Honey, often described as “liquid gold,” has captivated civilizations for millennia. Long prized for its sweetness, it has also been used in diverse cultures and traditions to soothe sore throats, support wound healing, and even address infections.&nbsp;



While honey’s anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties have earned it a place in both kitchens and home remedies, questions remain about the science behind these claims.&nbsp;



What exactly gives honey its therapeutic potential, and how do the microorganisms within it influence its benefits and safety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-microbiology-of-honey">The microbiology of honey</h2>



When people think of honey, they usually picture a sticky, golden sweetener ready to drizzle on toast or stir into tea. Yet behind this simplicity lies a rich microbial community.&nbsp;



Honey carries a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microorganisms</a> that together create a microscopic ecosystem. This local microbiome in honey prompts inquiries about its safety, particularly regarding how honey is produced, whether it’s consumed raw or pasteurized, and the risks it may pose for certain individuals, such as infants.



Honey primarily consists of sugars (mainly fructose and glucose), water, and organic compounds produced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-making-less-honey-and-five-decades-of-data-reveals-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. While the western honeybee, Apis mellifera, is the dominant species in large-scale honey production, at least eight other bee species - including Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta - are also known to produce honey.&nbsp;



Each species, along with environmental and floral variations, can influence the composition of the honey they create.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-microbes">The role of microbes</h2>



Bees generate honey through a multifaceted process involving the collection of nectar and honeydew from flowers and subsequent enzymatic transformations within the hive.&nbsp;



During this process, microorganisms - such as Bacillus, Saccharomyces, and Aspergillus - are introduced to the honey via the bees’ digestive tracts and from external sources like air, soil, and plant matter.



Some microbes, particularly lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, are beneficial. They can contribute to honey’s acidity and preserve it against spoilage.&nbsp;



Conversely, certain yeasts, such as Candida and Saccharomyces, may thrive in honey that has excessive moisture, potentially causing fermentation or spoilage. Thus, honey’s microbial profile is shaped by the floral environment, geographic location, bee health, and other situational elements.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybee</a> gut microbiome itself plays a critical part in shaping honey’s characteristics. In addition to lactic acid bacteria, microbes like Enterobacter and Klebsiella help maintain bee health.&nbsp;



If this beneficial microbial community becomes unbalanced - due to factors such as disease or environmental stress - bees can become susceptible to infections, including fungal pathogens like Aspergillus fumigatus.&nbsp;



This fungus can harm both immunocompromised humans and bee larvae, emphasizing the shared health interests of bees and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-s-remarkable-self-preservation-abilities">Honey’s remarkable self-preservation abilities</h2>



Despite harboring an assortment of microbes, honey naturally resists spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. One central reason lies in the enzyme glucose oxidase, which worker bees secrete from their hypopharyngeal glands.&nbsp;



When bees combine this enzyme with glucose in the nectar, it produces hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and water. The resulting hydrogen peroxide remains encased in the honey, helping lower its pH to levels unfavorable for bacterial growth.



Additionally, honey’s high sugar content and minimal water availability (i.e., low moisture) create an osmotic environment hostile to many microorganisms. These traits together form a potent natural defense that helps honey avoid quick spoilage, even when stored at room temperature for extended periods.



Still, honey’s acidity can vary according to seasonal flora and the particular flowers the bees visit. More than 300 honey varieties exist around the world, each uniquely shaped by local botanical and environmental factors.&nbsp;



In the United States alone, one can find distinct honeys like buckwheat honey in the Midwest or citrus blossom honey in Florida and southern California.&nbsp;



Globally, the famed Manuka honey originates from Leptospermum scoparium flowers in New Zealand and Australia and is celebrated for its heightened antibacterial effects, often attributed to methylglyoxal (MGO).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medicinal-properties-of-honey">Medicinal properties of honey</h2>



Manuka honey is one of the most researched types, largely due to the presence of MGO, which is formed from dihydroxyacetone (DHA) in Manuka flower nectar.&nbsp;



Studies suggest that Manuka honey is more potent against certain bacteria, like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, than generic honeys. However, evidence shows that various constituents of Manuka honey, including hydrogen peroxide and an osmotic effect, work together to amplify its antimicrobial strength.



While Manuka honey has garnered attention for wound care and infection control, clinical research on its effectiveness for broader health issues - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut health</a>, diabetes, or cancer - remains limited.&nbsp;



A few clinical trials point to Manuka honey’s potential to ease throat discomfort in chemotherapy patients, but these studies have not conclusively shown that honey surpasses existing treatments.&nbsp;



Further investigations are needed to determine whether honey’s properties can be harnessed reliably in mainstream healthcare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-benefits-and-safety">Balancing benefits and safety</h2>



One key distinction in honey is whether it’s raw or pasteurized. Raw honey undergoes minimal filtration and retains more of its natural microbes, including pollen particles and other hive components.&nbsp;



Some argue this confers extra health advantages, like enhanced antioxidant and probiotic qualities. However, raw honey also poses allergy risks to individuals sensitive to pollen or bee-derived proteins.



