Wilderness that was once untouched is rapidly morphing into urban landscapes, evoking changes in animal habitats like never before. Along with climate change, these environmental modifications are ramping up stress factors for animals.



However, a blind spot in research is the exploration of how individual stress levels echo within the group, particularly impacting those untouched by the stressor.



Hanja Brandl, a behavioral biologist from the Cluster of Excellence Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a>, alongside her colleague, Damien Farine (now at <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>) decided to shed light on this phenomenon.



In an exceptional study, the team examined the stress responses of individual birds and how it influences others in the group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-animal-stress-levels">Analyzing animal stress levels</h2>



Over three segments of four weeks each, Brandl and Farine exposed certain zebra finches in groups to stressors while recording the ripple effects on both stressed and non-stressed individuals within the group.



Their tools? Stress-induced disruptions and a camera. They also tested for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress hormone</a> corticosterone in the birds' tail feathers, adding another layer to their stress analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-is-a-social-contagion">Stress is a social contagion</h2>



What the researchers found was fascinating. 



"Our experiments show that stress responses can spread beyond individuals to other members of their social group, even to those who are not exposed to stress themselves," said Brandl.



In groups with a higher number of stressed birds, the effects on the non-stressed birds were stronger. Non-stressed birds began to behave similarly to the stressed ones, showing changes in activity and behavior. 



This imitation of stressed responses suggests that stress in some birds can spread to others, even if they aren't directly exposed to the stressor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-social-cohesion-and-survival">Stress, social cohesion, and survival</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> exposure within the group had clear behavioral consequences. 



Groups with a significant number of stressed individuals showed a marked decline in activity among the non-stressed birds. 



In the wild, this could shrink their exploration and access to resources, thus limiting their survival opportunities.



The researchers also noticed changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social behavior</a>. Non-stressed birds within such groups held fewer social bonds, putting more weight on existing relationships.



"Stress in a group could impact its social cohesion. At the same time, a reduction in weak social ties would, in turn, reduce the risk of stress transmission," noted Damien Farine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-stress-in-wildlife">Managing stress in wildlife</h2>



The insights drawn from Brandl and Farine's research hold significant implications for conservation efforts and wildlife management strategies. 



As human-induced environmental changes escalate, understanding the social dynamics of stress in animal populations becomes crucial. 



Managing stress in wildlife not only involves addressing direct environmental pressures but also considering how stress propagates within animal communities.



Conservationists could improve their strategies by promoting conditions that support not only individual well-being but also social cohesion among animals. 



This might involve creating habitats that minimize encounters with stressors and promote social interactions that help buffer individuals against stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-humans">Lessons for humans</h2>



Beyond wildlife conservation, the study offers valuable lessons applicable to human societies. Stress is a pervasive aspect of modern life, with individuals often inadvertently affecting those around them. 



The concept of stress as a social contagion encourages a reevaluation of community dynamics and mutual support systems. 



Just as in animal groups, promoting environments that reduce stress transmission and fortify social connections could enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective well-being</a>.



These findings highlight the importance of social networks and community engagement in mitigating stress and promoting resilience not just among animals, but across human societies as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-beyond-stress">Animal behavior beyond stress</h2>



Understanding behavior and stress transmission in bird flocks is just one chapter in the larger narrative of animal behavior.



This study also emphasizes the complexity of animal social behavior and its potential impact on survival tactics. It's no more a solo play; every bird ripple counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-details-on-the-study">More details on the study</h2>



The study titled "Stress in the social environment: behavioral and social consequences of stress transmission in bird flocks" is recently published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a> and is available online.



The research was carried out under the auspices of the Cluster of Excellence Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> by Hanja Brandl. During the study, Damien Farine was also affiliated with the Cluster of Excellence, as well as the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>.



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Stress is contagious, and this also applies to animals

Wilderness that was once untouched is rapidly morphing into urban landscapes, evoking changes in animal habitats like never before. Along with climate change, these environmental modifications are ramping up stress factors for animals. However, a blind spot in research is the exploration of how individual stress levels echo within the group, particularly impacting those untouched by the stressor. Hanja Brandl, a behavioral biologist from the Cluster of Excellence Collective Behaviour at the University of Konstanz, alongside her colleague, Damien Farine (now at Australian National University) decided to...

It's no secret that ant colonies operate with remarkable efficiency, functioning as highly organized, cooperative systems that have evolved over millions of years.



Similar to our own societies, these tiny creatures have assigned roles, effectively dividing labor among various ant individuals to ensure the colony’s survival and success. 



This division of labor is not random but rather a finely tuned system where each ant knows its place and function within the larger group.



Some ants are dedicated caregivers, meticulously tending to the young and ensuring the next generation thrives, while others take up the mantle of soldiers, bravely guarding the nest and protecting the colony from potential intruders or predators. 



Each role, whether defensive, nurturing, or foraging, is vital to maintaining the balance and longevity of the entire colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-division-and-evolution">A tale of division and evolution</h2>



A recent study involving 794 species of ants reveals a compelling insight: the size of a group plays a crucial role in whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/division-of-labor-in-ants-emerged-over-100-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">division of labor</a> develops.



Remarkably, in some species, ants evolve distinct physical features to better serve their respective roles, despite being siblings. 



Charles Darwin referred to such worker castes as his "special difficulty" because their evolution was challenging to explain.



"We know that larger ant colonies have more worker castes," said Philip Downing, a Postdoctoral Researcher from the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oulu</a> and one of the study's authors. "The difficulty is working out how this association came to be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-or-caste-what-comes-first">Size or caste - what comes first?</h2>



The study explored whether large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a> evolved first, paving the way for specialized castes, or if the emergence of castes enabled colonies to grow larger. 



To address this question, the researchers compared modern ants to their extinct ancestors using statistical methods.



"Since the ant ancestors no longer exist, researchers had to rely on statistical approaches to infer what their colony sizes and caste numbers would have been, based on their living descendants," explained Downing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-size-complexity-hypothesis">The size-complexity hypothesis</h2>



The research points to a clear pattern: larger colonies tend to evolve before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-molecule-can-switch-an-ant-from-worker-to-queen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worker castes</a>. This suggests that as ant colonies grow, their social structures become more complex, leading to the development of specialized roles.



"We found that larger colony sizes evolved before worker castes did, supporting what's known as the size-complexity hypothesis," said Downing.



"The size-complexity hypothesis is a leading explanation for the evolution of complex life on Earth," said study lead author Louis Bell-Roberts from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



"Our research shows that larger colony sizes favored the evolution of increased division of labor, leading to more worker castes and greater variation in worker size."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-complex-life">Evolution of complex life</h2>



These insights not only enhance our understanding of ant colonies but could also provide clues about the evolution of complex multicellular organisms, including plants and animals. 



"The implications of our findings extend beyond ants, offering potential explanations for the broader evolution of life's complexity," said Bell-Roberts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-underlying-ant-colony-sizes">Factors underlying ant colony sizes</h2>



With the discovery that larger colony sizes promote more worker castes, future research is needed to identify what drives the growth of larger colonies among ants.



"Colony size in ants varies from seven to 14.8 million," noted Downing. "Can ecological factors, such as the number of predators, climate conditions, or even the number of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-thing-of-nightmares-parasite-turns-ants-into-zombies-at-dawn-and-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant species' parasites</a>, explain this?"



