Just imagine a world where humans no longer exist, who would take over? Well, it may not be another mammal. Believe it or not, octopuses could be the ones to dominate Earth after humans. 



Scientists have recently made a riveting claim that these eight-limbed, marine invertebrates could become the dominant species on Earth should homo sapiens vanish from existence. It's an intriguing idea, but how is it possible?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hypothetical-world-without-humans">Hypothetical world without humans</h2>



What if humanity were utterly wiped out through wars or climate change? It's a grim concept but it is fascinating to wonder about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-inspire-more-human-like-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential successors</a> of our civilization.



According to leading experts, octopuses possess the "physical and mental attributes necessary" to evolve into the next civilization-building species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-taking-over-humans">Octopus taking over humans</h2>



Tim Coulson, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, presents an interesting case for these eight-legged creatures. His argument hinges on the octopuses' "dexterity, curiosity, ability to communicate with each other, and supreme intelligence."



These traits, according to Professor Coulson, equip octopuses with the potential to develop complex tools and methodologies necessary to birth a vast Atlantis-like civilization under the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-primates">Why not primates?</h2>



One might think that primates, our closest relatives, have the best shot at stepping into our shoes if we were to vacate the world. They have opposable thumbs, use tools, and walk on two legs, right? But according to Professor Coulson, it's not that simple. 



He reasons that primates would face the same threats that could potentially wipe out humanity and thus are also at risk of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-competing-with-humans">Octopuses competing with humans</h2>



In an interview with The European magazine, Professor Coulson, who has held positions at institutions like <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> and <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge University</a>, elaborates on why octopuses are a strong contender.



He refers to them as "the most intelligent, adaptable, and resourceful creatures on Earth," lauding their abilities to solve complex problems, manipulate objects, and even camouflage themselves with near-perfect precision.



Their decentralized nervous system and advanced neural structure, coupled with their exceptional problem-solving skills, make octopuses uniquely suited for an unpredictable world. 



Professor Coulson sees these intelligent cephalopods as an underappreciated contender who could step up as the planet's next intelligent species after humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptable-survivalists">Adaptable survivalists</h2>



If humans were to go extinct, most scientists concur that the creature to "replace" us should be dextrous. Dexterity, in this context, pertains to the ability to modify their environment and colonize the planet using complex tools, much like humans.



Octopuses' abilities to distinguish between real and virtual objects, solve puzzles, manipulate their surroundings, and adapt to a broad range of environments make them a viable candidate for future rulers of Earth. 



They are also adept at surviving in harsh conditions and are formidable hunters with a wide variety of prey including clams, shrimp, lobsters, fish, sharks, and even birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-and-human-like-settlements">Octopuses and human-like settlements</h2>



With relatively short lifespans, from between 1.5 to five years, one could argue that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> are on the back foot for the long evolutionary race. But here's a counterintuitive thought. 



What if their hasty reproduction and quick intellectual maturity actually give them an advantage in rapidly changing environments, thereby accelerating their evolutionary progress?



According to our Professor Coulson, while octopuses are unlikely to evolve into land-based animals due to their lack of a skeleton and associated challenges with mobility out of water, they could potentially develop underwater cities and towns akin to human settlements on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-yes-probable-maybe">Possible? Yes. Probable? Maybe.</h2>



In the end, as Professor Coulson reminds us, these are all just speculations. "It's important to remember that these are just possibilities, and that it's impossible to predict with any degree of certainty how evolution will unfold over extended periods."



However, given the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a>' remarkable intelligence, adaptability, and diverse range of survival strategies, they could indeed emerge as a potential successor to humanity.



Now, whether the octopuses would build vast underwater cities or venture onto land to hunt terrestrial mammals is yet to be determined, and we may never really know.



For now, we will continue to marvel at these fascinating creatures and their potential for becoming the torchbearers of intelligent life on Earth, albeit in the far-flung future.



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Octopuses could dominate Earth if humans vanish

Just imagine a world where humans no longer exist, who would take over? Well, it may not be another mammal. Believe it or not, octopuses could be the ones to dominate Earth after humans. Scientists have recently made a riveting claim that these eight-limbed, marine invertebrates could become the dominant species on Earth should homo sapiens vanish from existence. It's an intriguing idea, but how is it possible? Hypothetical world without humans What if humanity were utterly wiped out through wars or climate change? It's a grim...

Although tiger sharks are globally threatened by a variety of factors, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-is-a-major-threat-to-coral-reef-fish/">overfishing</a>, habitat loss, pollution, or climate change, scientists have long thought that they do not display local population structure, and were thus expected to have low vulnerability towards local depletion.&nbsp;



However, by using genomic data retrieved from historical tiger shark jaws, an international group of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english">Technical University of Denmark</a> (DTU) has found evidence of a specific, local southeastern Australian population of tiger sharks that is currently threatened by direct exploitation and shark control programs.



