein.



The researchers were curious how parasitism evolved when the parasite and host had differently sized populations. Because evolution depends on random novel mutations, larger populations are likely to have an evolutionary advantage. This means that a parasite with a greater population than its host might be able to “out maneuver” them. It's a bit tricky though, because if a parasite becomes too good at parasitizing it could kill off its host and thus itself.&nbsp;



“We can see this problem play out with COVID-19. The virus has a much bigger population size than its host (us!), so its ability to evolve around our defenses is great," said Dr. Shokri-Bousjein. "We see this in terms of new COVID variants emerging and then spreading.”



Interestingly, previous research shows that the host and parasite are evolving at the same pace, keeping in step with each other, despite the difference in population size between the two.&nbsp;



“Evolutionary wars between species and their enemies may be much more complex than we have thought. Large population sizes might allow more strategies to arise, but maybe the critical issue is how effective those strategies are," said Professor Mike Schwarz of <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>.



"Species like these bee social parasites are on the very edge of survival: they might tell us something about how you can survive when your very existence is under threat.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social parasite bees fight to survive

Between parasites and hosts there is often a high stakes...

A new study led by<a href="https://www.concordia.ca/"> Concordia University</a> in Canada has found that geosmin – a pungent chemical compound present in wet soil – acts as a warning (or “aposematic”)&nbsp; signal to certain species of worms such as Caenorhabditis&nbsp;elegans. The signal from the wet soil indicates that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-can-jump-between-healthy-pets-and-owners/">bacteria</a> the worms are about to feed on are poisonous and should be avoided.&nbsp;



Thus, the presence of geosmin triggers blind worms’ sense of taste just like a caterpillar’s bright colors or a pufferfish’s spines signal the presence of predators. These warning signals tell the animals to keep their distance if they want to survive.



The scientists used several types of C.elegans – a few millimeters-long nematode found all over the world, including the poles – to test this hypothesis. Initially, they observed the movements and behaviors of worms on agar plates containing geosmin, but no traces of bacteria. The worms reacted adversely to the chemical compound, moving rapidly with frequent changes in direction. Interestingly, mutant nematodes that had their taste-related neurons removed behaved normally in the presence of geosmin.&nbsp;



In a second experiment, the researchers included strains of Streptomyces coelicolor&nbsp;bacteria on the plates (a type of bacteria that is dangerous and often fatal to C.elegans), and discovered that worms that were concomitantly exposed to geosmin (which in itself is not toxic to them) avoided feeding on the bacteria. However, worms with their taste neurons removed eagerly devoured the toxic bacteria, with predictably fatal consequences.



“Through our study, we found that geosmin in&nbsp;Streptomyces coelicolor, a bacterium that is toxic to&nbsp;C. elegans, does not appear to have any role other than as a signal,”&nbsp;explained study senior author Brandon Findlay, an associate professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Concordia. “It doesn’t help the cells grow, eat or divide. It doesn’t ward off predators directly. It just seems to be there as a warning.”



According to Professor Findlay and his colleagues, although the extent of geosmin’s biological uses is not yet completely understood, this study offers fresh insight into how bacteria and their predators interact and how complex behaviors such as toxin avoidance evolve.



“Geosmin thus appears to act as a warning signal indicating the unpalatability of its producers and reducing predation in a manner that benefits predator and prey. This suggests that molecular signaling may affect microbial predator-prey interactions in a manner similar to that of the well-studied visual markers of poisonous animal prey,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00093-22">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Smell of wet soil signals danger to bacteria-eating worms

A new study led by Concordia University in Canada has...

While octopus and cuttlefish are famous for their use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-losing-their-camouflage-under-modern-street-lights/">camouflage</a> as a defense mechanism, another cephalopod – the squid – has never been reported to display such abilities. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a> (OIST) has now found that squids can camouflage by matching the color of a substrate in order to hide from predators.



“Squid usually hover in the open ocean but we wanted to find out what happens when they move a bit closer to a coral reef or if they’re chased by a predator to the ocean floor,” said study lead author Dr. Ryuta Nakajima, a visiting researcher at OIST. “If substrate is important for squid to avoid predation than that indicates that increases or decreases in squid populations are even more tied to the health of coral reef than we thought.”



Since squid tend to live in the open ocean and are notoriously hard to keep in captivity, laboratory studies of the behaviors of these animals have been scarce. However, since 2017, researchers at OIST have been culturing a species of oval squid in captivity. This species – known as Shiro-ika – is one of the three species of squid found in the Okinawa region.



Dr. Nakajima and his team noticed almost accidentally this species’ camouflage ability. While cleaning the tank where the squids were kept to remove algal growth, the researchers were amazed to see that the animals were changing color depending on whether they were over the cleaned surface or the algae.&nbsp;



Afterwards, they performed a controlled experiment by keeping several squid in a tank half covered in algae. The results confirmed the initial observations: when the squids were in the clean side of the tank, they were light in color, but when they got close to the algae, they promptly became darker.