His next steps involve large-scale statistical comparisons across various ant species to uncover these factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-ant-caste-systems">Broader implications of ant caste systems</h2>



The evolution of ant castes offers a unique window into social organization and division of labor across species. 



Much like human societies, where cooperation and specialization enhance success, ants develop distinct roles that improve colony efficiency. 



This reflects broader evolutionary themes, such as how altruistic behavior - working for the collective good - emerges in nature.



The specialization of castes in ants parallels the differentiation of cell types in multicellular organisms, providing a model for studying how division of labor evolves. 



Additionally, understanding how environmental factors like predators and climate shape colony size and caste development offers insights into how social organisms adapt to changing environments, an increasingly relevant topic as species face new ecological challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02512-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Larger ant colonies drove the evolution of worker castes

It's no secret that ant colonies operate with remarkable efficiency,...

The summer of 2024 is shaping up to be the hottest on record for numerous cities across the U.S. and globally, with temperatures reaching unprecedented levels.&nbsp;



Even in Antarctica, which is currently in the middle of its winter, temperatures soared more than 50°F above the July average in some areas. This extreme weather event is part of a broader trend of intensifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-experienced-the-most-intense-heat-wave-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves </a>fueled by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-ecosystems-of-antarctica-nbsp">Delicate ecosystems of Antarctica&nbsp;</h2>



A recent study published on July 31 in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023EF004306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s Future</a> explores how such heat waves, particularly during Antarctica’s cold seasons, may impact the continent’s delicate ecosystems.



The research, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, focuses on how these heat waves could disrupt the lives of the animals and organisms that inhabit the coldest and driest places on Earth. 



The findings illustrate that climate change-driven extreme weather could have profound and long-lasting effects on the fragile ecosystems of Antarctica, particularly for its resilient yet vulnerable inhabitants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-intense-heat-wave-on-earth">Most intense heat wave on Earth</h2>



In March 2022, Antarctica experienced the most intense heat wave ever recorded on Earth. This unprecedented event occurred just as the region’s organisms were preparing for the long, harsh winter ahead.&nbsp;



Temperatures soared more than 70°F above the average in parts of the continent, leading to rapid melting of glaciers and snow, even in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, a region known for being one of the coldest and driest places on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-organisms-in-soils-nbsp">Microscopic organisms in soils&nbsp;</h2>



As part of a Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) project, researchers studied the impact of this sudden heat wave on the McMurdo Dry Valleys, where they found that the extreme weather likely disrupted the life cycles of many organisms.&nbsp;



In particular, the rapid melting followed by an equally rapid refreeze appeared to have killed a significant number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invertebrate-extinction-cause-concern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invertebrates</a>, such as roundworms, which are well-adapted to the harsh conditions of the polar desert.



“It's important that we pay attention to these signals, even if they're coming from microscopic organisms in soils in a polar desert,” said Michael Gooseff, senior author of the study and a professor in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering at CU Boulder.&nbsp;



“They're the early responders to changes that could cascade up to larger organisms, the landscape, and even us, far away from Antarctica.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-temperature-rise-nbsp">Extreme temperature rise&nbsp;</h2>



Gooseff, a fellow at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research</a> (INSTAAR), has led the LTER project at the McMurdo Dry Valleys for the past decade, regularly traveling to the southern region during the Antarctic summer to study the unique ecosystem. 



In November 2021, when Gooseff arrived in Antarctica, the landscape appeared much like it had for the past two decades. 



However, by March 2022, when the research team had already left the continent, an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consecutive-atmospheric-rivers-cause-far-more-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric river</a> - a massive storm carrying moist air over long distances - brought about the most extreme heat wave ever recorded there. 



The event caused temperatures in the McMurdo Dry Valleys to rise more than 45°F above normal, with air temperatures that typically hover around -4°F in March rising above freezing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-life-cycles">Disrupted life cycles</h2>



Satellite imagery and stream discharge measurements confirmed that the sudden warming caused an unusual wetting of the valleys’ soil, occurring more than two months after the typical summer thaw.&nbsp;



This was a critical period when organisms in the region were preparing for the upcoming winter, shutting down their biological processes to conserve energy.&nbsp;



The rapid rise and subsequent fall in temperatures, as the heat wave passed and the soil refroze, likely disrupted the delicate timing of these organisms’ life cycles.



“These animals invest a significant amount of energy in preparing and shutting down for the winter,” Gooseff explained. “When things start to warm up the following summer, they use energy to become active again.”&nbsp;



“One of our major concerns with unusual weather events like this heat wave is that these animals might start using a lot more energy, thinking it's summer, only to have to shut down again two days later. How many times can they go through that cycle before they exhaust their energy reserves?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-false-start-to-the-summer">A false start to the summer</h2>



When Gooseff and his team returned to Antarctica in December 2022, they sampled the soil and compared the organisms in areas that had become wet during the heat wave with those in areas that had stayed dry.&nbsp;



The findings revealed a 50% decrease in the population of Scottnema, a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roundworms-travel-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roundworm</a> species that is highly adapted to the extreme cold and dryness of the McMurdo Dry Valleys.



“The heat wave made the environment appear warm enough for things to get wet, creating a false start to summer. Some of the biology responding to these temperatures might be seriously disrupted by this,” Gooseff said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-food-webs">Implications for food webs</h2>



While species like Scottnema suffered, other organisms, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-a-16-million-year-old-tardigrade-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tardigrades</a> (also known as water bears), which are more tolerant of moisture, were likely less affected. 



This shift in species populations could have wide-ranging implications for the region's food webs and nutrient cycling.



Changes in the populations of organisms like Scottnema can have a significant impact on the ecosystem. Previous research has shown that Scottnema is responsible for about 10% of the carbon processing in the Dry Valleys’ soil ecosystem.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-species-affected-by-heat-waves-in-antarctica">Large species affected by heat waves in Antarctica </h2>



As extreme weather events become more frequent due to climate change, larger species in Antarctica are also being affected. 



In 2013, an unusual rainfall event along the Adélie Coast of East Antarctica killed all of the Adélie penguin chicks in the region, and in July 2024, temperatures in parts of East Antarctica climbed 50°F above the usual winter average.



Gooseff and his team plan to continue monitoring the effects of extreme weather events on Antarctica’s ecosystems. 



As Gooseff noted, what happens in Antarctica does not stay in Antarctica. “The loss of ice shelves has pretty dramatic impacts on the mass balance of our oceans, and it affects us even thousands of miles away,” he concluded.



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How are intense heat waves affecting life in Antarctica? 

The summer of 2024 is shaping up to be the...

A single million-strong population of Amur falcons (Falco amurensis) can consume up to two billion termites in just over two weeks, according to a new study.&nbsp;



These large numbers highlight the vital role that Northeast India plays as a stopover site for these falcons during their migration.&nbsp;



The region allows the birds to prepare for their non-stop flight across the Arabian Sea, a journey that gives the Amur falcon the distinction of making the longest known overwater flight of any raptor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fall-migration-of-amur-falcons">Fall migration of Amur falcons</h2>



Amur falcons are small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-falcons-are-highly-intelligent-and-eager-to-show-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds of prey</a> that migrate twice a year between northern Asia, where they breed, and southern Africa, where they spend the winter. Their autumn migration involves a 3,500 km (2,000 mile) journey across the Arabian Sea. 