Pasteurized honey, processed at high temperatures to lower its microbial load, can be safer in terms of minimizing fermentation or spoilage. Yet pasteurization may also reduce honey’s beneficial enzymes and microbes, potentially lessening any therapeutic qualities.&nbsp;



Regardless of processing, improper honey storage - especially exposure to moisture, heat, or air - can trigger spoilage or microbial growth, underscoring the need for careful handling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-consumption-risks">Honey consumption risks</h2>



While honey is generally considered safe, one well-known concern is the presence of Clostridium botulinum spores. Though relatively rare, these spores can produce a potent neurotoxin that induces botulism, a serious condition marked by muscle weakness and possible paralysis.&nbsp;



Infants under one year old are particularly vulnerable because their developing digestive tracts are ill-equipped to counteract C. botulinum spores. Consequently, pediatric and public health guidelines strongly advise against giving honey to infants less than 12 months of age.&nbsp;



Although botulism risk in older children and adults is minimal, the possibility of contamination underscores the importance of following storage and processing recommendations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-s-role-in-health-and-research">Honey’s role in health and research</h2>



As scientists deepen their understanding of honey’s chemistry and the interplay of its microbial inhabitants, possibilities emerge for broader applications.&nbsp;



Honey’s mix of sugars, enzymes, and natural compounds could prove relevant in addressing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-resistant</a> infections, improving wound healing, and perhaps even aiding in metabolic or gastrointestinal disorders. However, robust, large-scale clinical trials remain necessary to confirm many of these potential benefits.



Still, anecdotal evidence and limited studies already support honey’s use in alleviating mild conditions, like sore throats or minor cuts. Traditional medicine in many cultures has leveraged honey’s soothing properties for centuries.&nbsp;



Modern science is now trying to define these uses more precisely, distinguishing home remedies from evidence-based healthcare solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spectrum-of-varieties">A spectrum of varieties</h2>



Honey is incredibly diverse, owing to factors like bee species, local flora, and environmental conditions. Orange blossom honey from Florida, for example, differs not only in taste from avocado honey in California or buckwheat honey in New York, but also in antioxidant capacity and potential microbial composition.&nbsp;



Globally, Manuka honey remains the most studied, but dozens of specialty honeys in various regions hold cultural and medicinal significance, reflecting how nature’s subtleties shape each batch.



Understanding this variety can guide consumers seeking specific flavors or purported health benefits. It can also inform researchers studying how different nectar sources yield distinct antimicrobial or antioxidant properties in honey, potentially expanding its role in food science and medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-honey-s-future-as-a-resource">Looking ahead: Honey’s future as a resource</h2>



Honey stands as an intriguing intersection of biology, chemistry, ecology, and culinary art. While marketed primarily as a sweetener, its composition reveals a wealth of complex interactions among sugars, enzymes, microbes, and floral compounds.&nbsp;



These interactions contribute to honey’s distinctive flavor profiles, antimicrobial resilience, and prospective therapeutic potential.



Ongoing research into honey’s properties - including how it fights certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intestinal-bacteria-could-help-you-live-a-very-long-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, whether it can bolster wound healing, and its broader impact on human health - reflects a growing recognition of nature’s capacity to inspire and innovate.&nbsp;



As studies become more rigorous, honey’s status in modern integrative medicine and food science may continue to rise, provided that researchers address the gaps and ensure consumer safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-as-a-natural-marvel-nbsp">Honey as a natural marvel&nbsp;</h2>



Honey’s enduring popularity stems not only from its sweet taste but also from the remarkable benefits attributed to it over centuries of traditional use.&nbsp;



Contemporary investigations highlight how honey’s microbial makeup, enzymatic processes, and sugar chemistry coalesce to create a product that is both delicious and potentially health-affirming.&nbsp;



Although definitive scientific consensus on many of honey’s medical applications remains elusive, its low-risk nature and storied past suggest that honey will continue to delight and possibly heal.



By bridging knowledge from microbiology, beekeeping, environmental science, and clinical research, scientists stand poised to uncover additional facets of honey’s significance.&nbsp;



Whether stirred into tea or considered for more formal therapeutic roles, honey’s multifaceted profile ensures that it remains a subject of fascination in culinary, cultural, and medical contexts.



