A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. 



The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-sightings-on-the-rise">Rat sightings on the rise</h2>



The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat</a> sightings have increased in recent years. 



Based on individual city trends, Washington D.C. led the pack, followed by San Francisco, Toronto, New York City, and Amsterdam. According to the study, the rat reporting trend in Washington D.C. was three times greater than that of Boston. 



Only three cities - New Orleans, Louisville, and Tokyo - experienced significant decreases in rat reports, with New Orleans showing the largest drop. The experts suggest that New Orleans’ strategies could serve as a model for other cities seeking to control rat populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-drivers-of-rat-population-growth">Key drivers of rat population growth </h2>



The research team performed statistical analyses of rat sighting reports and concluded that a little over 40% of the rising trend is due to warming temperatures. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> is primarily a result of burning coal, oil, and natural gas, which leads to milder winters and longer foraging periods for rats. 



Study lead author Jonathan Richardson, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Richmond</a>, explained the mechanism.



“We're seeing these increasing trends in rats in cities that are warming the fastest, probably because this is a small mammal that has physiological challenges in the cold weather months,” said Richardson.&nbsp;



“If we're warming the climate and winter starts a week or two later and spring arrives a week or two earlier, that's one, two, maybe even three or four weeks across the entire year where those rats can be above ground foraging, acquiring more food and maybe squeezing out one or two more reproductive cycles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-higher-population-density">Urbanization and higher population density </h2>



Even a few extra weeks of activity can have a dramatic effect, given that female rats can produce a litter every month. With each litter consisting of eight to 16 pups, this additional time significantly accelerates population growth.



In addition to the effects of warming, the study identified increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and higher population densities as major factors. Rats thrive in built environments where food waste is abundant and human activity creates numerous shelters.&nbsp;



The experts note that these conditions allow rats to flourish in areas where people and their refuse provide a constant source of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-nature-s-ultimate-urban-survivors">Rats: Nature’s ultimate urban survivors</h2>



Rats have evolved to be remarkably adaptive in urban settings. New York City rat czar Kathleen Corradi stated during a conference that the rat is the third most successful mammal behind humans and house mice. So it evolved and engineered to live alongside us.&nbsp;



“They followed humans, Homo sapiens, across the continents and are in every single continent except Antarctica. So it's considered a wicked problem.”



Their ability to adapt and survive in close proximity to humans explains why rat populations are expanding even as cities implement various control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-rising-rat-populations">Consequences of rising rat populations</h2>



While rats are undeniably adaptable, their increasing numbers pose serious risks. When rodent populations soar, public health and urban infrastructure can suffer. 



"When rodent populations are high, people get sick, motor vehicles become disabled, mental health declines, fires are started and foods fouled," said Houston rat expert Michael Parsons, who was not involved in the study.



This statement captures the multifaceted impact of rat infestations. High rat populations can lead to increased transmission of diseases, disruption of transportation systems, and other societal challenges. 



People are understandably disturbed by rats, primarily due to an instinctive fear of creatures that can transmit disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-city-rats">Quantifying city rats</h2>



Rats are notoriously difficult to count accurately due to their secretive and elusive nature. The study did not count rats directly; instead, it analyzed rat sighting complaints submitted by city residents. 



Although these reports may not reflect the actual number of rats, they provide valuable insight into trends over time. Richardson emphasized that the long-term consistency of the reporting methods used in the study lends credibility to the observed trends.



Even though Washington D.C. exhibited the highest rate of increase, Richardson clarified that this does not necessarily mean the city has the most rats overall - it simply indicates that the number of rat complaints is rising faster than in other cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-over-poison">Prevention over poison</h2>



The study's findings suggest that traditional methods of rat control, such as poisoning and trapping, may not be sufficient to combat the escalating problem. 



Instead, prevention measures appear to be more effective. In cities like New Orleans, public authorities are taking proactive steps. 



For instance, educational workshops and community campaigns focus on reducing conditions that attract rats, such as improper waste management and excess food availability.



“In New Orleans they make a big effort to get out into neighborhoods and do educational workshops and campaigns to talk to residents about what makes a property less likely to have rats,” Richardson said.



Similarly, New York City has initiated innovative strategies, including replacing street garbage bags with rat-resistant containers and forming an elite volunteer group known as the “NYC rat pack.” 