“Our study shows that tiger sharks can have local and genetically isolated populations at a restricted geographical scale - such as the south Eastern Australian coast - and that these local populations are vulnerable to direct exploitation and shark control programs,” said study senior author Einar Eg Nielsen, a professor of Marine Ecology at DTU.



Since sharks are top predators and control the abundance of a variety of other marine animals, they ensure species diversity and are thus highly important for maintaining ecosystem balance. Better understanding the distribution and migration of shark populations, as well as their responses to human activities, is crucial for designing proper management plans and actions at the appropriate geographical scale.



Before the present study, scientists believed that tiger sharks do not display local population structure, since genetic differences were only found at a basin-wide scale, such as between tiger sharks in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Thus, conservation programs have largely been focused on large geographical scales. However, the scientists’ analyses revealed genetic differences at a smaller scale, by identifying an endangered sub-species of tiger shark native to southeastern Australia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“From our samples alone, it appears that the historical local population has been extirpated or significantly reduced. This means that management of the species also has to focus on regional processes and exploitation patterns in order to protect local populations and biodiversity of the species as a whole,” said Professor Nielsen.



These results suggest that genetic research can help localize the proper biological units (genetic populations) that should be the target for fisheries management, conservation, and biodiversity protection.&nbsp;



“We need to shift tiger shark management conceptually from an exclusive species view to also include the local population aspect. That is, saving global populations has to go through protection and proper management of local populations,” Professor Nielsen concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-10529-w">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human activities threaten Australian tiger sharks

Although tiger sharks are globally threatened by a variety of...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> has found that native species in California’s estuaries are predicted to experience greater decline, due to an interaction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-can-hitchhike-on-ocean-plastic/">invasive species</a> with climate change. According to the experts, such declines are expected not only because of climate-related stressors, but also due to the increasing impact of new invasive predator species that are occurring much farther up the estuaries.



“Our study found that climate change and biological invasions can interact in coastal estuaries in unpredictable ways,” said study lead author Benjamin Rubinoff, a doctoral student in Environmental Science at UC Davis. “This increased risk of predation makes it difficult for native species that are already dealing with increasingly stressful environmental conditions.”



In estuaries, shifts in water temperature and salinity levels strongly influence the distribution of a large variety of invertebrate species, such as mussels, crabs, or sea squirts. For these organisms, high temperatures and low salinity – which typically increase as you move inland from the ocean – create highly stressful conditions that also lead native predators to consume fewer prey.



However, the scientists found that many non-native, invasive predators, can tolerate such climate-induced stressors much better than native ones, increasingly endangering native prey species such as the sessile invertebrates that this study has focused on (animals without backbones that attach to reefs or seagrasses, such as ascidians and bryozoans).



“The stress gradients typical of West Coast estuaries are being rapidly altered by climate change,” said study co-author Edwin Grosholz, an expert in Invasion Biology at UC Davis. “These changing gradients are scrambling the historical predator-prey landscape, creating novel matchups and putting native prey at much higher risk from invaders.”&nbsp;



Since such changes are difficult to predict, further experimental and observational studies are needed to disentangle the interacting effects of climate change and invasion on already struggling native species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecy.3695">Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive species are transforming coastal estuaries

A new study led by the University of California, Davis...

Since 2014, a deadly disease has been spreading across Florida's coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-map-coral-reefs-before-and-after-marine-heat-wave/">reefs</a>. A new study has found that baby corals are just as likely as adults to die from the disease.



The study, led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.rsmas.miami.edu/">University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</a>, is the first to show the impacts of any coral disease on baby corals. The findings reveal that stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) infects baby corals with similar severity and mortality that we see in adult colonies.&nbsp;



Since first appearing in Miami in 2014, SCTLD has now spread throughout all of Florida’s coral reefs as well as the Caribbean. The disease is affecting over 20 coral species and has killed millions of coral colonies by causing white lesions and rapid tissue loss.



Previous surveys did not include baby corals and this has likely caused scientists to underestimate the mortality of the disease. “That’s like trying to understand how COVID-19 spreads through a population by examining only adults, without looking at whether and how the disease affects children,” said study lead author Olivia Williamson.



To conduct the study, the scientists exposed lab-raised juveniles of two species of brain corals, four-month-old boulder brain coral (Colpophyllia natans) and eight-month-old grooved brain coral (Diploria labyrinthiformis), to water containing colonies with active SCTLD for four weeks. Within 48 hours of exposure, both species began to develop lesions.