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Nature's sweet remedy: Honey is a microbial marvel

Honey, often described as “liquid gold,” has captivated civilizations for millennia. Long prized for its sweetness, it has also been used in diverse cultures and traditions to soothe sore throats, support wound healing, and even address infections.&nbsp; While honey’s anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties have earned it a place in both kitchens and home remedies, questions remain about the science behind these claims.&nbsp; What exactly gives honey its therapeutic potential, and how do the microorganisms within it influence its benefits and safety? The microbiology of honey When...

Palaeospondylus gunni is a mysterious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-fossils-provide-new-insight-into-the-origins-of-teeth/">fish</a>-like fossil vertebrate discovered in 1890 in Scotland. This small animal with an eel-like body lived approximately 390 million years ago, in the Middle Devonian period. Its strange set of morphological features, including a lack of teeth and dermal bones in the fossil record, has made it one of the most enigmatic fossil vertebrates.&nbsp;



Although its phylogenetic position has remained unclear for over a century since its discovery, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> and the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> (ANU) has now managed to classify the specimen, arguing that it is most likely one of the earliest ancestors of tetrapods (four-limbed animals).



“This strange animal has baffled scientists since its discovery in 1890 as a puzzle that’s been impossible to solve. Morphological comparisons of this animal have always been extremely challenging for scientists,” said study co-author Yuzhi Hu, an expert in early vertebrate evolution at ANU.



“However, recent improvements in high resolution 3D segmentation and visualization have made this previously impossible task possible. Finding a specimen as well preserved as the ones we used is like winning the lottery, or even better!”



Due to its cartilaginous skeleton and the absence of paired appendages, Palaeospondylus gunni is most likely a member of Sarcopterygii, a group of lobed-finned fishes which are considered to be the evolutionary ancestors of tetrapods – a superclass including amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. These findings could help scientists unlock a variety of unknown morphological features and evolutionary history of four-limbed animals.



However, according to Dr. Hu, it is still hard to accurately determine what this strange animal was, as well as its position on the evolutionary tree. “Even with this new information, long-lasting investigations with the joint effort of scientists from around the world is needed to give us the perfect answer of what actually is&nbsp;Palaeospondylus gunni,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04781-3">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious fish-like fossil finally classified

Palaeospondylus gunni is a mysterious fish-like fossil vertebrate discovered in...

Biodiversity brings to mind coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-coral-reefs-crackle-with-the-sounds-of-busy-inhabitants/">reefs</a> or dense tropical forests. In each of these environments, there are a large number of species with a lot of interactions between them. These animals cooperate to watch for predators, prey on each other, and parasitize one another. Fishes hide among corals and monkeys climb trees - and both may eat from their shelters.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Species interactions and biodiversity seem to increase together, and previous studies suggest that the two are interdependent. However, the question of how species interactions are impacted by biodiversity has not been thoroughly investigated.



Now, a new study from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a> shows that although biodiversity increases with species interactions, the strength of these interactions decreases.



The strength of interactions among species can be measured in many different ways, with each technique yielding a different answer. Interaction strength is often used to predict stability and robustness within an ecosystem.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"The total interaction strength experienced by a single species is a limiting factor, resulting in weakened interspecific interactions in a high-diversity community," said study lead author Masayuki Ushio.



He suggested that the interaction capacity hypothesis can be used to explain this phenomenon. This theory suggests that biodiversity and network connectance are driven by the sum of interaction strength that an individual species gives and receives. Connectance is the number of interaction links between two species compared to the potential links.&nbsp;



"This phenomenon can provide mechanistic explanations for many observed ecological patterns in nature," said Ushio.



To test this hypothesis, the researchers constructed interaction networks using DNA that was collected from the environment of 1,197 species found on experimental rice plots. The data was then mathematically modeled to test the hypothesis.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The results of the analysis suggest that community diversity, interaction capacity and connectance are dependent on each other.&nbsp;



"Our meta-analysis of datasets on biodiversity suggests that the interaction capacity hypothesis might be applicable to a wide range of taxa and ecosystems," concluded Ushio.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does biodiversity affect species interactions

Biodiversity brings to mind coral reefs or dense tropical forests....

The pink sea fan is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-found-in-soft-corals-could-be-used-to-treat-cancer/">soft coral</a> living in shallow waters from the western Mediterranean to the northwest of Ireland and the southwest of England and Wales. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found that, as global temperatures rise, this species is likely to spread northwards, including around the British coast. Since these corals are currently categorized as vulnerable by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN), the experts’ findings could be used to identify priority areas to protect pink sea fan populations.&nbsp;



Pink sea fans, as many other octocoral species, are ecologically important because they add complexity to reef systems and support aquatic biodiversity, particularly when they form dense “forests.” Moreover, they can also be used as broader indicators of ecosystem health, since fragmented or degraded colonies may be a sign of degraded environments.&nbsp;



“We built models to predict the current and future (2081-2100) habitat of pink sea fans across an area covering the Bay of Biscay, the British Isles, and southern Norway,” said study lead author Tom Jenkins, a research scientist at the University of Exeter. “The model predictions revealed current areas of suitable habitat beyond the current northern range limits of the pink sea fan, in areas where colonies have not yet been observed.” &nbsp;



According to Dr. Jenkins, it is not clear why pink sea fans have not yet colonized these areas, although insufficient dispersal of their larvae and high competition between species for habitats and resources could play a significant role.