Early results from these initiatives are promising, although comprehensive data have yet to fully reflect their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-urban-challenge">A complex urban challenge</h2>



While it is possible to better manage rat populations through improved urban planning and public education, complete eradication is unrealistic. 



As <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> conservation scientist Neil Carter pointed out, we can fight them better, but in the end “people need to coexist with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-addresses-the-global-need-for-human-wildlife-coexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in urban environments, even with rats.”



“Zero rats is impossible," noted Richardson. “But I think an expectation that we need to live with the number of rats that we're seeing in many of these cities is also an unhealthy perspective on this problem.”



In conclusion, this study offers a critical, data-driven look at the complex factors driving rat population growth in urban environments. 



As cities continue to warm, expand, and densify, the challenge of managing rat populations will require innovative and sustainable approaches that focus on prevention and public awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads6782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Mary Altaffer



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Rat populations are increasing in cities as temperatures rise

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities. Rat sightings on the rise The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, rat sightings have increased in recent years.  Based on individual city...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> and the <a href="https://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/">South Australian Museum</a> has described the first fossil vulture discovered in Australia. Although the remains – discovered in 1901 in South Australia – were initially thought to belong to an eagle, new analyses have revealed that they are in fact the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-a-previously-unknown-mass-extinction-event/">fossils</a> of a prehistoric vulture (Cryptogyps lacertosus – meaning powerful hidden vulture) that lived in Australia during the late Pleistocene, between 500 and 50 thousand years ago.



“Today we’re familiar with a wedge-tailed eagle picking at a kangaroo carcass on the roadside.&nbsp;Thousands of years ago, a very different bird would have filled the role of carrion consumer – one most people would now associate with the plains of Africa,” said study lead author Ellen Mather, a paleontologist at Flinders University.



“We compared the fossil material to birds of prey from around the world, and it became clear right away that this bird was not adapted to being a hunter, and so was not a hawk or an eagle. The features of the lower leg bone are too underdeveloped to support the musculature needed for killing prey. When we placed&nbsp;Cryptogyps&nbsp;in an evolutionary tree, this confirmed our suspicions that the bird was a vulture, and we are very excited to finally publish on this species.”



This prehistoric bird shared the skies with wedge-tailed eagles during a period when enormous marsupial herbivores such as Diprotodon or fierce carnivores like the marsupial lion Thylacoleo also roamed parts of Australia. However, despite initial assumptions, the Cryptogyps was not an eagle, but an “Old world” vulture, a group previously unknown to have lived in Australia.



These findings reveal that the diversity of predatory birds was much greater in the past, and that the extinction of vultures has probably had major ecological implications.&nbsp;



“Vultures play a very important role in ecosystems by accelerating the consumption of carcasses and reducing the spread of diseases,” Dr. Mather explained. “The loss of&nbsp;Cryptogyps&nbsp;could have caused a drastic upheaval in ecosystem function for a very long time as other species scrambled to fill in its niche.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="about:blank">Zootaxa</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Oldest Australian vulture emerges from the fossil record

A team of researchers led by Flinders University and the...

A staggering 57 percent of threatened species need targeted recovery actions to survive, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a>. Governments around the world are currently negotiating a Global Biodiversity Framework that will outline goals and targets for saving nature. The plan is expected to be adopted by the end of 2022.&nbsp;



The study explored how the framework may potentially reduce the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-plants-are-facing-extinction-in-the-scottish-mountains/">extinction</a> of threatened species. The research project brought together leading ecology and conservation experts, including scientists from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), BirdLife International and a global network of universities.



While targets to expand protected areas or reduce pollution will benefit many species, 57 percent would still need targeted recovery actions. These actions include captive breeding in zoos, reintroduction into the wild, vaccination against disease, and other-specific interventions.



According to Professor Philip McGowan, many species will benefit from policies and actions designed to reduce threats from land- and sea-use change, overexploitation, pollution, and climate, but these alone will not remove the risk of extinction. "Now, we can identify the species that need such action, and we can monitor what is being done and what the impact of action is on those threatened species."



The research was based on the The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Of which, 7,784 species are listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered. The team considered the targets in the first draft of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity’s framework.



The study looked at the potential benefits of each target for each threatened species. Target 1 (on planning to retain existing intact ecosystems), Target 2 (on restoring degraded ecosystems and ensuring connectivity among them), and Target 3 (on protecting important areas for biodiversity) were found to benefit 95 percent of threatened species.