To successfully complete this flight, the falcons must build up energy reserves by feeding on protein-rich food, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a> are their preferred choice. 



In the paper titled “Prey Species in the Diet of the Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) During Autumn Passage Stopover in Northeast India,” lead author Amarjeet Kaur from the <a href="https://wii.gov.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Institute of India</a> and her co-authors identify the region of Nagaland in Northeast India as a critical stopover for the falcons. 



As insect-eaters, the Amur falcons likely rely on termites to fuel their migration, making this area a priority for conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dominant-prey-for-amur-falcons">Dominant prey for Amur falcons</h2>



To assess the role of insects in the falcons’ diet during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-of-peregrine-falcons-suggests-birds-have-a-migration-gene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>, Kaur and her team analyzed more than 1,000 regurgitated pellets collected from beneath an Amur falcon roost in Nagaland in October and November of 2017 and 2018. 



These pellets, which contain undigested prey remains, showed a high concentration of body parts from two species of fungus-growing termites, Odontotermes feae and Odontotermes horni. Termites were the dominant prey for the falcons across both years and at all three roosting sites studied.&nbsp;



The researchers also observed numerous Amur falcons feeding on termite swarms, providing further evidence that termites are a crucial food source.&nbsp;



Termites offer easily digestible protein and are rich in fat, a fact well-known to local hunters who historically called Amur falcons “loi,” meaning “insect eater.” In the past, hunters would capture the falcons late in the season, when their consumption of termites had resulted in a rich layer of fat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-symbol-of-conservation-efforts-nbsp">A symbol of conservation efforts&nbsp;</h2>



Today, the local Naga communities have become active in protecting the falcons, moving away from hunting them during migration. 



Senior author Suresh Kumar initially began this research to raise local awareness about the falcons, and now he says the birds have become a symbol for regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts. 



“Local communities in Nagaland and neighboring States of Manipur and Assam have independently begun setting aside community lands for the protection of not only Amur falcons, but for all biodiversity in the area,” Kumar said. 



“Given that Nagaland is predominantly governed by community-owned land, conservation actions are significantly shaped by local residents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The study’s findings are significant because they underscore the importance of stopover sites in the yearly migration of the Amur falcon, especially the pre-Arabian Sea refueling site in Nagaland.&nbsp;



Kaur and her team were surprised by the strong connection between the Amur falcons and termites, noting that “it appears that termites are the exclusive prey in this region, and the synchronization between termite emergence and the presence of Amur Falcons is remarkable.”



As long-distance migrators, the falcons are on a strict schedule and could be vulnerable to changes in the environment that disrupt this synchronization.&nbsp;



Climate change has already affected other long-distance migrators, such as the Great Knots (Calidris tenuirostris) and Bar-tailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica).&nbsp;



The study also emphasizes the role that insect-eating raptors like the Amur Falcon play in controlling insect populations, a fact supported by research on their wintering grounds in southern Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-stopover-sites-nbsp">Critical stopover sites&nbsp;</h2>



Looking ahead, Kaur and her colleagues aim to identify specific features of Amur falcon stopover sites across Northeast India and use this data to develop a more comprehensive GIS-based model. They also plan to conduct a detailed study of termite populations at these sites.



“We need to determine if the termite swarming events are cyclic in nature and how they might be influenced by climatic factors, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-land-conditions-affect-the-asian-monsoon-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monsoonal rains</a>,” noted the researchers. 



Since the Amur Falcons may depend on just a few critical locations to gain the energy needed for their migration, understanding the connectivity between these sites is crucial. As the researchers conclude, “Amur falcon conservation requires a landscape-scale approach.”



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3356/JRR-23-49" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Raptor Research</a>.



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How do Amur falcons fuel their 2,000-mile flights?

A single million-strong population of Amur falcons (Falco amurensis) can...

Our world is changing, and among the most vivid signs of this change is the diminishing sight of beautiful butterflies dancing through our gardens and parks. Yet, don't lose hope just yet. Recent research indicates that specific butterfly species teetering on the edge of extinction can be given a fighting chance if humans intervene and actively manage habitats that can support butterflies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss-of-butterflies">Habitat loss of butterflies</h2>



Digging into the looming crisis faced by our winged companions, a team of researchers from Washington State University assessed data from 31 butterfly species across 10 U.S. states. The pattern they discovered was concerning.



Scientists have been sounding the alarm over declining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-butterfly-wings-acquire-their-breathtaking-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a> globally, attributing this trend to the impact of climate change, habitat loss, and prevalent pesticide use. The study's results reflected these concerns.



The butterfly species teetering on the brink of extinction exhibited an estimated annual decline rate of 8%. To put it in perspective, this translates to a staggering 50% decrease in less than a decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-at-the-end-of-the-tunnel">Light at the end of the tunnel</h2>



However, the world of butterflies isn't all descending into darkness. According to the study, habitat management interventions have the potential to slow down or even reverse these alarming declines in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a>.



Study co-lead author Cheryl Schultz, a professor of conservation biology at WSU, elaborated on the team's findings.



“The strongest signal we found is that in places where people are actively engaged with ways to manage the habitat, the butterflies are doing the best. That means that habitat management can make a difference, even in the face of stressors like climate change,” said Schultz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-decline-due-to-climate-change">Butterfly decline due to climate change</h2>



Climate change has been causing temperatures to soar incrementally. As a result, there's been an observable change in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-create-silk-seatbelts-to-strap-in-for-metamorphosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly species</a>' behavioral patterns, especially in terms of their seasonal activities.



In reaction to the changing environment, many species are stirring into action much earlier in the year. The long-term effects of these changes are not entirely clear.



“We found that for these butterflies, big shifts in timing were generally bad. Populations with greater shifts were more likely to be declining,” said Collin Edwards, a recent WSU postdoctoral fellow and  co-lead author on the study.



“However, we were excited to discover that habitat management appeared to be dampening the effect of climate change on butterfly timing. Populations that received more frequent management had smaller shifts in their timing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-butterfly-habitats">Conserving butterfly habitats</h2>



Even though the population trends for these species don't paint a rosy picture, the links discovered by the research team between population patterns, behavioral shifts, and management strategies pave the way for a solid butterfly conservation strategy.



"This might not solve the impact of climate change, but we can mediate some of the effects. It's within our power at the local level to do something positive for these populations," noted study co-author Professor Elizabeth Crone from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-showcasing-butterfly-resilience">Showcasing butterfly resilience</h2>



The study dissected the behavior of myriad species, such as the Oregon silverspot, Taylor's checkerspot, Karner blue, and frosted elfin. 



Among these, the Fender's blue butterfly deserves a special mention. This butterfly made a remarkable recovery, increasing from a few thousand butterflies in the 1990s to about 30,000 today, owing to the efforts of Schultz and others in the fields of public land management and private land ownership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-interventions-for-butterflies">Habitat interventions for butterflies</h2>



The researchers concluded that the implemented habitat interventions, including prescribed burns, mowing, weeding, and planting of nectar or "host" plants for butterfly caterpillars, were aptly identified based on the individual needs of each area.



Schultz urges people to participate in natural area management activities, which could involve planting new flowers or weeding out invasive plant species.