“Our future predictions, using a high-emissions global warming scenario called <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-the-high-emissions-rcp8-5-global-warming-scenario/">RCP 8.5</a>, revealed an increase in suitable habitat for pink sea fans to the north of its current range – so the species could spread northwards by 2100,” he added. “We also found that existing habitat across south-west Britain, the Channel Islands and northwest France is predicted to remain suitable for this species over the next 60-80 years.”



These findings highlight the complex impact of global warming on marine ecosystems. “In a rapidly changing mosaic of habitats, some species – typically those favoring warmer conditions – may come out as short-term ‘winners’,” said study co-author Jamie Stevens, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Exeter. “How long these species can continue to expand and benefit in the face of accelerated warming remains to be seen.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13509">PeerJ</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pink sea fan corals are resilient to climate change

The pink sea fan is a soft coral living in...

Climate change is having a negative impact on many animals all around the world. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> has found that one species may in fact benefit from warming temperatures: rattlesnakes. Since they are cold-blooded animals, rattlesnakes prefer higher temperatures. Thus, a warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-u-s-corn-belt-will-take-a-hard-hit-from-climate-change/">climate</a> could make them spend less time hibernating and more being out in the wilderness.&nbsp;



Although rattlesnakes live in every state in the continental United States, they are most commonly found in the southwest. They are relatively reserved reptiles that mostly avoid confrontation with humans. However, when threatened, they often curl into striking position and begin rattling their tail before attacking. According to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/snakes/default.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), between 7,000 and 8,000 people are bitten by venomous snakes every year, with about five deaths over this timespan. Even if rarely fatal, rattlesnake bites can leave lasting marks, with 10 to 44 percent of people bitten developing long-lasting injuries, such as losing the ability to use their extremities.



These snakes prefer body temperatures of 86 to 89 degrees Fahrenheit – much higher than those found in nature. Moreover, rattlesnakes living in hotter climates seem to be larger and more robust than those living in colder regions. “They’re&nbsp;existing in temperatures cooler than what they would want to be at&nbsp;in a perfect world,” said study lead author Hayley Crowell, a doctoral student in Thermal Ecology at the University of Michigan. “If there’s a couple degree increase in climate,&nbsp;these snakes, from a physiology standpoint, might&nbsp;be happier because it’s closer to their preferred body temperature.”



Thus, if temperatures continue to rise due to climate change, the rattlesnakes’ hibernation period could end earlier in the spring, and they could be active much later in the autumn than they previously used to be. However, even if these creatures seem to benefit from warmer temperatures, they may face some negative effects too, such as low availability of prey and water, and increased risk of exposure to wildfires.



As Crowell explained though, since rattlesnakes have lower metabolisms than other animals, they do not need a lot of food to survive. “A&nbsp;rattlesnake can totally survive just on one or two big ground squirrels a year if it needed to,” she said, suggesting that, overall, climate change will mostly benefit these venomous creatures.



Luckily, Crowell argued, there is no need to panic: more rattlesnake activity will not mean “a giant boom of millions of more rattlesnakes.” Instead, they will only be noticed more frequently. Most probably, she concluded, the annual number of bites will not rise drastically.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.7649">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rattlesnakes may benefit from climate change

Climate change is having a negative impact on many animals...

All <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-animals-can-evolve-faster-than-previously-thought/">animals</a> need survival skills, and one critical skill for mice is finding the quickest route to safety. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.sainsburywellcome.org/web/">Sainsbury Wellcome Centre</a> at UCL wanted to know how mice decide on the best route to safety when they are in a new environment.



Study co-author Tiago Branco explained why this experiment differs from previous studies. “In many neuroscience studies, mice are trained to solve complex mazes and are given lots of time to learn how to do so. But in nature, mice do not have that luxury – when faced with threat, they must escape to shelter as quickly as possible. The question is how do mice learn this very quickly, without the opportunity of trial and error.”&nbsp;



To answer this question, the neuroscientists presented two or three routes back to a shelter and exposed mice to simulated threats. Then they blocked the most direct route and watched to see which path the animals would choose. The experts found that the mice preferred the shortest way to shelter.