The team also found that these actions, and the remaining targets, still leave nearly 60 percent of threatened species (4,428) at risk of extinction.&nbsp;



“This research shows that we can’t stop species from going extinct just by protecting particular areas and addressing key threats: some species need dedicated efforts to help them recover," said study co-author Dr. Stuart Butchart, chief scientist at BirdLife International.



The findings highlight the critical importance for governments to implement conservation for unique plants and animals. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.esa.org/frontiers-in-ecology-and-the-environment/">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most threatened species need targeted action to survive

A staggering 57 percent of threatened species need targeted recovery...

Green crabs are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plants-are-taking-over-ohios-forests/">invasive</a> pests that arrived on merchant boats in the United States from Europe in the 19th century and have spread across the eastern U.S., particularly in New England. Since females can produce over 175,000 eggs over their lifetime, this species can rapidly overwhelm the environments in which they live, causing much damage to local ecosystems. 



To help reducing their numbers, <a href="http://tamworthdistilling.com/">Tamworth Distilling</a>, a New Hampshire distillery specializing in a variety of spirits, has found a surprising and innovative solution: they started to use crabs to produce green, crab-flavored whiskey.



“They are probably one of the most successful invasive species that we have in North America, at least in the marine world,” said Gabriela Brandt, a marine biologist and fisheries expert at the <a href="https://www.unh.edu/">University of New Hampshire</a>. “They can eat about 40 mussels a day, just one crab. And so you multiply that by a bazillion, and you have no more clams.”



According to Will Robinson, the distillery’s product developer, in order to make the “<a href="http://tamworthdistilling.com/spirits/crab-trapper/">Crab Trapper</a>” whiskey, the crabs are initially cleaned and prepared just like the crabs used for cooking. After creating a crab stock, the experts are distilling it using a vacuum still (a glass machine allowing for precise temperature control) and further mix it with spices such as mustard seeds, coriander, and cinnamon. In a final step, this substance is combined with a rich bourbon base.&nbsp;



“It looks like a crazy piece of laboratory equipment,” Robinson said. “It preserves the flavor and aroma molecules that would get destroyed if we were to boil it. People are going to hear crab whiskey, and I’d venture to say three-quarters of them are going to go, ‘No, absolutely not.’ But if you can get them to taste it, they totally change their tune for the most part.”&nbsp;



Since each bottle of whiskey contains about a pound of green crabs, one distillery alone will not make much of a dent in their enormous population. However, this creative initiative can help raise awareness about these pests and the magnitude of the damage they are causing, and perhaps give rise to other creative attempts to reduce their numbers.



In Professor Brand’s opinion, the whiskey is just the “hook” to get people informed. “And the more people hear about it, then we get more and more people who might have a really great, innovative idea that we haven’t touched upon,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Invasive crabs used to make whiskey in New Hampshire

Green crabs are invasive pests that arrived on merchant boats...

The trunk of an elephant contains tens of thousands of different muscles that work together to enable the animal to carry out a range of complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-the-movement-of-sea-lions-can-help-protect-them/">movements</a> from delicately retrieving a single small nut from the floor to stripping a giant tree of its branches and bark. New research adds to an understanding of this miraculous appendage by analyzing the way in which the folded skin helps telescope the trunk to its furthest extent.



The research from scientists at <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/">Georgia Institute of Technology</a>, and in collaboration with Zoo Atlanta, finds that an elephant’s trunk skin doesn’t stretch uniformly. The skin on the dorsal surface is significantly folded and more stretchy than the ventral skin, which is only wrinkled. The two sections begin to diverge when an elephant extends its trunk more than 10 percent of its length. When stretching for food or objects, the dorsal section of the trunk extends further forward than the ventral section does.&nbsp;&nbsp;



These findings are published&nbsp;in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>&nbsp;by the same Georgia Tech team that authored a&nbsp;study last summer about how elephants use their trunk muscles to inhale food and water.&nbsp;



“When people extend their tongue – a muscle-filled, boneless tissue similar in composition to an elephant’s trunk – it stretches uniformly. We expected the same when we challenged an elephant to reach for food,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.schulzscience.com/">Andrew Schulz</a>, the study’s lead author and a Ph.D. student in Georgia Tech’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.me.gatech.edu/">George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering</a>. He and the team filmed two African savanna elephants reaching for bran cubes and apples at Zoo Atlanta. &nbsp;