"We really encourage people to plant an abundance of wildflowers and plants which are both hosts for caterpillars and provide nectar for butterflies. These should be 'clean plantings' meaning they are pesticide-free. The more we can reduce pesticides in our environment, the better it's going to be for butterflies and insects,” noted Schultz.



This research was funded by the U.S. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Geological Survey.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14735" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>. 



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Butterflies can be saved if we manage their habitats

Our world is changing, and among the most vivid signs...

Ferruginous hawks that winter in California have shown an unexpected rise in numbers, despite a significant decline in their preferred grassland habitats over the past two decades. 



In contrast, many other grassland bird species have experienced sharp population declines, paralleling the loss of the open landscapes that once characterized much of western North America.



A recent study published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3356/jrr2370" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Raptor Research</a>, explores this surprising trend. The paper, authored by independent researcher Edward Pandolfino, along with Lily Douglas from the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> and Chris Ray from <a href="https://www.birdpop.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Institute for Bird Populations</a>, suggests possible explanations for the hawks’ population growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-data-on-ferruginous-hawks">Conflicting data on ferruginous hawks</h2>



The research highlights how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-rare-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> can reveal important insights about the lesser-studied aspects of a raptor’s life cycle, such as wintering grounds. These periods, although often overshadowed by the breeding season, are vital to understanding the overall health of a species.



Studying ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) can be difficult because they do not consistently appear at migration sites, unlike other hawks that follow more predictable paths along topographical features such as ridges. 



This has led to conflicting data on their population status, with their conservation status varying across different regions and countries.&nbsp;



For example, many of the hawks wintering in California come from breeding populations in Washington and Oregon, where they are classified as endangered and sensitive-critical, respectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-bird-counts-nbsp">Christmas Bird Counts&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate the species’ mixed population trends, the research team analyzed citizen science data from the Washington-Oregon population's wintering grounds. They focused on five Bird Conservation Areas in California, where Christmas Bird Counts (CBCs) had been conducted between 1998 and 2022.



Christmas Bird Counts are organized by bird enthusiasts and related organizations every December, following a consistent method to record bird species' presence. These counts provide a rich dataset that offers a clearer picture of the ferruginous hawk’s winter range, far beyond what typical research efforts could achieve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-trends-of-ferruginous-hawks">Population trends of ferruginous hawks</h2>



The analysis revealed an intriguing result: while the quality of the hawks' habitat declined over the 25-year period, their winter numbers actually increased. This finding was unexpected, especially since the species has been in decline in Washington, where many of these hawks breed.



“Grassland species are nearly all in long-term, continent-wide declines. Our findings offer a small ray of hope these hawks can continue to persist,” Pandolfino said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raptors-in-open-habitats-nbsp">Raptors in open habitats&nbsp;</h2>



One potential reason for the hawks’ resilience in California could be their preference for larger prey, such as Black-tailed Jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), which thrive in open habitats, including areas affected by development and agriculture.&nbsp;



It’s also possible that ferruginous hawks have adapted by using inactive croplands as new habitat and expanded their diet to include a greater variety of prey.



Despite the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predators-face-the-most-imminent-threat-from-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat losses</a>, these findings suggest that the population dynamics of raptors in open habitats can be more complex than expected. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-ferruginous-hawks-nbsp">Protecting ferruginous hawks&nbsp;</h2>



Since young ferruginous hawks face high mortality rates during their first year, understanding the conditions they encounter on their non-breeding grounds is crucial. Protecting these areas, especially in California, will require a collaborative conservation approach.



“Nearly every acre of ferruginous hawk habitat surveyed for this paper is on private cattle ranches,” Pandolfino explained. “In California, the survival of this hawk is completely dependent on cattle ranching continuing to be a viable way to make a living.”



As apex predators, ferruginous hawks serve as indicators of the overall health of their ecosystems, making their protection even more critical in a rapidly changing environment.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-habitats-of-grassland-birds-nbsp">Preserving the habitats of grassland birds&nbsp;</h2>



Pandolfino plans to continue his research in California to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-energy-facilities-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grassland birds</a> like the ferruginous hawk and raise awareness about the importance of preserving their diminishing habitats.



“This same approach of assessing population trends conducted in other parts of the winter range could shed more light on the overall population status of this species,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;



“In addition, telemetry studies of birds breeding in other parts of the range could clarify the source(s) of increasing numbers of Ferruginous Hawks wintering in California.”



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Resilient hawks manage to thrive despite shrinking habitats

Ferruginous hawks that winter in California have shown an unexpected...

In a marine science mystery reminiscent of a game of Clue, researchers from the United States set out to investigate the death of a pregnant porbeagle shark in the open waters southwest of Bermuda. The evidence points to a larger shark, equipped with its deciduous triangular teeth, as the most likely culprit.  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predation-of-a-porbeagle-shark-nbsp">Predation of a porbeagle shark&nbsp;</h2>



“This is the first documented predation event of a porbeagle shark anywhere in the world,” said Brooke Anderson, the study’s lead author and a former graduate student at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.



“In one event, the population not only lost a reproductive female that could contribute to population growth, but it also lost all her developing babies. If predation is more widespread than previously thought, there could be major impacts for the porbeagle shark population that is already suffering due to historic overfishing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-porbeagle-sharks">Endangered porbeagle sharks</h2>



Porbeagles are formidable sharks found in the Atlantic, South Pacific Ocean, and the Mediterranean. These sharks are large, active, and robustly built, growing up to 3.7 meters in length and weighing as much as 230 kilograms.&nbsp;



They are also long-lived, with lifespans that can reach 30 to even 65 years. Female porbeagles have a slow reproductive cycle, not reaching reproductive maturity until around 13 years old. When they do reproduce, they give birth to an average of four pups every one or two years after a gestation period of eight to nine months.



Due to this slow reproduction rate, porbeagle populations struggle to recover from threats such as overfishing, recreational fishing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-device-reduces-shark-bycatch-by-electrifying-the-bait/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bycatch</a>, and habitat loss and degradation.&nbsp;



These pressures have led to the porbeagle being listed as endangered in the Northwest Atlantic on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a>, with populations in the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean considered critically endangered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porbeagles-tagged-off-massachusetts-nbsp">Porbeagles tagged off Massachusetts&nbsp;</h2>



As part of a broader research effort to study shark migration, Anderson and her colleagues tagged porbeagles off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in 2020 and 2022.&nbsp;



Each shark was fitted with two satellite tags: a fin-mount satellite transmitter and a pop-off satellite archival tag (PSAT).&nbsp;



The fin-mount tag sends the shark’s location to satellites whenever the fin surfaces, while the PSAT records depth and temperature data continuously, storing it until the tag detaches and floats to the surface to transmit its collected data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-nbsp">Unexpected turn of events&nbsp;</h2>



One of the tagged porbeagles was a pregnant female measuring 2.2 meters in length. Anderson and her team hoped that tracking this female would provide valuable insights into important habitats for porbeagle mothers and their offspring.



However, an unexpected turn of events occurred. After 158 days, the PSAT began transmitting from an area off Bermuda, indicating that the tag had detached and was floating at the surface.



The transmitted data revealed that this female had spent five months cruising at depths between 100 and 200 meters at night and 600 to 800 meters during the day, in water temperatures ranging from 6.4 to 23.5 °C. Throughout this period, the fin-mount tag had only transmitted once, confirming that the shark had mostly remained underwater.