Within two to eight days of developing lesions, 60 percent of the boulder brain baby corals lost all tissue and died. Meanwhile, 38 percent of the disease-exposed grooved brain babies exhibited active disease lesions during the same period and only one death occurred.



The study also found that larger babies, and those who are clustered together in groups, were less likely to become diseased and die compared to smaller or solitary babies.



“There is a ray of hope in that size matters, and there is safety in numbers,” said Williamson. “Since some of them avoided becoming infected at all, it suggests that some corals harbor a degree of resistance – or are at least, relatively less susceptible – to disease.”



To further test the resistance in the remaining coral babies, the researchers conducted a second exposure. Within six days, all were dead.



This research is a warning to coral restoration practitioners about the risk of SCTLD in baby corals The study suggests that the risk can be reduced by growing coral recruits larger and promoting grouping.



The research team plans to help breed and raise baby corals that will not succumb to this disease through further research.



The study was published in the May 2022 issue of the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.821165/full">.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby corals do not have more disease resistance

Since 2014, a deadly disease has been spreading across Florida's...

By recycling organic matter, controlling pests, and pollinating, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-groups-do-not-share-the-same-fate-even-when-they-share-a-habitat/">insects</a> are crucial for maintaining a healthy environment. A new survey study led by <a href="https://www.buglife.org.uk/">Buglife – the Invertebrate Conservation Trust</a> and the <a href="https://www.kentwildlifetrust.org.uk/">Kent Wildlife Trust</a> (KWT) has found that the number of flying insects in the United Kingdom has declined by nearly 60 percent since 2004. According to the researchers, this is a “terrifying” drop, calling for urgent conservation efforts.



The scientists asked survey participants to download an application called <a href="https://www.buglife.org.uk/get-involved/surveys/bugs-matter/">Bugs Matter</a>, which enabled them to record their car journeys and the number of insects squashed on their registration plates.&nbsp;



The survey included nearly 5,000 journeys made in 2021, and determined the “splat rate” (the number of insects squashed each mile) for each trip. By comparing the results with those of a similar study conducted in 2004, the researchers found that the number of insects declined by 58.5 percent from 2004 to 2021 in the UK, with the highest decline recorded in England (65 percent), followed by Wales (55 percent) and Scotland (28 percent).



“This vital study suggests that the number of flying insects is declining by an average of 34 percent per decade – this is terrifying,” said study co-author Matt Shardlow, the CEO of Buglife. “We cannot put off action any longer, for the health and wellbeing of future generations this demands a political and a societal response. It is essential that we halt biodiversity decline now.”



“The results should shock and concern us all,” added Paul Hadaway, a Connectivity Program Manager at KWT. “We are seeing declines in insects which reflect the enormous threats and loss of wildlife more broadly across the country. We need action for all our wildlife now by creating more and bigger areas of habitats, providing corridors through the landscape for wildlife, and allowing nature space to recover.”



Although the researchers admit that it is difficult to extrapolate clear decline rates from only two large surveys, these new results are consistent with assessments of insect declines in other countries, such as the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.5236">car windshield survey</a> in rural Denmark, which was conducted every year from 1997 to 2017 and found an 80 percent decline in the abundance of flying insects.



In order to tackle this highly serious problem, the scientists demand urgent action from the government and councils, as well as from ordinary people, who could help protecting insect populations by not using pesticides, letting grass grow longer, and sowing wildflowers in their gardens.&nbsp;



The study is available for download on Buglife’s <a href="https://cdn.buglife.org.uk/2022/05/Bugs-Matter-2021-National-Report.pdf">website</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists have found a "terrifying" decline in flying insects

By recycling organic matter, controlling pests, and pollinating, insects are...

Closeup,Yellow,Eye,Of,The,Dinosaurs,With,Terrifying.,Dinosaur,Hunters

In 2010, scientists described a small reptile called Faxinalipterus minimus, whose fossils - dating back to 225 million years ago, towards the end of the Triassic period - were found in Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. Faxinalipterus was assigned to the group <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-pterosaurs-had-colorful-feathers/">Pterosauria</a>, which includes the first vertebrates to develop active flight. Its fossils were composed of bones from the postcranial skeleton and a part of the jaw (an upper jaw with several teeth) that was found separately in another field expedition. While it was not certain whether all parts belonged to the same animal and species, the scientists assumed at the time that they both belonged to Faxinalipterus.



However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/13276/">PeerJ</a> has reassessed these findings and concluded that, in fact, the isolated jaw belonged to another animal from a different species named Maehari bonapartei. This discovery was possible based on comparisons with a new fossil recently found at the same site, whose maxilla exhibited the same features as the jaw initially attributed to Faxinalipterus.