“But when we looked at our high-speed camera footage and plotted the trunk’s movements, we were surprised. The top and bottom weren’t the same at all,” Schulz said. &nbsp;



In order to understand how this was possible, Schulz made use of a dissected elephant and stretched it trunk to assess the skin’s elasticity. He found that the underside of the trunk has skin that is wrinkled while the dorsal skin has considerable folds, all the way from the head end to the far tip. This enables the dorsal skin to stretch 15 percent more than the ventral skin, and helps the elephant reach downwards to the ground, where most of its food will be found.&nbsp;



The researchers realized they weren’t just seeing muscle movement as the zoo elephant stretched its trunk on the video – they were also tracking the movement of a thick enclosing sheet of skin.&nbsp;



“Flexible skin folds are the elephant’s innovation,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.me.gatech.edu/faculty/hu">David Hu</a>, Schulz’s advisor and a professor in the Woodruff School and the&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.gatech.edu/">School of Biological Sciences</a>. “They protect the dorsal section and make it easier for the elephant to reach downward, the most common gripping style when picking up items.”



The researchers also identified another way in which an elephant’s trunk differs from other boneless, muscle-filled appendages found in nature, such as squid and octopus tentacles. Instead of extending evenly, an elephant first extends the tip section of its trunk, followed by the adjacent section, gradually working back towards its body.&nbsp;



This is reminiscent of how we extend the handle of a collapsible umbrella, telescopically pulling sections out after starting with the section closest to the umbrella itself. Schulz says the progressive movement of an elephant’s trunk from tip towards the base is intentional. “Elephants are like people: they’re lazy,” he said. “The section at the [tip] end of the trunk is 1 liter of muscle. The section closest to its mouth is 11–15 liters of muscle. An elephant will first stretch the [tip] end of its trunk, then the adjacent section, because [it’s] easier to move. If an elephant doesn’t have to work very hard to reach something, it won’t.”



Schulz said he had to rely on a drawing from 1908 when learning about trunk anatomy because scientists and engineers haven’t done much research on the biomechanics of elephants during the last century. In addition to gaining a better understanding of elephants, Schulz (who is a mechanical engineer) also sees applications for the knowledge in the field of soft robotics. Today’s soft robots are typically built for either strength or flexibility, but not for both. An elephant can manage both these functions with its trunk.&nbsp;



“Soft robotics created with biologically inspired design are always based on muscle movement. If they were wrapped with a protective skin, like an elephant’s muscle-filled trunk, the machines could apply larger forces,” he said. “Last year we learned that a trunk is a multi-purpose, muscular hydrostat. Now we know that skin is another tool at its disposal.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Skin folds give elephant trunks more flexibility

The trunk of an elephant contains tens of thousands of...

As the populations of living species decline and disappear from habitats around the world, there is a decrease in genetic variety and living biodiversity within species, within ecosystems and within geographical regions. This can have significant consequences for humans, who are dependent on the services provided by intact ecosystems. And a survey completed by the world’s biodiversity experts finds that things may be worse than we previously thought.



“Biodiversity loss is one of our biggest environmental challenges in the world, probably more important than climate change. The problem of climate change can be corrected by stopping the emission of more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. If you lose a species, it’s gone forever,” said Professor Johannes Knops, a researcher at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.xjtlu.edu.cn/en/">Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University</a>.



Professor Knops is one of more than 60 experts who have co-authored the major global study of biodiversity loss, recently published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2536">journal&nbsp;Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>. The researchers surveys from thousands of international scientists in the biodiversity field to identify knowledge gaps and assess the state of the world’s biodiversity from different geographical and demographic perspectives. The study aimed to understand biodiversity loss globally and the most influential factors driving this phenomenon.



The team included scientists from many different backgrounds, including those from groups that are often underrepresented in biodiversity science, such as women and those from the Global South. Despite these different backgrounds, there was an overwhelming consensus among participants that global biodiversity loss will likely limit the functioning of ecosystems and therefore affect the ways in which ecosystems support and contribute to people.



The findings suggest that more species may be threatened than previously thought. The experts estimate that since 1500, 30 percent of all species have been threatened with extinction or driven extinct. If current trends continue, this could increase to 37 percent by 2100. However, the experts also stress that with swift and extensive conservation efforts, this can be lowered to 25 percent.



The most influential factors driving biodiversity loss, according to the expert participants, are climate change, pollution, and land- and sea-use change and exploitation.&nbsp;



“Biodiversity loss occurs in many different places, and there are gaps in our common understanding of it. This collaboration can help us reach a consensus on where to make efforts to improve biodiversity,” said Professor Knops.