But then, on March 24, 2021, over the span of four days, the temperature recorded by the PSAT remained consistently around 22 °C at depths between 150 and 600 meters.&nbsp;



This sudden change in data could only mean one thing: the unfortunate porbeagle had been hunted and consumed by a larger predator. The PSAT was likely excreted four days later, which is when it began transmitting again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-sharks-hunting-each-other">Large sharks hunting each other</h2>



“Two endothermic predator candidates large enough to predate upon mature porbeagles and located within the vicinity and at the time of year of the predation event include the white shark Carcharodon carcharias and shortfin mako Isurus oxyrhinchus,” the authors wrote.



Shortfin mako sharks typically prey on cephalopods, bony fish, smaller sharks, porpoises, sea turtles, and seabirds, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-separated-into-three-distinct-groups-that-dont-intermingle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great white sharks</a> are known to feed on whales, dolphins, seals, and rays.&nbsp;



Of the two suspects, the great white shark is the more likely culprit, as shortfin mako sharks usually exhibit rapid, oscillatory dives between the surface and deeper waters during the day - behavior that was not detected by the PSAT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions-of-large-predators-nbsp">Complex interactions of large predators&nbsp;</h2>



“The predation of one of our pregnant porbeagles was an unexpected discovery. We often think of large sharks as being apex predators. But with technological advancements, we have started to discover that large predator interactions could be even more complex than previously thought,” Anderson noted.



“We need to continue studying predator interactions to estimate how often large sharks hunt each other. This will help us uncover what cascading impacts these interactions could have on the ecosystem,” she concluded.



This case, while tragic, opens new avenues for understanding the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine predator</a>-prey dynamics, particularly among the ocean’s most formidable inhabitants.



The research is detailed in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1406973">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Unexpected discovery: Large sharks are hunting each other

In a marine science mystery reminiscent of a game of...

Ever heard a high-pitched buzzing sound near your ear in the dark? That's a sign a female mosquito is on a hunt. And no, it's not after your fear. It's after your blood. But for a male mosquito, that same buzz means something entirely different. It's love in the air... or rather, mating season for mosquitoes.



An international team led by researchers at the University of Washington has stumbled upon surprising details about mosquito mating. Spoiler alert: it's not just about romance. These novel findings could give us the upper hand in malaria control strategies and guide the development of precision drone flight technology.



The male Anopheles coluzzii <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> is a major culprit in spreading malaria throughout Africa. Let's call him Mr. A. 



Now, for Mr. A, finding a mate isn't just about showing off his six-pack abdomen. It's a game of sounds. The moment he hears the sound of female-specific wingbeats, his rather poor vision gets a boost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sounds-of-mosquito-mating">The sounds of mosquito mating </h2>



Though many mosquito species have subpar eyesight, their other senses make up for it. The moment a male mosquito hears the alluring buzz of a female in flight, his eyes "activate," and he starts scanning for a potential partner.



Imagine being in a crowded, busy swarm of eager mosquitoes, all trying to find their soulmate. Even in such chaotic conditions, male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> can visually lock on to his target. He then speeds up, zipping through the swarm without bumping into any fellow Romeos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sound-love-affair">A sound love affair</h2>



"We have discovered this incredibly strong association in male mosquitoes when they seek a mate. They hear the sound of wingbeats at a specific frequency - the kind that females make - and that stimulus engages the visual system," explained study lead author Saumya Gupta, a postdoctoral researcher in biology at <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UW</a>. 



It's a complex tango between different mosquito sensory systems to create this love connection.



Now, why is this important? The strong link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-listen-for-a-specific-buzz-to-find-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males hearing the female-like buzz</a> and moving towards what they think might be the source could open up new possibilities for mosquito control. 



Picture this: a new generation of traps that are specific to the Anopheles mosquitoes, which are the type that spread malaria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-mating-and-preventing-malaria">Mosquito mating and preventing malaria </h2>



The unique behavior of male mosquitoes got the attention of study senior author Jeffrey Riffell, a UW professor of biology. He suggests that this sound is so irresistible to males that it causes them to steer towards what they think might be the source, be it a real lady or a mosquito trap.



Understanding the interaction between the senses of mosquitoes in these swarms was a key goal for Gupta, Riffell, and their colleagues from various international universities. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sound-cues-change-male-behavior">Sound cues change male behavior </h2>



The team built a miniature arena - a mosquito flight simulator of sorts - where mosquitoes could see, smell, hear, and beat their wings as if in flight, even though they were tethered and couldn't freely move.



In a series of experiments, the experts found that males changed their behavior based on the sounds they heard. The males moved towards an object when they heard the buzz of a female mosquito, but not when they heard the higher-frequency sound of male wingbeats.



Visual cues also played a role here. If a simulated object appeared more than three body lengths away, the male mosquito wouldn't be interested, even if the sound of lady-love was in the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fight-or-flight-in-mosquito-mating">Fight or flight in mosquito mating</h2>



"The resolving power of the mosquito eye is about 1,000-fold less than the resolving power of the human eye. Mosquitoes tend to use vision for more passive behaviors, like avoiding other objects and controlling their position," Riffell explained. 



But when male mosquitoes hear the alluring flight tones of females, they make a surprising set of subtle flight adjustments.



Such visually driven responses could be preparatory maneuvers to avoid an object, the research team concluded. Their observations also suggested that males use close-range visual cues for collision avoidance within swarms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mosquito-control">Future of mosquito control</h2>



This innovative research on mating could lead to new methods for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bad-news-mosquitoes-prefer-heat-and-thrive-in-the-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito control</a> by capitalizing on how mosquitoes integrate auditory and visual cues. 



Mosquitoes are getting smarter and becoming increasingly resistant to insecticides. So, it's time to outsmart them, and these insights into their mating behavior may be the key.



"Today's measures, like insecticides, are increasingly less effective as mosquitoes evolve resistance," said Riffell. "We need new approaches, like lures or traps, which will draw in mosquitoes with high fidelity."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)00946-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Mating secrets of mosquitoes may help us gain control of them

Ever heard a high-pitched buzzing sound near your ear in...

Crocodile culling in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia is a controversial practice aimed at managing the population of saltwater crocodiles, which have been increasing since they were protected by law in 1971. The primary focus of culling is to ensure public safety, particularly in areas where there is a high risk of crocodile attacks on humans.



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a> reveals that education and community awareness, the removal of problematic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-ecology-shaped-250-million-years-of-crocodile-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a>, and the designation of exclusion areas are significantly more effective in reducing saltwater crocodile attacks than widespread culling. 



The research, led by <a href="https://www.cdu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Darwin University</a> (CDU), challenges the notion that culling is a cost-effective or efficient solution to mitigating crocodile attacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-rate-of-crocodile-attacks-nbsp">Analyzing the rate of crocodile attacks&nbsp;</h2>



The experts examined the correlation between the density of crocodile populations and human populations and the frequency of saltwater crocodile attacks in the Northern Territory over the past 50 years. Data analysis showed that from 1979 to 2022, there were 76 crocodile attacks in the region, with 30% of these attacks resulting in fatalities.