“There was always a great doubt whether the two specimens attributed to Faxinalipterus represented the same species, and whether this was a flying reptile,” said study lead author Alexander Kellner, the director of the <a href="https://www.museunacional.ufrj.br/">National Museum of Brazil</a>.&nbsp;These doubts have also troubled Borja Holgado, a paleontologist at the <a href="http://www.urca.br/portal2/">Regional University of Cariri</a>. After examining the materials, she concluded that they belonged to two different species.



&nbsp;“It was clear to me that this is a primitive reptile that did not belong to pterosaurs, as it did not present any unequivocal features of this lineage,” she said. “But the present knowledge of the faunas at the end of the Triassic indicates that the disparity of animals at that time was so great that animals that might resemble pterosaurs at first glance are not actually flying reptiles. This is what happened to Faxinalipterus and Maehary.”



After further analyses, the researchers concluded that the dentition pattern was not consistent with that of pterosaurs. Using a vast anatomical database, the scientists found that Faxinalipterus was closely related to lagerpetids, a branch considered to be a sister group to Pterosauria. Together, lagerpetids and pterosaurs form a broader group called Pterosauromorpha. According to the scientists, Maehary bonapartei was one of the most primitive members of this group.



“That is, Faxinalipterus and Maehary are not pterosaurs, but are related to them. Especially Maehary is configured as a key element in the elucidation of how the anatomical characteristics evolved along the lineage of pterosauromorphs to the pterosaurs themselves, fully adapted to the flight,” explained study senior author Rodrigo Müller, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.ufsm.br/">Federal University of Santa Maria</a>. “These species, with an estimated length of 30 cm for Faxinalipterus and 40 cm for Maehary, demonstrate the importance of continuing to collect fossils in this region,” he concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts describe a 225-million-year old reptile discovered in Brazil

In 2010, scientists described a small reptile called Faxinalipterus minimus,...

Bird populations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assisted-migrations-could-help-species-survive-climate-change/">migrations</a> are monitored by conservation organizations and enthusiastic birdwatchers throughout the world. Because of this, birds are probably the most completely inventoried large taxonomic class of organisms globally. The state of the world’s bird species is the topic of a recent review, published today in the <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/journal/energy">Annual Review of Environment and Resources</a>, and the findings are not encouraging.



“We are now witnessing the first signs of a new wave of extinctions of continentally distributed bird species,”&nbsp;said study lead author Alexander Lees, who is a senior lecturer at Manchester Metropolitan University and also a research associate at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>. “Avian diversity peaks globally in the tropics and it is there that we also find the highest number of threatened species.”



The international team of scientists present an overview of the global spatiotemporal distribution of bird biodiversity, along with the ways in which distribution has changed, and the extent to which it is at risk. For this, they used data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s “Red List” that has documented a steady deterioration in the conservation status of avifauna globally over the past three decades.



According to the study, key threats to bird numbers and diversity include the loss and degradation of natural habitats and the overexploitation of many species. In addition, climate change is identified as an emerging driver of bird population declines.



In the study, the researchers considered the status of the world’s 11,000 bird species. They found that around 48 percent of existing bird species are known, or suspected, to be undergoing population declines. Populations are stable for a further 39 percent of species, while only six percent are showing increases. The status of the remaining seven percent of bird species is still unknown.&nbsp;



These findings echo the results of a seminal 2019 study that found nearly 3 billion breeding birds had been lost during the past 50 years across the United States and Canada. The lead author of that study is also an author on this global status report.



“After documenting the loss of nearly 3 billion birds in North America alone, it was dismaying to see the same patterns of population declines and extinction occurring globally,”&nbsp;said conservation scientist Ken Rosenberg from the Cornell Lab, now retired. “Because birds are highly visible and sensitive indicators of environmental health, we know their loss signals a much wider loss of biodiversity and threats to human health and well-being.”



The experts&nbsp;say there is still hope for avian conservation efforts, despite the sobering results of the study. They state that transformative change is needed in order to stem the decrease in bird numbers.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The fate of bird populations is strongly dependent on stopping the loss and degradation of habitats,”&nbsp;said Lees. “That is often driven by demand for resources. We need to better consider how commodity flows can contribute to biodiversity loss and try to reduce the human footprint on the natural world.”&nbsp; &nbsp; “Fortunately, the global network of bird conservation organizations taking part in this study have the tools to prevent further loss of bird species and abundance,”&nbsp;said Rosenberg. “From land protection to policies supporting sustainable resource-use, it all depends on the will of governments and of society to live side by side with nature on our shared planet.” Information is key, and study authors point out that the growth of public participation in bird monitoring and the advent of easy-to-use tools, such as the Cornell Lab’s eBird database, make continental-scale breeding bird surveys, distribution atlases, and abundance models possible and help inform conservation efforts.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New report confirms that bird species are steadily declining

Bird populations and migrations are monitored by conservation organizations and...