The inclusion of representatives from diverse backgrounds revealed differences in opinions about the extent of biodiversity loss and the best ways to conserve species future. This was particularly noticeable when discussing strategies for increasing biodiversity using the current approach of land sharing and land sparing.



“The land sharing strategy focuses on thinking about how agriculture and cities can co-exist with biodiversity, while the land sparing strategy expands the size of protected areas to increase biodiversity while maintaining intensive agricultural practices elsewhere,” explained Professor Knops.



“Historically, there has been a greater emphasis on land sparing and making nature reserves, which was put forth predominantly by North American and European white males. Women and people in China, South America and Africa, place more emphasis on land sharing. These findings suggest that maybe there's disproportionate focus on land sparing, and there should be more consideration of land sharing."



The experts encourage other researchers to use the study to understand the global perspectives on biodiversity loss and to include diverse viewpoints in future research.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Every species has its own food chain and needs to interact with other species in ecosystems, each of which is important to the ecosystem. That is why we should be concerned about biodiversity loss," said Professor Knops.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global biodiversity crisis is actually worse than we thought

As the populations of living species decline and disappear from...

In their evolutionary arms race between rattlesnakes and their prey, rodents, birds, and other reptiles often develop resistance to snakes’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-new-way-to-study-venom-production/">venom</a>. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> (CU Boulder) and the <a href="https://www.uta.edu/">University of Texas at Arlington</a> (UT Arlington) has found that rattlesnakes maintain a broad and diverse genetic toolkit that encodes snake venom, allowing them to rapidly adapt as their local prey and conditions change.



“The existence of these resistance mechanisms in prey led us to wonder: If there’s selection pressure imposed back on the snakes, then it might make sense evolutionarily to have a more expanded venom arsenal,”&nbsp;said study lead author Drew Schield, a postdoctoral researcher in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at CU Boulder. “We found these rattlesnakes had a more diverse venom repertoire, more genetic tools in the toolkit, than their venom composition alone might suggest.”&nbsp;



For decades, scientists thought that the co-evolution between rattlesnakes and their prey would be driven by a process called “directional selection,” in which snake venom would become highly specialized, evolving to effectively kill specific prey. However, by studying samples from 68 rattlesnakes belonging to two different species in the western United States, Dr. Schield and his colleagues have found that venom evolution is in fact driven by “balancing selection,” an evolutionary process where multiple versions of a gene are maintained instead of eliminated.



“Our findings help explain decades of seemingly contradictory theory and evidence for what drives the extreme variation observed in snake venoms. It turns out that the arms-race between snakes and prey ends up favoring the constant re-shuffling of venom variants that are favored, leading to the retention of lots of venom variants over time, some of which are ancient,” said study co-author Todd Castoe, a professor of Biology at UT Arlington.



Thus, while directional selection may have driven the origins of venom, in more recent times, there may have been an equilibrium shift towards balancing selection favoring a more diverse venom repertoire. “These evolutionary mechanisms ramp up the complexity that you’re contending with when you develop antivenoms, as venom composition within the same species but in different geographic regions might be totally different,” Dr. Schield concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01829-5">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Rattlesnakes diversify their venom for evolving prey

In their evolutionary arms race between rattlesnakes and their prey,...

Although animals are born with muscle coordination networks located in their spinal cord, learning the precise coordination of leg muscles and tendons takes some time. At the beginning, baby animals rely heavily on hard-wired spinal cord reflexes that help them avoid falling during their first walking attempts. The more advanced and precise muscle control that characterizes adult animals must be practiced, until the nervous system is well-adapted to the leg muscles and tendons.&nbsp;



In order to better understand how animals learn to walk, a research team from the <a href="https://is.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems</a> (MPI-IS) in Stuttgart&nbsp;has built a four-legged, dog-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-flying-fish/">robot</a> that gradually learned to walk with the help of a Bayesian optimization algorithm which continuously compared sent and expected sensor information, ran reflex loops, and adapted the robot’s motor control patterns.



“As engineers and roboticists, we sought the answer by building a robot that features reflexes just like an animal and learns from mistakes,” said study lead author Felix Ruppert, a former doctoral student at MPI-IS. “If an animal stumbles, is that a mistake? Not if it happens once. But if it stumbles frequently, it gives us a measure of how well the robot walks.”