Interestingly, while both crocodile density and the human population continued to rise, the rate of crocodile attacks stabilized from 2009 onwards, with a notable 10% decrease in the frequency of attacks over the following decade.&nbsp;



This trend suggests that the behaviors of Northern Territory residents and tourists around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-impacts-on-waterways-contribute-to-the-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a> have adapted in response to the growing crocodile population, largely due to government-led education programs and efforts to remove problem crocodiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-culling-is-not-the-best-strategy-nbsp">Crocodile culling is not the best strategy&nbsp;</h2>



Lead author Cameron Baker, a postdoctoral research fellow at CDU's Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, highlighted the fact that the reduction in attacks correlates with increased awareness and the targeted removal of problem crocodiles.&nbsp;



These strategies have proven to be more effective in reducing attacks than any broad-scale culling program, a method periodically considered in the Northern Territory.



“Our models predicted that the NT crocodile population would have to be reduced by as much as 90% to reduce the crocodile attack frequency by one attack per year,” Baker explained.&nbsp;



“If widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killing-animals-ecosystem-non-native-culling-harmful-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culling</a> to reduce density was the prime strategy to reduce crocodile attacks, then the population would need to be driven to very low levels to see any significant reduction. This is because the risk of attacks on humans only decreases once large crocodiles are completely extirpated from an area.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-downside-of-crocodile-culling-nbsp">The downside of crocodile culling&nbsp;</h2>



According to Baker, such extensive culling would not only push the species back into the critically endangered category but would also be prohibitively expensive. Humane culling operations, based on the current Northern Territory crocodile management budget, would cost approximately $975 per crocodile.&nbsp;



“Assuming these operational costs remained constant throughout the culling period, it would cost $87,750,000 to cull 90% of the NT crocodile population humanely, achieving a 48% reduction in crocodile attack frequency,” he said.



In contrast, the Northern Territory Government spent AUD$250,000 on the “Be Crocwise” educational campaign between 2013 and 2016. Since its implementation in 2009, this campaign has contributed to a 10% decrease in crocodile attacks, demonstrating a far more cost-effective approach than culling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-and-crocodile-attacks-nbsp">Human behavior and crocodile attacks&nbsp;</h2>



Baker further noted that the data indicated crocodile attacks were influenced by human behavior and activities near water. “Between 2011 and 2021, humans were 363 times more likely to be severely injured or killed in a motor vehicle accident than by a crocodile in the NT,” he said.&nbsp;



“Most victims of crocodile attacks, 90%, were local to the NT. This highlights the importance of modifying human behavior to reduce the risks of attacks by large predators such as crocodiles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-crocodile-management-methods-nbsp">Alternative crocodile management methods&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Hamish Campbell, who led the study, stressed the need for an evidence-based approach to crocodile management.&nbsp;



“Crocodiles are a danger to humans in North Australia, and this risk needs to be managed. The funds available for crocodile management are limited, and we need to spend these in the most effective manner to reduce crocodile attacks on humans, and the evidence shows that widespread culling is not a cost-effective nor efficient means of doing this,” he said.&nbsp;



“Alternative management methods currently used by the Northern Territory government seem to be working and effective.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Vinay Udyawer from the Australian Institute of Marine Science, who also contributed to the research, noted that the study's findings could inform other predator mitigation strategies.&nbsp;



“The results of this study can be expanded beyond just the management of crocodiles in the Northern Territory,” he said. “It highlights the general ineffectiveness of culling as a primary mitigation tool and the importance of alternative strategies like public education campaigns for managing the risks posed by other large marine predators such as sharks.”



The findings underscore the effectiveness of targeted, evidence-based approaches over broad, less effective measures, offering valuable insights for managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exploring-the-impacts-of-human-wildlife-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-wildlife interactions</a> in various contexts.



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Culling is not effective in preventing crocodile attacks 

Crocodile culling in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia is...

Imagine an epic prehistoric saga, unfolding in what is now northwestern Venezuela, featuring a sea cow as our unfortunate protagonist and a crocodile and a shark as the antagonists. 



This tale is not a figment of our imagination, but a fascinating reality woven by scientists from several esteemed institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-prehistoric-tale">Unearthing the prehistoric tale</h2>



The events of this story took place during the Early to Middle Miocene epoch, a period dating from 23 million to 11.6 million years ago. A sea cow, belonging to the extinct genus Culebratherium, found itself at the mercy of a crocodile's attack.



Evidence of this saga is etched on the sea cow's skull. Deep tooth impacts suggest that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> launched the first attack, attempting to grasp the sea cow's snout, likely intending to suffocate it.



Further large incisions indicate the crocodile dragged and tore at the sea cow, executing a "death roll" - a behavior observed in modern crocodiles.



As if being preyed upon by an ancient crocodile wasn't enough, the sea cow's remains were later scavenged by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-shark-genomes-reveal-two-distinct-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiger shark</a>. The discovery of a shark tooth in the sea cow's neck, along with various shark bite marks across the skeleton, solidify this part of the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predation-events-in-the-fossil-record">Predation events in the fossil record </h2>



This prehistoric narrative was pieced together by experts from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> and the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, along with researchers from Venezuelan institutes Museo Paleontológico de Urumaco and the Universidad Nacional Experimental Francisco de Miranda.



The findings offer valuable insights into prehistoric predation patterns and the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-seafloor-nutrients-support-the-entire-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food chain</a>. Aldo Benites-Palomino, the study's lead author from the Department of Paleontology at Zurich, explained that the research highlights the pivotal role of sea cows in the food chain.



"Our findings constitute one of the few records documenting multiple predators over a single prey, and as such provide a glimpse of food chain networks in this region during the Miocene," said Benites-Palomino.



Verifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predation</a> events in the fossil record can be challenging. “While evidence of food chain interactions are not scarce in the fossil record, they are mostly represented by fragmentary fossils exhibiting marks of ambiguous significance," explained Benites-Palomino.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peculiar-sea-cow-remains">Peculiar sea cow remains</h2>



The fossils were uncovered in outcrops of the Early to Middle Miocene Agua Clara Formation, south of the city of Coro, Venezuela. Among the remains, experts discovered a partial skull and eighteen associated vertebrae.



The fossil site is intriguing due to its location - just 100 kilometers away from previous fossil finds. Professor Marcelo R Sanchez-Villagra described the discovery as “remarkable.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/sea-cow_ancient_crocodile-attack_illustration_credit-Jaime-Bran-Sarmiento_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/sea-cow_ancient_crocodile-attack_illustration_credit-Jaime-Bran-Sarmiento_1s.jpg" alt="Illustration of a sea cow being attacked by a crocodile. Credit to Jaime Bran Sarmiento" class="wp-image-1943435"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of a sea cow being attacked by a crocodile. Credit to Jaime Bran Sarmiento</figcaption></figure>



Upon hearing rumors of unusual "rocks" from a local farmer, Sanchez-Villagra and his team decided to investigate. The researchers unearthed sea cow remains that were incredibly unusual in appearance.



“Initially, we were unfamiliar with the site’s geology, and the first fossils we unearthed were parts of skulls," said Sanchez-Villagra.



“It took us some time to determine what they were - sea cow skulls, which are quite peculiar in appearance. By consulting geological maps and examining the sediments at the new locality, we were able to determine the age of the rocks in which the fossils were found.”



The meticulous work of preparing and restoring the cranial elements took several months, further solidifying the significance of this exciting find.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-prehistoric-marine-ecosystems">Insights into prehistoric marine ecosystems</h2>



The discovery of this prehistoric interaction not only sheds light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> but also provides crucial insights into the marine ecosystems of the Miocene epoch. 