“This effect really is striking. I am still surprised that nobody has noticed this ability before us,” said study co-author Dr. Zdenek Lajbner, a biologist at OIST. “It shows just how little we know about these wonderful animals.”&nbsp;



This experiment suggests that, when in open ocean, squid are light in color, blending into the ocean surface and the flickering sunlight above, but when they move closer to the ocean floor, they most probably change in color, in order to match the darker environment. Further research is needed to explore in greater depth the camouflage abilities of this species, as well as of other cephalopods.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-09209-6">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Squid have unexpected camouflage ability

While octopus and cuttlefish are famous for their use of...

One of the biggest challenges biologists face today is understanding and managing the complex ways in which pathogens proliferate and travel. In recent decades, a wide number of pathogens are seriously affecting – and often devastating – plant pollinators. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotics-used-on-food-crops-may-be-starving-bees/">Bees</a>, for instance, have faced massive waves of deadly infections from parasites such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/crithidia-bombi">Crithidia bombi</a>. Since insect pollinators are responsible for crucial ecosystem services estimated at well over $200 billion worldwide per year, their pathogen-induced decline has raised serious concerns, leading some scientists and policy-makers to call the situation a veritable “insect apocalypse.”



A research team from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has recently been awarded a $2.4 million grant from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) in order to study the complex interplay among pathogens, pollinators, and the types of food that pollinators consume. This project will be conducted across a variety of scales – from the molecular to the community-wide – and is likely to have immediate applications for ecosystem protection and agricultural practices worldwide. &nbsp;



Biologists do not yet have a clear understanding of what role plants play in the interaction between pathogens and pollinators, or what function the quantity and quality of food available to pollinators may play in the insects’ ability to cope with disease. 



While flowers provide essential nutrients for pollinators, they can also be sites of disease transmission. At the same time though, some varieties of nectar and pollen could help pollinators fight disease.



“Our ultimate goal with this grant is to figure out what sort of plant composition, available as food sources for the pollinators, reduces infection,” explained project leader Lynn Adler, a professor of Biology at UMass Amherst.



Professor Adler’s previous research has found that sunflower pollen seems to be particularly efficient in helping the pollinators that consume it resist a wide-range of diseases. However, it is not yet clear why this is the case. 



For the new project, Professor Adler has assembled an interdisciplinary team of scientists, including mathematical modelers, biochemists, molecular biologists, and ecologists, to answer this and related questions, by studying the molecular, cellular, organismal, species, and community-level interactions of plants, pollinators, and pathogens. 



Moreover, Professor Adler and her team will use part of the funding to train a new generation of biologists and ecologists, who could play important roles in future investigations of the mysteries of life on Earth.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can pollen protect pollinators from pathogens?

One of the biggest challenges biologists face today is understanding...

An international team of scientists has compiled a dataset of shark movements and interactions with game <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-eyes-catch-a-glimpse-of-evolutionary-history/">fishes</a>. The research. published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19395582">Ecological Applications</a>, outlines how the scientists were able to track sharks using acoustic telemetry paired with machine learning.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s so rare to observe multi-species interaction in the ocean,” said Lucas Griffin, the paper’s co-lead author and a postdoctoral researcher in environmental conservation at <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">UMass Amherst</a>.



Many sharks like hammerheads and bull sharks range over large areas of the ocean and are hard to track. There is anecdotal evidence from fishing vessels that suggests that predation by sharks is rising, but there is no scientific evidence of this.&nbsp;



The researchers focused on the Florida Keys, where they tagged 257 fishes, including 73 sharks, and deployed almost 300 acoustic receivers. When one of the tagged animals came within range of a receiver, its location at a certain date and time were recorded.&nbsp;



This approach gave the experts raw data on the migratory patterns and ecology of the fishes. The research team then analyzed the research with a machine learning algorithm to more fully understand what was happening.&nbsp;



“Combining acoustic telemetry and machine learning helped us to answer a host of questions about predators and prey,” said Grace Casselberry, the paper’s other co-lead author and a graduate student in the program in marine sciences and technology in UMass Amherst’s Department of Environmental Conservation.&nbsp;



According to the analysis of the data, it appears that tarpon and permit return to the same places every year to spawn and the sharks follow them. “They seem to remember where and when the tarpon and permit aggregate,” said Cassleberry.



The scientists said that this research would not have been possible without the cooperation of many agencies and universities, in Florida as well as in the Bahamas.&nbsp;



“We also worked extensively with the local fishing-guide community to help tag game fish and sharks, and figure out where to place the receivers,” said Griffin.&nbsp;



“Our lab very much embraces a collaborative and cooperative spirit,” said co-senior author Professor Andy Danylchuk. “We are grateful for our research partners and hope our science will help to hone conservation and management strategies for both game fish and sharks.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tracking sharks to answer questions about predator and prey

An international team of scientists has compiled a dataset of...