The learning algorithm that Dr. Ruppert and his team constructed simulated the control parameters of a Central Pattern Generator (CPG), as well as the reflexes that characterize living beings. In animals, these CPGs are networks of neurons in the spinal cord which produce periodic muscle contractions without input from the brain and aid the generation of rhythmic tasks such as walking, digestion, or blinking. 



As long as an animal walks over flat surfaces, the CPGs are generally sufficient to control the movement signals from the spinal cord. However, if it stumbles, reflexes kick in and adjust the movement patterns to keep the animal from falling. While in newborn animals, CPGs are not yet adjusted well enough and the animals frequently stumble around, they rapidly learn how their CPGs and reflexes control leg muscles and tendons. By imitating these biological mechanisms, the robot dog that the scientists constructed surpassed animals in how quickly it learned to walk – in about one hour.



“Our robot is practically ‘born’ knowing nothing about its leg anatomy or how they work,” Dr. Ruppert explained. “The CPG resembles a built-in automatic walking intelligence that nature provides and that we have transferred to the robot. The computer produces signals that control the legs’ motors, and the robot initially walks and stumbles."



"Data flows back from the sensors to the virtual spinal cord where sensor and CPG data are compared. If the sensor data does not match the expected data, the learning algorithm changes the walking behavior until the robot walks well, and without stumbling. Changing the CPG output while keeping reflexes active and monitoring the robot stumbling is a core part of the learning process.”



“We can’t easily research the spinal cord of a living animal. But we can model one in the robot,” added study co-author Alexander Badri-Spröwitz, an expert in Biomechanics at MPI-IS. 



“We know that these CPGs exist in many animals. We know that reflexes are embedded; but how can we combine both so that animals learn movements with reflexes and CPGs? This is fundamental research at the intersection between robotics and biology. The robotic model gives us answers to questions that biology alone can’t answer,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42256-022-00505-4">Nature Machine Intelligence</a>.



Image Credit: Felix Ruppert, Dynamic Locomotion Group at MPI-IS



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Robot dog sheds new light on how animals learn to walk

Although animals are born with muscle coordination networks located in...

A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> discovered a unique fly fungus that could be straight from a horror movie. The fungus survives by "bewitching" male flies into mating with dead female flies. The longer a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-wolf-spiders-perform-elaborate-dances-to-woo-females/">female</a> fly carcass has rotted, the greater the male's lust.&nbsp;



The fungus can eject its infected spores at up to 10 meters a second, which is among the fastest of nature’s movements.After infecting a female fly, the fungus spreads until its host has slowly been consumed alive from within.&nbsp;



After six days, the fungus takes over the behavior of the female fly and forces it to the highest point, where the fly then dies. When the fungus has killed the zombie female, it releases chemical signals known as sesquiterpenes.&nbsp;



"The chemical signals act as pheromones that bewitch male flies and cause an incredible urge for them to mate with lifeless female carcasses," explained study co-author Henrik H. De Fine Licht.



As male flies copulate with dead females, they are the next to become infected and left to suffer the same gruesome fate. In this way, the fungus spreads to new victims to ensure its own survival.



"Our observations suggest that this is a very deliberate strategy for the fungus. It is a true master of manipulation – and this is incredibly fascinating," said De Fine Licht.



By tracking fly behavior, the researchers demonstrated that dead female flies become more attractive as time passes. Overall, 73 percent of the male flies in the study mated with female fly carcasses that died from the fungal infection. Only 15 percent of the males mated with female corpses that had been dead for 3 to 8 hours.



"We see that the longer a female fly has been dead, the more alluring it becomes to males. This is because the number of fungal spores increases with time, which enhances the seductive fragrances," explained De Fine Licht.



The study provides gory, yet fascinating insight into nature's mechanisms. It also provides new knowledge that may lead to effective fly repellents in the future.&nbsp;



"Flies are quite unhygienic and can sicken humans and animals by spreading coli bacteria and any diseases that they are carrying. So, there is an incentive to limit housefly populations, in areas where food is being produced for example," said De Fine Licht.



"This is where the Entomophthora muscae fungus may prove useful. It might be possible for us to use these same fungal fragrances as a biological pest control that attracts healthy males to a fly trap instead of a corpse."



The research is published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/ismej/">The ISME Journal</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fly fungus lures males to mate with female corpses

A new study led by researchers at the University of...