During this period, the region that is now northwestern Venezuela was submerged under shallow seas, creating a vibrant habitat teeming with diverse marine life. 



These waters supported a rich tapestry of organisms, ranging from small invertebrates to large marine mammals like the sea cow.



By studying the fossilized remains and the environmental context in which they were found, scientists can reconstruct ancient ecosystems and better understand the ecological roles of different species. 



The behaviors observed, such as the crocodile's death roll and the shark scavenging, highlight the complex interactions that occurred in these prehistoric seas. 



The research emphasizes the importance of apex predators in shaping the structure and dynamics of marine food webs, a concept that remains relevant in studying modern ecosystems.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2381505" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Prehistoric sea cow fossils show it was dinner for a crocodile and a shark

Imagine an epic prehistoric saga, unfolding in what is now...

Did you know that every bird nest you spot in a tree is a unique form of artwork? And imagine this, the creators of these delicate constructions are our very own feathered friends. 



The nests are a manifestation of the birds' ingenuity and survival instincts, and proof of nature's boundless creativity. 



Recent research has focused on one fascinating species - the white-browed sparrow weavers - and their distinctive nest-building practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-nests-of-sparrow-weavers">Unique nests of sparrow weavers</h2>



In the sweeping vistas of the Kalahari Desert, where the air is dry, and conditions harsh, thrives a species of bird known for their distinctive nest building abilities. Enter the white-browed sparrow weavers.&nbsp;



A team of biologists from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St Andrews</a>&nbsp;set out on a two-year expedition to observe the nest-building behaviors of these hardy birds.



Birds, like humans, have their unique styles, whether it's singing or foraging. But the sparrow weavers stand out because they have an exclusive nest-building style. The research team captured hours of footage of these birds, collectively creating over 450 nests.



The nests were painstakingly built using grass and were all single-occupancy, making the observational opportunities plentiful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nest-passed-down-through-generations">A nest passed down through generations</h2>



All the groups that the researchers observed lived in the same general area with similar&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rebellious-birds-use-anti-bird-spikes-to-build-their-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat conditions</a>&nbsp;and had identical genetic makeup.&nbsp;



Yet, the nests they built were strikingly different from each other. Some groups built short and thick nests with minimal embellishment, while others chose long, complicated entrance and exit pathways.&nbsp;



These differences couldn't be chalked up to natural variables such as wind or temperature, leading the researchers to believe that these styles were passed down across generations.



Moreover, with no change in habitat or environmental conditions, the sparrow weaver groups retained their unique styles over the years.&nbsp;



This remarkable consistency suggests a behavior that's transmitted across generations but isn't genetically encoded. It's a thread that ties the past to the future, a story told from one generation to the next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nest-building-behavior-of-sparrow-weavers">Nest-building behavior of sparrow weavers </h2>



An intriguing aspect of the white-browed sparrow weavers' nest-building behavior is the influence of their social structures. 



Unlike many bird species that exhibit solitary nesting habits, sparrow weavers often collaborate in groups, which significantly impacts their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">architectural choices</a>. 



The research indicated that within these cooperative groups, the roles in nest building were not only shared but also varied by individual proficiency. Certain birds, for instance, might excel at weaving while others were adept at gathering materials.&nbsp;



This collaboration creates a dynamic learning environment, whereby younger birds observe and emulate their more experienced counterparts, leading to an informal education in nest construction techniques that adds to the distinct styles observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-challenges-faced-by-weavers">Environmental challenges faced by weavers</h2>



The design and structure of nests also reflect the environmental challenges the sparrow weavers face in the Kalahari. These birds must contend with not only the scarcity of materials but also ongoing threats from predators and the harsh elements.&nbsp;



As a result, their nesting strategies are not only artistic but also practical and adaptive. The researchers noted that nests with elaborate entrances and exits often correlated with higher survival rates, as these designs provided birds with immediate camouflage and evasion opportunities.&nbsp;



This adaptability to their environment underscores an essential principle of natural selection: the need for efficiency in survival intricately woven into the very fabric of their creative expression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-avian-behavior">Understanding avian behavior </h2>



The intrigue surrounding the white-browed sparrow weavers extends beyond their remarkable nest-building practices; it also highlights the importance of human observation in understanding avian behavior.



The meticulous research highlights how dedicated observation can yield insights into the complexities of avian life. Through the lens of modern technology, such as high-definition cameras and drones, researchers are able to capture behaviors that may go unnoticed in casual observation.



This technology not only enhances our understanding of these birds but also promotes a deeper appreciation for biodiversity and the intricate web of life that surrounds us. 



By promoting a connection between scientists and the natural world, the research advocates for conservation efforts and encourages citizen science participation, ultimately benefiting both the sparrow weavers and the ecosystems they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-of-sparrow-weavers">Social dynamics of sparrow weavers </h2>



The study paints a vivid picture of avian life in the wild. It sheds light on the incredibly sophisticated group dynamics among birds and opens up fascinating questions about&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-fishing-cats-raiding-bird-nests-in-the-treetops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a>.&nbsp;



Is it possible that these little birds have their own culture? Can we call these nest-building styles an avian "tradition"?



The white-browed sparrow weavers, with their unique nest-building styles, show us that nature is full of surprises if we just take the time to observe. What other secrets do these little architects hide? Only time, and further exploration will tell.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn2573" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Weaver birds build strikingly unique nests

Did you know that every bird nest you spot in...

In the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, scientists have made a thrilling discovery: a new species of Antarctic dragonfish, Akarotaxis gouldae.



The discovery of this "Banded Dragonfish" highlights both the hidden depths of biodiversity and the fragile state of the Antarctic ecosystem. The species was identified by researchers at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) at William &amp; Mary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-akarotaxis-gouldae">Akarotaxis gouldae</h2>



The discovery of Akarotaxis gouldae began when larval specimens, initially assumed to be Akarotaxis nudiceps, were collected during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> trawling missions off the Antarctic coast.



Upon comparing their DNA with Akarotaxis nudiceps specimens from collections at institutions like VIMS, <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>, and the <a href="https://www.mnhn.fr/fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle</a> in Paris, significant genetic differences became apparent. 



The experts were able to confirm that these specimens belonged to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Akarotaxis-gouldae_antarctic-dragonfish_new-species_specimens_credit-andrew-corso_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previously unrecognized species</a>.



Study lead author Andrew Corso conducted the research during his PhD studies at VIMS under the guidance of advisors Eric Hilton and Deborah Steinberg. Corso emphasized the importance of genetic testing in modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-in-insect-taxonomy-threatened-by-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taxonomy</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Akarotaxis-gouldae_antarctic-dragonfish_new-species_science-boat_credit-andrew-corso_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Akarotaxis-gouldae_antarctic-dragonfish_new-species_science-boat_credit-andrew-corso_1s.jpg" alt="Akarotaxis gouldae, a newly discovered species of Antarctic dragonfish, was named in honor of the recently decomissioned Antarctic research supply vessel Laurence M. Gould. Credit: Andrew Corso" class="wp-image-1943441"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Akarotaxis gouldae, a newly discovered species of Antarctic dragonfish, was named in honor of the recently decomissioned Antarctic research supply vessel Laurence M. Gould. Credit: Andrew Corso</figcaption></figure>



“In the world of fish taxonomy, it’s becoming common to distinguish species with genetics alone. Genetic testing is an extremely valuable tool, but our discovery highlights the importance of early life stage morphology and natural history collections like those at <a href="https://www.vims.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VIMS</a> and other institutions,” said Corso.