We are probably all familiar with the way that hunger can change our behavior – make us grumpy, angry or less able to cope. But the way in which signals from the gut are communicated to the brain and end up causing changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-uncovers-4000-years-of-foraging-behavior-among-albatrosses/">behavior</a> are not well understood.&nbsp;



Now, scientists from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> have investigated this topic, using lowly worms as a model to examine the molecular origins of behavioral changes in hungry individuals. They created a barrier of copper sulfate, a known worm repellent, and allowed tiny worms (Caenorhabditis elegans) the option of crossing it to access food on the other side.



“Animals, whether it’s a humble worm or a complex human, all make choices to feed themselves to survive. The sub-cellular movement of molecules could be driving these decisions and is maybe fundamental to all animal species,” said senior author&nbsp;<a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/sreekanth-chalasani/">Sreekanth Chalasani</a>, associate professor in Salk’s Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory.



Chalasani and the team found that if worms were deprived of food for two to three hours, they were more willing to cross the toxic barrier to access the food than were well-fed worms. The researchers then used genetic tools and imaging techniques to establish whether molecules in the gut were signaling to the brain in ways that would explain this more risky behavior.&nbsp;



The results, published today in&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/">PLOS Genetics</a>,&nbsp;suggest that specific transcription factors, proteins that turn genes “on” and “off,” changed location in hungry animals.&nbsp; Normally, transcription factors are found in a cell’s cytoplasm but move into the nucleus when activated, but the Salk scientists found that these transcription factors, known as MML-1 and HLH-30, move back to the cytoplasm in cells of the gut when a worm is hungry.&nbsp;



When the scientists deleted these transcription factors, hungry worms stopped trying to cross the toxic barrier, indicating a central role for MML-1 and HLH-30 in controlling how hunger changes worm behavior.



In a subsequent experiment, the researchers also discovered that a protein called insulin-like peptide (INS-31) is secreted from the gut when MML-1 and HLH-30 are on the move. Neurons in the brain, in turn, make a receptor that might detect the INS-31secretions.



The authors summarize their findings as follows: in a worm deprived of food, the transcription factors MML-1 and HLH-30 move back to the cytoplasm of cells in the gut, which could promote the secretion of the protein called INS-31 from the gut cells. These INS-31 proteins then travel to, and bind to, receptors on neurons in the brain and this relays the information that food is needed. Worms then respond to the huger information by choosing appropriate behavior to access food, even if this involves taking risks.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“C. elegans&nbsp;are more sophisticated than we give them credit for,” said co-first author Molly Matty, a postdoctoral fellow in Chalasani’s lab. “Their intestines sense a lack of food and report this to the brain. We believe these transcription factor movements are what guide the animal into making a risk-reward decision, like traversing an unpleasant barrier to get to food.”



The researchers propose that such molecular mechanisms may also exist in humans and may change our behavior when we are hungry. They plan to undertake further research on the dynamic nature of these transcription factors and establish whether similar mechanisms operate in other animals, such as humans, to prioritize basic needs over comfort.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hunger alters the behavior of worms, and perhaps humans too

We are probably all familiar with the way that hunger...

The vaquita porpoise is one of only seven different porpoise species in the entire world – and its population is critically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-insects-are-easy-to-purchase-illegally-online/">endangered</a>. The species is endemic to the northern end of the Gulf of California in Baja California, Mexico, and is unusual in that it is the smallest of all cetacean species and the only member of the porpoise family to live in warm waters. Tragically, there are only 10 vaquita porpoises left.



This small marine mammal, which only reaches four to five feet in length, has been the unfortunate bycatch of poachers hunting the totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi), an endangered fish species that is highly prized in some countries for its perceived medicinal properties.  Vaquitas are roughly the same size as the large totoaba that are illegally targeted using gillnets, and the porpoises easily become entangled in the nets and then drown. 



Fishing for totoaba has been outlawed in Mexico since 1975 but the ban has not been adequately enforced. The swim bladder of a totoaba is perceived in China as having medicinal and nutritional properties and is in such demand that the prices have become sky high. In fact, dried maw (swim bladder) from totoaba often fetches higher prices per kilogram than cocaine or gold. Despite the fact that the trade in totoaba is banned by CITES, the value of the maws makes them sought-after by poachers and so the illegal fishing and trade continues. Vaquitas are simply collateral damage in this situation.