A recent study from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a> reveals that clown anemonefish can literally adapt to fit into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-stability-helped-ocean-biodiversity-flourish/">environment</a>. The researchers found that clownfish control their growth to match the size of their anemone host.



In a collaboration with experts at Boston University, the team analyzed the relationship between the size of clownfish anemones. Using a series of lab experiments, the researchers paired clownfish with anemones of various sizes. They discovered that fish on large anemones grow faster than fish on small anemones.



The results explain why clownfish and anemone size are so closely correlated in the wild. The researchers propose that by adjusting their growth, clownfish likely maximize their reproductive value given their anemone context.



Study lead author Dr. Theresa Rueger is a lecturer of Tropical Marine Biology at Newcastle’s School of Natural and Environmental Sciences.



“Anemonefishes are fascinating for their ability to adjust their growth rate to their specific environments, whether that’s to avoid conflict with a larger fish or, as we show here, to make sure they are the ideal size for their anemones," said Dr. Rueger.



“Anemones are important for the fish because they provide protection from predators and the larger the anemone, the more space the fish has to move around and feed while still being save. If the fish would get too big for the anemone it is on, it might not get enough food or be safe. At the same time the fish wants to be as big as possible to be able to produce lots of offspring."



“Our data from wild fish shows that anemone size and fish size is very closely correlated: large fish are always on large anemones. And our experiment shows that is not a coincidence but the fish actively regulate their growth to fit their anemone host. This is the first time that this plasticity of growth in a vertebrate has been found to depend on a mutualistic partner, and it shows how important mutualisms are."



“The next step will be to disentangle the mechanism, what makes the fish decide how large it needs to be? Through our experiment we already know it’s not food availability (all fish got the same amount of food) and it is not space availability alone (the fish did not show the same plasticity when they were on silicone anemones), so it seems to be something about the mutualistic partner itself. Lots of research still to be done!”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor

Clownfish adapt their size to fit their environment

A recent study from Newcastle University reveals that clown anemonefish...

According to a new study led by the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>, supporting and enhancing pollinators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-make-it-harder-for-male-bees-to-attract-mates/">bees</a> could help stabilize the production of important crops like oilseeds and fruits, reducing the uncertainties that often cause food prices to rise. 



The analysis revealed that there was 32 percent less variation in the yields of plants visited by bees and other pollinators than in those grown in the absence of pollinators. Thus, pollinators could help mitigate supply issues and market shocks that cause global price spikes, by holding food supplies steady.



“Our findings suggest that preserving pollinators provides a double benefit, reducing fluctuations in food supplies as well as boosting supplies in the first place,” said study lead author Jake Bishop, a crop scientist at the University of Reading. “Stable and predictable production of nutritious food is a necessity for farmers and for global food security. We are seeing right now that instability or shocks across the food system can lead to dramatic increases in food price.”



“The research has revealed another reason why pollinators are so important to our planet, and to so many families who are struggling to feed themselves with sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. Pollinators are particularly important in the production of fruit and vegetable crops. Around half of the experiments we analyzed were testing the effect of real pollinator populations in real crop fields so our results illustrate the benefits that pollinators are currently providing.”



Dr. Bishop and his colleagues assessed the results of over 200 previous experiments that compared the yield of three crop plants - faba beans, oilseed rape, and apples - with and without insect pollination, and concluded that insect pollination consistently made yields more similar between flowers on a plant, between individual plants, between areas within fields, and between fields.&nbsp;



This stabilizing effect of pollination is likely due to a ceiling effect, whereby yield increases resulting from insect pollination hits an upper limit due to limitations of other resources which support crop growth, such as soil nutrients or access to water. This phenomenon creates a raised and more stable baseline against which there is less fluctuation in yield.



This study – published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ele.14069">Ecology Letters</a> – marks the start of Bees’ Needs Week (18-24 July), a UK government-led initiative championing pollinators and their multiple benefits by encouraging people to take <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/bees-needs/five-simple-actions/">five simple actions</a> to support pollinators.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Louise Truslove/University of Reading



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Pollinators stabilize the production of food crops

According to a new study led by the University of...

Just like riding a bike, once we learn and retain skills, we rarely have to relearn them. Most studies on learning and long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-ocean-is-losing-its-memory-and-becoming-less-predictable/">memory</a> in the wild have focused on a handful of animal species. Now, researchers at the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) share the first report of long-term memory in frog-eating bats.