Next, the team analyzed the inexperienced mice encountering a threat for the first time. Surprisingly, the researchers discovered that these individuals preferred the shortest route after exploring their surroundings for only 10 minutes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Mice are predated on by many species and so for a mouse it’s very important to know how to escape to safety," explained Branco. "If you put a mouse in a new environment, its priority is to map out space and figure out how to get to a safe place. This is in the natural repertoire of the mouse’s behavior and does not have to be explicitly instructed.”



The experts ascertained that mice can discover the shortest route by exploring their environment and assuming the best path to safety. This Is known as an innate heuristic, meaning that mice have evolved neural circuits that facilitate making intrinsic choices after exploring their environment.



“Animals are very good at learning about the things that matter to them," explained Branco. "To understand the mouse brain and the algorithms and neural circuits that support learning, it is important to look at the behaviours that the mouse has evolved to do and the constraints that they are under to learn fast and efficiently.”



The researchers look forward to exploring other questions about how animals make choices based on expectations. They also believe their findings will prove useful in the area of rapid learning research.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mice make it a priority to find the best escape route

All animals need survival skills, and one critical skill for...

Coral reefs have complex soundscapes – created by fish and other creatures living there - which can be used by scientists to measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diversity-abundance-coral-reef-health/">coral health</a>. However, traditional acoustic surveys of reefs rely on labor-intensive methods which face significant difficulties in assessing reef health through the use of individual recordings.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has trained a computer algorithm using multiple recordings of both healthy and degraded reefs, allowing the machine to learn the difference. When fed new data, this algorithm was able to successfully identify reef health 92 percent of the time. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Coral reefs are facing multiple threats including climate change, so monitoring their health and the success of conservation projects is vital,” said study lead author Ben Williams, a doctoral student in Soundscape Ecology at the University of Exeter. “One major difficulty is that visual and acoustic surveys of reefs usually rely on labor-intensive methods. Visual surveys are also limited by the fact that many reef creatures conceal themselves, or are active at night, while the complexity of reef sounds has made it difficult to identify reef health using individual recordings.”



The scientists’ approach to this problem was to use machine learning in order to train computers to learn “the song of the reef.” Their findings suggest that computers can pick up patterns that are undetectable to the human ear, which they can use to faster and more accurately assess reef health. While the meaning of many individual calls of reef inhabitants remains unknown, this new method can nevertheless distinguish between the overall sounds of healthy and unhealthy reefs.



“This is a really exciting development,” said study co-author Timothy Lamont, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a>. “Sound recorders and AI could be used around the world to monitor the health of reefs, and discover whether attempts to protect and restore them are working.”



“In many cases it’s easier and cheaper to deploy an underwater hydrophone on a reef and leave it there than to have expert divers visiting the reef repeatedly to survey it – especially in remote locations,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X22004575?via%3Dihub">Ecological Indicators</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coral reef health can be measured through sound

Coral reefs have complex soundscapes – created by fish and...

A new study led by the <a href="https://en.uniss.it/">University of Sassari</a> (UNISS) in Italy has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bottlenose-dolphins-struggle-with-weight-in-their-40s/">bottlenose dolphins</a>’ signature whistles, which they use to identify one another, are strongly influenced by where they live, and by the size of their local population. 



Although these whistles are unique to each individual animal, the experts discovered that their acoustic features are structured to a certain degree by dolphins’ local habitats and communities – a phenomenon similar to the development of regional accents in humans.



&nbsp;“Even if the bottlenose dolphin is among the most studied species of Cetacean, many aspects of their ecology and behavior are still unknown,” said study lead author Gabriella La Manna, a marine biologist at UNISS.&nbsp;



“Given how quickly human activities are changing the oceans, it is important to understand the environmental and socio-behavioral factors that allow animals to adapt to their environment.”&nbsp;



The scientists investigated the whistling habits of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in six geographically distinct populations in the Mediterranean Sea. By analyzing 188 hours of recorded sounds, they mapped variations in acoustic features such as duration and changes in pitch, and identified 168 signature whistles. The analysis revealed that the local ocean environment and population size had a significant effect on the whistles’ acoustic features.



For instance, signature whistles in areas with sea grass, such as Port Cros or Lampedusa, were higher pitched and shorter in length compared to those of dolphins living in areas with muddy sea floors. Moreover, among small dolphin populations like those from the Gulf of Corinth, the whistles had more changes in pitch than among larger populations. These findings suggest that bottlenose dolphins develop signature whistles that are best suited to their local habitats (the so-called “acoustic adaptation hypothesis”).



“I would like people to reflect on the importance of the acoustic environment in which dolphins live for the development and maintenance of their communication,” said Dr. La Manna.&nbsp;“Human activities, such as commercial shipping and nautical traffic, can severely affect this fundamental aspect of dolphins’ life.”