A recent genetic analysis of vaquitas by a team of <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> biologists and colleagues has, however, given a ray of hope for this critically endangered species. The experts analyzed the genomes from tissue of 20 vaquitas that lived between 1985 and 2017 and assessed the range of genetic variation present in the genomes. Using this information, they conducted computational simulations to predict the species’ risk of extinction over the next 50 years.&nbsp;



The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, indicate that the species still has a relatively high genetic diversity and a low incidence of harmful mutations, despite the effects of inbreeding. The researchers say that this gives the living population a good chance of recovery, as long as gillnet fishing ends immediately.  If the threat of gillnets continues, however, the prospects of population recovery are very dim indeed. 



“Interestingly, we found the vaquita is not doomed by genetic factors, like harmful mutations, that tend to affect many other species whose gene pool has diminished to a similar point,” said study co-lead author Christopher Kyriazis. “Outlawed fishing remains their biggest threat.”



Genetic diversity is a measure of the differences in genes that exist between individuals in a population. The accepted understanding is that the greater the genetic diversity present in a population, the healthier that population is. Large populations tend to have many differences, while naturally smaller or reduced ones have fewer, resulting in individuals that are more genetically similar. Breeding between genetically similar individuals (known as inbreeding) increases the chances of offspring with harmful genetic mutations, as mutated genes can be passed on by both parents.&nbsp;



“A prevailing view in conservation biology and population genetics is that small populations can accumulate deleterious mutations,” said senior author Professor Kirk Lohmueller. “However, our finding that the vaquita likely has fewer strongly deleterious mutations hiding in the population means that they are better poised to survive future inbreeding, which bodes well for their overall recovery.”



“Relative to other species, the vaquita has a higher chance of rebounding from an extreme population crash without suffering severe genetic consequences from inbreeding,” said co-lead author&nbsp;Jacqueline Robinson. “Genetic diversity in vaquitas is not so low that it constitutes a threat to their health and persistence. It simply reflects their natural rarity.”



The fact that vaquitas have always been rare is what seems to protect them from the harmful effects of inbreeding. Although their historic numbers are not known, a comprehensive survey in 1997 counted 570 porpoises in their only known habitat, the Gulf of California. This means that some extent of inbreeding has probably been taking place for a long time and the harmful mutations have gradually been selected out of the population.&nbsp;



“They’re essentially the marine equivalent of an island species,” said Robinson, who noted that the species has survived for tens of thousands of years with low genetic diversity due to the small size of their population. “The vaquitas’ naturally low abundance has allowed them to gradually purge highly deleterious recessive gene variants that might negatively affect their health under inbreeding.”



In fact, Robinson said, of the 12 marine mammal species that the researchers analyzed genetically, vaquitas had the lowest number of potentially harmful mutations. This situation gives hope that the population of these porpoises may be able to rebound from the precipice of extinction, given the chance.



Encouragingly, the surviving vaquitas in the northern Gulf of California are actively reproducing and appear healthy. But poachers’ gillnets continue to pose an existential threat to them, and unless further measures are taken to protect the porpoises, there is a distinct possibility they may go extinct. The loss would be a great tragedy, said study senior author Professor Robert Wayne.



“The vaquita is symbolic of the unique diversity found in the Gulf of California, which was described by John Steinbeck in his wonderful 1951 book ‘The Log from the Sea of Cortez,’” said Wayne. “It represents a unique evolutionary lineage – there is no similar species anywhere in the world – and its loss would rob the ecosystem of an important predator adapted to this unique ecosystem.”



Image Credit: NOAA Fisheries&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vaquita porpoises may have a good chance at recovery

The vaquita porpoise is one of only seven different porpoise...

Freezing temperatures are highly challenging for life, which is water-based. Animals have three main strategies to survive extremely low winter temperatures: migrating, remaining where they are and resisting the cold, or reducing their body temperatures and metabolic rates in a state called torpor (which includes both dormancy and full-blown hibernation). The main role of these cold-survival strategies is dealing with energy deficits imposed by reduced solar energy and food availability in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swallows-are-no-longer-migrating-south-as-winters-become-milder/">winter</a>.



Biologists have usually studied these cold-survival strategies in isolation, treating them as mutually exclusive alternatives. However, according to a new study conducted by Giorgia Auteri, a biologist at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, many animals combine multiple strategies to beat the cold.&nbsp;



For instance, a large number of high-latitude bats and birds such as swallows, warblers, or hummingbirds use both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assisted-migrations-could-help-species-survive-climate-change/">migration</a> and torpor. In some cases, strategies are split among members of the same species: some blue jays migrate south during winter, while others stay put, and individual eastern chipmunks often shift from torpor to cold resistance when food is abundant.&nbsp;



“Each cold-survival strategy exists not as a binary but on a spectrum,” explained Dr. Auteri. “Separate treatment of these strategies misses opportunities to identify broader patterns and mechanisms and eliminates the possibility of discoveries that require comparisons across strategies.”