“Frog-eating bats are an excellent emerging model organism for studying cognitive and sensory ecology, learning plays a big part in their lives," explained study lead author M. May Dixon.



When hunting frogs, the bat’s can identify the frog calls that indicate a frog is good to eat, compared to the calls that indicate a frog is poisonous, or even too big to carry.



For the study, 49 wild bats were trained to respond to ringtones played through speakers. When responding to two of the tones, a reward of fish was found, but three other tones were associated with no reward.&nbsp;



The bats quickly learned when ringtones indicated a snack and ignored the ones that did not. The bats were then microchipped and released back into Panama’s Soberania National Park.&nbsp;



The researchers recaptured some of the trained bats. When they played the experimental sounds again, the bats recognized and responded to the reward ringtones - even four years later.&nbsp;



The ringtones sounded like the ping of a text message and the beep of a car being unlocked. Using human-generated sounds ensured that they wouldn't be heard in nature.



As for the unrewarded sounds, the experts played one of them to the recaptured bats, and six of eight bats approached it.&nbsp;



“It’s possible that they remember the extinguished sound, but enough time had gone by that they thought to check it out once more,” said Dixon. “Or it’s possible that they couldn’t remember the exact difference between the ringtones, and that extinguished sound was close enough to the rewarded one that they decided to check that out too. Sort of like a generalization of memory.”



To make sure that the bats were not responding to every sound they heard, a pure tone was played. Most of the bats did not fly to it, but only twitched their ears.&nbsp;



This experiment raises more questions on how memory works in bats and other animals, including the metabolic cost of remembering.&nbsp;



“I’m interested in memory capacity in animals and what causes long-term or short-term memories, what ecological conditions select for different memory lengths, what is important to remember and to forget,” explained Dixon. “But studying long-term memory is very difficult, because it takes a long time by definition. And testing memory in captive animals, even if it’s more convenient, isn’t necessarily representative of what animals can remember in the wild.”&nbsp;



“STRI has been the basis for so much research done with bats. They have gathered a large database on frog-eating bats, on experiments done with bats, what stimulus have been used, so if you capture a bat that has been caught before, you already have its whole history. There are few places in the world where you can have that amount of detail."&nbsp;



“I went from liking bats but not thinking they were very interesting, to realizing they are very complex little creatures, with deep personalities and very engaging ways of interacting with the world.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild bats have a long-term memory of sounds

Just like riding a bike, once we learn and retain...

Scientists have long thought that conscious awareness of past personal experiences is the exclusive domain of humans. However, a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/">University at Buffalo</a> (UB) has now found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-have-an-intuitive-understanding-of-physics/">dogs</a> are capable of learning the instruction “do that again,” and can flexibly access memories of their own recent actions, which are cognitive abilities they were not previously known to possess.



“We found that dogs could be trained to repeat specific actions on cue, and then take what they’d learned and apply it to actions they had never been asked to repeat,” said study lead author Allison Scagel, who conducted the study as a doctoral student in Psychology at UB. “Our findings showed that they were able to apply the concept of repetition to new situations. More generally, we found evidence that dogs are capable of forming abstract concepts […] placing them in an expanding category of other animals that includes bottlenose dolphins and chimpanzees.”



The researchers worked with three dogs – a male long-haired chihuahua and two female golden retrievers – to test whether they could voluntarily think back to what they had just been doing and repeat those actions. In a first step, the experimenters used traditional dog training based on cues and responses to teach the animals to follow simple cues such as spinning in a circle, lying down, or walking around an object.&nbsp;



Then, they taught the dogs a separate repeat cue - the word “again” accompanied by a hand gesture – which instructed them to reproduce the action they had just completed. In order to asses whether the dogs have managed to actually learn a general concept of repeating recent actions, they were asked to repeat new actions that they had not been asked to repeat before. Despite never being asked to repeat such actions, all the dogs successfully passed the test.



“Dogs can do more than learn the relationship between a person’s cue and which specific trick they should perform,” said Dr. Scagel. “They can understand the concept of repetition: whatever you just did, do that again. It can apply to anything they do.”



“This is an important step toward a greater understanding of how other species form abstract concepts. And we’re learning that humans aren’t that cognitively unique after all,” she concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2022-45661-001">Journal of Comparative Psychology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Dogs can be prompted to repeat their recent actions

Scientists have long thought that conscious awareness of past personal...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...