Further research is needed to clarify why certain environmental features influence in specific ways dolphins’ signature whistles, and to assess what impact anthropogenic factors have on these animals’ behavior and social communication.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-10920-7#Sec2">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dolphins have "accents" that vary by region

A new study led by the University of Sassari (UNISS)...

Social power among animal species has usually been characterized as being either male or female dominated. However, a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2022.04.004">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a> argues that such a binary understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inequality-among-animals-can-shed-light-on-social-evolution/">inequality</a> in the degree of control or power that members of one sex exert over members of the other sex is too simplistic, failing to properly characterize the complex distribution of power between sexes.&nbsp;



The experts propose a new framework for assessing dominance, which places each species on a continuum, ranging from strict male to strict female dominance.&nbsp;



“Progress in this area has long been hampered by a binary vision of power asymmetries between the sexes, where most species were dominated by males and female dominance was anecdotal. This simplistic view has been reinforced by stereotypes that researchers carry because of the society in which they live and then unconsciously project onto the animals they're studying," explained study senior author Elise Huchard, a behavioral ecologist at the <a href="https://isem-evolution.fr/en/">Institute of Evolutionary Science of Montpellier</a> (ISEM).



According to Dr. Huchard, the distribution of power between the sexes has not been properly quantified in previous studies. By providing a comprehensive definition of intersexual power, together with a framework to measure it across various animal species, the researchers argued that each species could be placed on a continuum from strict male dominance to strict female dominance, so that hypotheses regarding how females or males can empower themselves can be better assessed.



While for males, the path to power seems rather simple and straightforward, involving physical dominance and coercion, for females the methods of establishing social power are more diverse, involving physiological, morphological, behavioral, and socio-ecological routes.&nbsp;



In the case of species where females are dominant, such as bonobos, hyenas, or lemurs, reproductive control (control over when and with which partners to mate) appears to be the main strategy for securing power. This comes in the form of resistance to mating, promiscuity, or even, in the case of hyenas, the evolution of genitals designed specifically for females to control fertilization.



“We hope that this framework will be used to quantify intersexual power in reproductive and social contexts and to facilitate the study and comparison of intersexual power relationships across mammalian societies, perhaps even including humans,” the authors concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Power between the sexes has not been properly quantified

Social power among animal species has usually been characterized as...

Strong friendships between males aren’t very common in the animal kingdom. Instead, males typically compete among themselves for access to females. In some special circumstances though, male friendships can help with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-molecule-makes-animals-switch-from-eating-to-mating/">mating</a> success. In fact, some manakins depend on males working together to attract females with elaborate cooperative mating displays.&nbsp;



Among other animals, such as baboons, male friends can help each other rise in social status or defend females from another male, which promotes mating success.&nbsp;



Now, researchers from the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/home.html">German Primate Center (DPZ) Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a> looked into the benefits of male friendships among wild Guinea baboons in Senegal. These baboons are known for strong male social bonds but lack of a clear male hierarchy.



Among these baboons, the core social groups are made of one male with one to six females and their offspring, with the male typically fathering all of the offspring. The females choose a male freely and stay with him for a few weeks to several years. There are also bachelor males who are not usually sexually active. Several of these core groups along with bachelor males make up a “gang” of baboons.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists wanted to know if male baboons with more friends attracted more females due to the possibility of greater levels of protection for the females and their offspring. Contrary to the hypothesis, males with more friends were not more attractive.&nbsp;



The study revealed that males also spent less time with their male friends once they started spending time with a female and especially when they fathered offspring. Males still maintained some friendships, but just adjusted the amount of time they spent with those friends.&nbsp;



To carry out the research, Federica Dal Pesco and her colleagues collected four years of field data. The experts observed the behavior of 30 males and determined paternity of 50 young.&nbsp;



"Contrary to our predictions, we found no evidence that male-male sociality was linked to higher reproductive success. Instead, we observed a strong negative relationship between bond strength and male reproductive success (i.e. number of associated females and paternities)," explained the study authors. "Guinea baboon males that were associated with a higher number of females spent less time affiliating with other males.&nbsp;



"While a number of now classic studies reported a positive relationship between sociality and reproductive success in both males and females across several mammalian and bird species, our results indicate that male-male sociality need not directly translate into increased short-term reproductive success. Instead, males that invest time and energy in relationships with females, at the expense of relationships with males, have the highest reproductive success."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male baboons invest more time in relationships with females

Strong friendships between males aren’t very common in the animal...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-cannot-maintain-an-energetic-lifestyle-at-high-altitudes/">Birds</a> that hunt their prey during the night need special adaptations in order to allow them to see in low light conditions and to judge the distance to obstacles in their flight path as well as the distance to their prey. Although these adaptations have been relatively well studied in nocturnal birds such as owls and nightjars, they have not been investigated in the world’s only nocturnal hawk, the letter-winged kite (Elanus scriptus).