The integrated conceptual framework for mapping cold-survival strategies that Dr. Auteri has developed could help resolve discrepancies in Bergmann’s rule, which argues that the trend of larger animal body size at higher latitudes facilitates cold resistance due to the lower surface area-to-volume ratio that is a trademark of large animals. However, many migratory birds and small mammals deviate from this rule.&nbsp;



“This proposed framework, which considers cold-survival strategies collectively, resolves the mystery of why some taxa ‘break’ the rule,” said Dr. Auteri. “Small mammals do not follow the rule well because they often use torpor instead of resistance. Migratory birds conform less strongly because, like small mammals, they use an alternative - migration.”



In order to conceptualize and quantify cold-survival strategies, Dr. Auteri proposes a framework with four main components. She argues 1) that seasonal migration, torpor, and cold-resistance should be considered collectively; 2) that species often use multiple strategies; 3) that each of these strategies exists on a spectrum which permits partial use; and 4) that species can exhibit proportional use, where the employment of one strategy leads to a significant decrease in the use of others.



According to Dr. Auteri, this new integrated conceptual framework could shed more light on phenomena such as animal responses to climate change, capacities of colonizing high latitudes, disease dynamics, niche partitioning, adaptive tradeoffs, or how changes in seasonal regimes impact ecological networks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0050">Biology Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals combine different strategies to survive the cold

Freezing temperatures are highly challenging for life, which is water-based....

Some groups of marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-iridescent-colors-protect-animals-from-predators/">animals</a> have achieved enormous body sizes in the past and, although most of them are now extinct, scientists still puzzle over how their extreme body shapes and sizes allowed them to move efficiently in their aquatic environment. Among the largest, only cetaceans (whales) have survived into the modern era, while the ancient reptiles known as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs have become extinct.



Dr. Susana Gutarra Díaz from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and her colleagues have conducted a recent study examining the body shapes of these large marine animals using models and computational fluid dynamics. Some of the animals show more streamlined body shapes, such as modern whales and the dolphin-like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2302957-prehistoric-ichthyosaurs-evolved-rapidly-to-be-as-big-as-whales/">ichthyosaurs,</a>&nbsp;while the plesiosaurs had massive paired flippers.and necks that could measure as much as half the total body length.&nbsp;



“Until now, it was not very clear how this great diversity of shapes and sizes affected the energy demands of swimming in these marine animals,” said Dr. Gutarra Díaz. “To test our hypotheses, we created various 3D models and performed computer flow simulations of plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and cetaceans. These experiments are performed on the computer, but they are like water tank experiments.”



Tetrapods, or&nbsp;"four-limbed&nbsp;vertebrates," have repeatedly returned to the oceans over the last 250 million years, and their bodies have become adapted to the marine environment in different ways. For example, dolphins and ichthyosaurs have similar body shapes, adapted for reducing resistance or drag as they swim rapidly through the water. By contrast, plesiosaurs that lived side-by-side with the ichthyosaurs in the Mesozoic Era, propelled themselves underwater using giant flippers, and some had extremely long necks that hardly look helpful for swimming at all. These necks likely helped them to snap up quick-moving fish, but were also believed to make them slower.



The results of the analysis, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>, showed that body size had a major influence on possible shapes for marine reptiles.&nbsp;In fact, body size was more important than body shape in determining the energy economy of swimming for aquatic animals.&nbsp;



While the large limbs and long necks of many plesiosaurs created a significant amount of drag, bigger bodies and larger torsos lowered the energetic cost of moving through water. This is because drag is created by the friction between water and an animal’s skin, and as bodies get larger, the ratio of surface area to mass is actually reduced.



“Large animals have a greater drag in absolute terms,” said Dr. Gutarra Díaz. “But the power they need to invest to move a unit of body mass is smaller.”



“We showed that although plesiosaurs did experience more drag than ichthyosaurs or whales of equal mass because of their unique body shape, these differences were relatively minor," explained Dr Colin Palmer, an engineer involved in the project. "We found that, when size is taken into account, the differences between groups became much less than the shape differences. We also show that the ratio of body length to diameter, which is widely used to classify these aquatic animals as more or less efficient, is not a good indicator of low drag.”