Over the past 70 years, researchers at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> have observed changes in the morphology of birds. These physical changes are considered a response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-far-reaching-climate-impacts-of-deforestation/">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



Results of the study showed two different types of changes: birds either decreased in body mass, or increased in body length. These changes are likely to be physical strategies to facilitate heat loss to the environment.



In the 19th century, a theory called the Bergmann’s rule was formulated. The theory suggests that birds and mammals that live in cold climates are larger than those who live in warmer climates. This is because smaller bodies can permit more heat loss, which is an advantage in warm regions, whereas larger bodies can minimize heat loss, which is ideal in colder climates.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Based on Bergmann’s rule, scientists have predicted that global warming will lead to a reduction in animal size. This excludes birds living in the human environment (such as pigeons and house sparrows) which could increase in size due to food availability.



For the study, the research team relied on a bird collection in the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History at University. Approximately 8,000 adult specimens of 106 different species were analyzed. This included migratory birds, resident wild birds and birds that live near humans. A statistical model was used to assess the morphological changes in the birds' body mass, body length and wing length.



"Our findings revealed a complicated picture. We identified two different types of morphological changes: some species had become lighter – their mass had decreased while their body length remained unchanged; while others had become longer – their body length had increased, while their mass remained unchanged. We think that these are two different strategies for coping with the same problem, namely the rising temperatures," explained lead researcher Shahar Dubiner.



These findings were observed across the country, regardless of nutrition. A difference was identified, however, between the two strategies. For example, changes in body length were observed more in migrant birds, while changes in body mass were more typical of non-migratory birds. These migratory birds are from all over the world, such as Asia, Europe, and Africa, suggesting a global phenomenon.&nbsp;



“We found that the bodies of more than half of the bird species adapted to changing conditions by becoming either longer or thinner, thereby facilitating heat loss. We are concerned, however, that this flexibility might not suffice as temperatures continue to rise," said the study authors.&nbsp;



The research team still has many unanswered questions about this phenomenon.&nbsp;



"Should we be concerned? Is this a problem, or rather an encouraging ability to adapt to a changing environment? Such morphological changes over a few decades probably do not represent an evolutionary adaptation, but rather certain phenotypic flexibility exhibited by the birds," said Dubiner.



"We are concerned that over such a short period of time, there is a limit to the flexibility or evolutionary potential of these traits, and the birds might run out of effective solutions as temperatures continue to rise."&nbsp;



The paper was published in the scientific journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14668238">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Physical changes in birds linked to global warming

Over the past 70 years, researchers at Tel Aviv University...

Humans are known to sometimes bond when paired randomly with others, such as with roommates or coworkers. New research published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a> suggests the same is true of vampire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/">bats</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Study senior author Gerald Carter is a professor of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a>.&nbsp;



“The process of how social bonds form is this fundamentally mysterious thing that a lot of people are interested in, but have very different interpretations of how it happens,” said Carter.&nbsp;



“We’re trying to build vampire bats as a system where we can directly test these interpretations. In this experiment, we forced them together for a short amount of time and then measured their grooming rates, which increased by a specific amount over a period of time. It just hasn’t really been done before.”



The researchers collected 21 bats from three distant roosts and placed them together in a new colony. Initially, all of these vampire bats were allowed to mingle as they saw fit and groom each other as they would. Then the scientists split the bats into smaller groups of three, each from a different site, now living together for seven days. These new groups formed internal bonds, Imram Razik, a graduate student at Ohio State explained,&nbsp;&nbsp;



“From early on, they had potential to start grooming relationships, and then we did the forced proximity phase to see if we could increase the rates of grooming in random pairs. We then measured grooming during the post-treatment phase to compare pre- versus post-treatment grooming,” said Carter.&nbsp;



Next, pairs of these bats that were forced to live together were observed and compared to both bats that weren’t forced to live together and came from separate colonies and those from the same colony that already knew each other. The researchers looked at grooming behavior of these different bat groups.&nbsp;



The results, captured on infrared cameras, showed that the bats who were forced to live together groomed more often than the control or even bats who lived in the same colonies.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It was a striking pattern,” Carter said. “One thing you might imagine is that, after these bats are in their ‘college dorm room’ together, they stay together for a little while afterward but that quickly goes away – but we didn’t see that. The test bats were still grooming each other more than the control bats even at the end of the experiment, nine weeks later.”



The researchers compared this result to that of dormitory room mates, where two random people are paired together but then seek each other out later because of that pairing.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vampire bats bond after being randomly paired up

Humans are known to sometimes bond when paired randomly with...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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