Although some species of hawks (Accipitriformes) and falcons (Falconiformes) can hunt at dusk, the letter-winged kite is the only species that is primarily active at dusk and at night. It inhabits the arid central regions of Australia, avoiding settled areas and towns. This habitat preference, along with the species’ nocturnal activity pattern and nomadic movements, makes&nbsp;E. scriptus&nbsp;rather difficult to observe in the wild.



In the past, there has been speculation that the species is more like an owl than a hawk because it appears to have unusually large eyes that face forwards. Some have suggested that the soft tissues of the eyes resemble those of nocturnal birds more than diurnal species, including the other Australian Elanus species, the black-shouldered kite (Elanus axillaris).&nbsp;



Birds that hunt their prey during the night often show specialized adaptations to their visual systems and skeletons. These anatomical changes include large orbits to accommodate eyes with large retinas that contain many photoreceptors. The eye of a nocturnal raptor also usually has a relatively small optic foramen, the hole in the skull through which the optic nerve travels to the brain. Certain areas of the brain of a nocturnal raptor may also be enlarged to facilitate detailed processing and interpretation of the images received by the eyes.



An international study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has now tested the speculation about the letter-winged kite’s adaptations using computed tomography (CT) scanning techniques to obtain high-resolution images from three specimens, along with 27 other raptor skulls. The skulls, all of which were sourced from museums within Australia, came from 16 raptor species in total, 12 of which belong to the Accipitriformes (hawks, eagles and kites) and the remaining three to the Falconiformes (falcons). The images were used to measure and compare eye socket characteristics, such as the orbit diameter and the optic foramen diameter.&nbsp;



“Letter-winged kites hunt at night and must be able to navigate obstacles in the dark while tracking down their favorite prey, the long-tailed rat,” said Professor Vera Weisbecker. “It has therefore long been speculated that their visual system shows adaptations for seeing in the dark, and particularly that they are similar to owls in having larger eyes than other hawks, and larger image processing centers in the brain.”



Dr. Karine Mardon is an experts in The National Imaging Facility at the University of Queensland Centre for Advanced Imaging. Dr. Mardon scanned the skulls of the birds of prey included in the study, and the researchers then compared 3D reconstructions of the letter-winged kite skulls and brains with those of the other birds of prey.



The results of the analysis revealed that things are not as clear as night and day. There was no difference in the relationship between the orbit and optic foramen diameters for the nocturnal&nbsp;letter-winged kite and its diurnal congeners, the black-winged kite (Elanus caeruleus) and the black-shouldered kite (Elanus axillaris). Elanine kites, as a whole, seem to have relatively large orbit diameters, but relatively small optic foramina compared to other species.



“Contrary to many anecdotal reports, the dimensions of the eye of letter-winged kites were no different to two closely related kites from the same genus – the black-shouldered and the black-winged kites,” said study lead author Aubrey Keirnan, a PhD student in Dr. Weisbecker's lab.



“But there was a twist in the story: we realized that all three kite species had larger orbits relative to their optic foramen, the hole in the back of orbit that the optic nerve passes through. This is often seen in nocturnal birds, where a small number of nerves relay a lot of input from the eye into a high-contrast, low-resolution image.”



“This suggests all&nbsp;Elanus&nbsp;kites may be pretty good at seeing in the dark and not too good at seeing in daylight – but for some reason, only the letter-winged kite has made the move into a nocturnal lifestyle."



According to Dr Weisbecker, this might also explain many reports that the letter-winged kite is particularly active during moonlit nights: “It might not actually be very good at flying in the total dark, unlike many owls.”



The study was co-led by Dr. Andrew Iwaniuk from the University of Lethbridge in Canada. He noted that the use of anatomical observations to infer the species’ behavior was an innovative approach to understanding a bird that is notoriously difficult to observe in the wild.



“The species lives in remote, arid Australia, avoids human settlements and is highly elusive. Population estimates vary between 670 and 6,700 individuals according to the IUCN, and it is currently listed as near-threatened. To conserve the species, it is critical that we understand its behavioral needs and capabilities, but they are extremely difficult to observe," said Dr. Iwaniuk.



“We are extremely lucky to have Australia’s amazing museum collections at our disposal to help us understand this bird without the need to find and disturb the species. For example, the letter-winged kite, and its relatives, might be impacted differently by artificial light sources than other hawks."



Dr. Jeroen Smaers of Stony Brook University said the research perfectly exemplifies how studying variation across many species enlightens our understanding of individual species - an approach that is starting to show its contributions to animal conservation.