Subsequent morphological analysis of adult Akarotaxis gouldae samples from ichthyology collections worldwide confirmed these genetic findings. 



“There are two distinct bands on the sides of adult Akarotaxis gouldae that are not present on Akarotaxis nudiceps, so we were surprised that the species already existed in collections but had been previously overlooked,” noted Corso.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-insights-from-genetic-testing">Empowering insights from genetic testing</h2>



Through time-calibrated phylogeny, Corso and his colleague Thomas Desvignes from the University of Oregon’s <a href="https://ion.uoregon.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Neuroscience</a> estimated that Akarotaxis gouldae diverged as a separate species approximately 780,000 years ago, when the Southern Ocean was predominantly covered in glaciers.



“We hypothesize that a population of dragonfishes may have become isolated within deep trenches under glaciers, surviving on food pushed in by the moving ice," Corso explained.



Once the glaciers retreated, this subpopulation had become distinct enough to be reproductively incompatible with Akarotaxis nudiceps."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecology-of-antarctic-dragonfish">Ecology of Antarctic dragonfish</h2>



Despite their crucial ecological role, much remains unknown about Antarctic dragonfish. These species, including Akarotaxis gouldae, inhabit the deep, remote waters of the Southern Ocean.



The dragonfish species exhibit unique behaviors like nest guarding in shallower coastal waters, and their offspring remain closer to the surface during the larval stage.



Examination of female dragonfish ovaries has shown limited reproductive capacity, and larval sampling suggests that Akarotaxis gouldae is confined to the waters around the western Antarctic Peninsula.



“Akarotaxis gouldae appear to have one of the smallest ranges of any fish endemic to the Southern Ocean,” said Corso. 



“This limited range combined with their low reproductive capacity and the presence of early life stages in shallower waters suggest that this is a vulnerable species that could be impacted by the krill fishery.”



These dragonfish serve as a vital food source for many Antarctic species, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-will-not-survive-the-current-rate-of-sea-ice-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a>, whose populations are already under threat from changing environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-akarotaxis-gouldae-honors-a-scientific-legacy">Akarotaxis gouldae honors a scientific legacy</h2>



The naming of Akarotaxis gouldae honors the legacy of the ARSV Laurence M. Gould, a vessel that significantly contributed to Antarctic research for over two decades.



The vessel’s decommissioning marked a shift in the U.S. Antarctic Program's priorities, highlighting the ongoing need for support and resources to continue studying the region's unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. 



“To me, the loss of the ARSV Laurence M. Gould marks a setback in the scientific study of the Antarctic region. Antarctica is warming faster than anywhere in the Southern Hemisphere, and there is untold biodiversity in the region that we’re only beginning to understand," Corso concluded.



"By naming this fish after the ship, we hope to honor its scientific contributions while also bringing attention to the need for additional resources to study this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>."



This discovery emphasizes the urgent need to protect fragile ecosystems and the invaluable biodiversity they support.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5501.2.3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New dragonfish species reveals the fragility of the Antarctic ecosystem

In the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, scientists...

Butterfly wings are to the eye what symphonies are to the ear. Now, an international research team has uncovered an intriguing, genetic mechanism contributing to the vibrant and intricate patterns we see on butterfly wings. 



Their discovery? It is an RNA molecule that plays a key role in determining the distribution of black pigment on butterfly wings. And here's the surprise twist - it's not a protein, as we previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-code-of-butterfly-wings">Genetic code of butterfly wings</h2>



The study was led by Luca Livraghi, a postdoctoral scientist at George Washington University and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



Researchers have been intrigued for centuries by how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> can generate the breathtakingly beautiful patterns and colors on their wings.



The genetic code in the cells of developing butterfly wings actually dictates the specific arrangement of color on the wing's scales - like the arrangement of colored pixels to form a digital image. Decoding this could pave the way to understanding how our genes construct our anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proteins-are-not-the-only-players">Proteins are not the only players</h2>



Scientists have long known that protein-coding genes are pivotal in these processes. But when it comes to black pigments, this research paints a different landscape altogether. 



The team discovered that a gene producing an RNA molecule - not a protein - controlled where dark pigments were made during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> metamorphosis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rna-influence-on-butterfly-wing-patterns">RNA influence on butterfly wing patterns</h2>



"What we found was astonishing," said Livraghi. "This RNA molecule directly influences where the black pigment appears on the wings, shaping the butterfly's color patterns in a way we hadn't anticipated." 



Through examining the RNA molecule's activity, researchers found a perfect correlation between where the RNA was expressed and where the black scales formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-paintbrush">An evolutionary paintbrush</h2>



"It is truly an evolutionary paintbrush in this sense, and a creative one, judging by its effects in several species," said Arnaud Martin, associate professor of biology at <a href="https://www.gwu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Washington University</a>. 



The team, in their curious endeavors, examined the newly discovered RNA in several other butterflies, diverging in evolutionary history around 80 million years ago. The result? The RNA had evolved to control new placements in the patterns of dark pigments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-rna-in-butterfly-wing-diversity">Role of RNA in butterfly wing diversity</h2>



"The consistent results obtained from CRISPR mutants in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-love-pretty-butterflies-and-that-complicates-data-for-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">several species</a> really demonstrate that this RNA gene is not a recent invention, but a key ancestral mechanism to control wing pattern diversity," noted Riccardo Papa, professor of biology at the <a href="https://www.uprrp.edu/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Puerto Rico</a>.



"This RNA molecule evidently plays a crucial role in the evolution of wing patterns. Who knows what other phenomena biologists might've missed because they weren't paying attention to the genome's dark matter?" concluded Joe Hanly, a postdoctoral scientist and visiting fellow at GW.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assumptions-about-genetic-regulation">Assumptions about genetic regulation</h2>



The research fundamentally challenges our long-standing assumptions about genetic regulation. It throws open new avenues of exploration in studying how visible traits evolve in animals.



The genetic mechanism of butterfly wing patterns might seem like a specific niche in the scientific sphere, but its implications reach far and wide in the realm of biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The revelations stemming from this study not only illuminate the enigmatic processes behind butterfly coloration but also pave the way for a broader understanding of genetics in other species. 



As researchers continue to investigate the role of RNA in butterfly wing patterns, it is likely that similar genetic mechanisms exist across the animal kingdom. 



Future inquiries may focus on the possibility of RNA's influence in other phenotypic traits, providing fresh insights into evolutionary biology and genetics. 



This newfound appreciation for RNA as a functional player in developmental processes of butterflies compels scientists to reconsider their methodologies and assumptions, potentially leading to transformative discoveries across diverse biological fields.



So, the next time you admire a butterfly's wings, remember there's more than meets the eye. There's an intriguing genetic mechanism at play, dominated by an RNA molecule that's defining patterns of dark pigment. Talk about nature having a sense of sublime artistry!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403326121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How do butterfly wings acquire their breathtaking colors?

Butterfly wings are to the eye what symphonies are to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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