“Our work on the letter-winged kite is really just the beginning," said Keirnan. "Our measurements showed that many other birds of prey are quite unique in one aspect or other of their visual system. I am excited to spend my PhD on delving further into how measurement of the visual system can help in the understanding and management of other birds.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.220135">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The world’s only nocturnal hawk may not see well in the dark

Birds that hunt their prey during the night need special...

Tree hyraxes are non-descript, mid-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-change-their-schedules-to-adapt-to-city-life/">mammals</a> that wake after dark in the canopies of Tropical African forests. Because they’re a shy nocturnal mammal living high in trees, little has been discovered about their behavior.&nbsp;



Now, experts at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> are using new techniques to try and understand tree hyrax behavior in the Taita Hills of Kenya.&nbsp;



"Many aspects of tree hyrax ecology remain very poorly known. They are known to mainly feed on leaves of woody plants," wrote the study authors.&nbsp; "Tree hyraxes thus depend on trees for food, but they also utilize den trees for shelter, and dense canopy also allows easy movement between trees."&nbsp;



"Tree hyraxes are thought to be mainly solitary animals that maintain social relationships by calling and scent-marking signals. They are highly vocal and calling seems to be their primary means of communication."



Using thermal imaging cameras, the researchers were able to observe hyrax social behavior - something never before seen. The study also revealed what plants they especially enjoyed eating and where they hid for shelter.



In addition to thermal imaging cameras, automated acoustic recorders captured hyrax vocalizations. Besides being able to record data on interactions between the animals, these recordings allowed scientists to estimate a population for the first time.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“In small forest patches, the calls of tree hyraxes were rarely heard, and only in the early hours of the morning. These few surviving animals are making every effort to avoid detection and the attention of potential poachers,” said Hanna Rosti, who has long studied tree hyraxes.



Armed with their new data, the scientists estimate that there are only 2,000 to 4,000 hyraxes in the Taita Hills area where they conducted their research. This information is important for conservation of the hyrax. The scientists hope that the study will also have positive implications for tree hyraxes throughout Africa.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The results acquired through this research will move tree hyrax conservation significantly forward, not only in Taita Hills but also in other parts of Africa," said Professor Jouko Rikkinen.



"The methods used can also be applied to other nocturnal animals that are difficult to get close to."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New clues about the secretive lives of tree hyraxes

Tree hyraxes are non-descript, mid-sized mammals that wake after dark...

While millions of years ago, all mammals lived on land, at one point, some species such as seals and whales left land and evolved to live in the sea. Since underwater, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-device-identifies-mosquitoes-using-only-sound/">sound</a> is a more reliable sensory cue than vision, it is not surprising that aquatic species have developed auditory organs that are more efficient in processing underwater sounds than the hearing apparatuses of terrestrial mammals, including humans.&nbsp;Surprisingly though, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a> has found that, in some cases, humans can hear as well as seals underwater.&nbsp;



Since the 1950s, scientists have made various attempts to measure human hearing underwater. The U.S. Military, for instance, had an interest in understanding how divers are affected by underwater explosions, so they directed a significant amount of funding to clarify this issue. However, subjects were generally tested with diving equipment on, including neoprene caps or air-filled diving masks, which can affect their hearing.&nbsp;



“Common to all these scientific studies is that they all find hearing thresholds [the sound levels below which the auditory system is unable to detect any sound] that are higher than the thresholds we have found in our new study,” said study co-author Jakob Christensen-Dalsgaard, an expert in animal hearing at SDU.



By measuring the underwater hearing thresholds of seven participants, the experts found that the average threshold was 71 dB at a frequency of 500 Hz.&nbsp;



“It is 26 dB lower than hypothesized in previous studies, so we must conclude that humans hear significantly better underwater than previously reported by science. In fact, the threshold at 500 Hz is in line with how well animals such as cormorants and seals hear underwater,” said&nbsp; Dr. Christensen-Dalsgaard.



While previous studies hypothesized that human hearing underwater is mediated by bone conduction, with sound waves causing vibrations in the skull, this new study argues that resonance in the enclosed air in the middle ear actually amplifies the sound and makes the ear more sensitive – a phenomenon common to cormorants, turtles, and frogs too.



However, the sense of hearing is not only about being able to pick up sounds, but also about determining the direction of the sound – which, for humans, remains very difficult underwater.&nbsp;



“In air we can determine the sound direction within a few degrees, but in water there is an up to 90 degrees error margin. This is not so strange, because we are trained to react to the small time differences between the ears, which are due to the speed of sound in air. In water, the speed of sound is four times greater, and the time differences are much smaller,” explained Dr. Christensen-Dalsgaard.&nbsp;



“The results tell us that humans have a reduced ability to determine the direction of sounds underwater, thus confirming that human hearing is not adapted to work well underwater,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2022.108484">Hearing Research</a>.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can humans hear as well as seals underwater?

While millions of years ago, all mammals lived on land,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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