In this study, the researchers were particularly interested in one family of plesiosaurs known as the elasmosaurs. These were plesiosaurs with the longest necks of all, measuring up to 20 feet (6 metres) in some species, and having over 70 cervical (neck) vertebrae. In these species, the neck was almost half of the total body length and would have been too long and too heavy to hold above the surface of the water.&nbsp;



“We were also particularly interested in the necks of elasmosaurs and so we created hypothetical 3D models of plesiosaurs with various lengths of necks," said Dr. Gutarra Díaz. "Simulations of these models reveal that, past a certain point, the neck adds extra drag, which potentially would make swimming costly. This ‘optimal’ neck limit lies around twice the length of the trunk of the animal.”



“When we examined a large sample of plesiosaurs modelled on really well-preserved fossils at their real sizes, it turns out that most plesiosaurs had necks below this high-drag threshold, within which the neck can get longer or shorter without increasing drag," said Dr. Benjamin Moon. "But more interestingly, we showed that plesiosaurs with extremely long necks also had evolved very large torsos, and this compensated for the extra drag!”



According to <a href="about:blank">Dr. Tom Stubbs</a>, the study shows that in contrast with prevailing popular knowledge, very long-necked plesiosaurs were not necessarily slower swimmers than ichthyosaurs and whales, and this is in part thanks to their large bodies. "We found that in elasmosaurs, neck proportions changed really fast. This confirms that long necks were advantageous for elasmosaurs in hunting, but they could not exploit this adaptation until they became large enough to offset the cost of high drag on their bodies.”



“Our research suggests that large aquatic animals can afford to have crazy shapes, as in the elasmosaurs," said Professor Mike Benton. "But there are limits: body sizes cannot get indefinitely large, as there are some constraints to very large sizes as well. The maximum neck lengths we observe, seem to balance benefits in hunting versus the costs of growing and maintaining such a long neck. In other words, the necks of these extraordinary creatures evolved in balance with the overall body size to keep friction to a minimum.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plesiosaurs with long necks needed large bodies to minimize friction

Some groups of marine animals have achieved enormous body sizes...

In a surprising new study led by <a href="https://www.georgetown.edu/">Georgetown University</a>, scientists have contradicted the theory that city rats and other urban animals host a greater number of communicable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocados-substantially-reduce-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">diseases</a>. The research suggests that urban wildlife has less potential to spark the next pandemic than expected.&nbsp;



More than two years after the COVID-19 pandemic first emerged, scientists are urgently investigating the risks of future pandemics. It has long been assumed that city rats and urban animals are likely to harbor more infectious diseases.



The researchers set out to analyze the pathogens hosted by nearly 3,000 mammal species. They found that urban animals could host roughly ten times as many types of diseases. On the other hand, the experts noted that urban species had been the focus of about 100 more scientific studies.



“There are plenty of reasons to expect urban animals to host more diseases, ranging from their food to their immune systems to their close proximity to humans,” said study lead author Dr. Greg Albery. “We found that urban species do indeed host more diseases than non-urban species, but the reasons for this appear to be largely associated with the way we study the ecology of disease. We’ve looked more at animals in our cities, so we’ve found more of their parasites - and we’ve started to hit diminishing returns.”



Once the sampling bias was accounted for, the researchers were surprised to find that urban animals do not host more viruses than animals in rural areas.



“Stunningly, although urban-adapted species have 10 times as many parasites, more than 100 times as many studies have been published on them," said Dr. Albery. "When you correct for this bias, they don’t have more human pathogens than expected – meaning that our perception of their novel disease risk has been overinflated by our sampling process."



The results suggest that city rats and other urban animals are not the disease reservoirs that they were expected to be. However, that doesn’t mean cities are disease-free, said Dr. Albery.



“This probably means that urban animals aren’t hiding as many important novel pathogens as we might think – those pathogens that might cause the next ‘Disease X.' But they are still incredibly important carriers of many pathogens that we do know about. Rats, raccoons, and rabbits are still good at coexisting alongside us, and they still spread a lot of diseases to humans living in urban areas.”



Study co-author Dr. Colin Carlson said that the study highlights the value of scientific data. “If we take the time to build better datasets, and look more closely at the patterns in them, we might keep overturning long-standing assumptions about who’s at risk from emerging diseases and why."



According to v the researchers, further research is needed to explore how many pathogens any given animal has, as well as how city living may influence the transmission of those diseases.&nbsp;



“What this really accentuates is that we need to design more evenly distributed, more equitable sampling regimes if we want to find novel pathogens of humans; sampling needs to be more focussed in wild areas of the world, but also in urban areas in less well-studied places,” said Dr. Albery. “Not only will this help us to find the new ones, but will improve surveillance of the old ones, and will ultimately help to address ages-old geographic biases in ecology.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

City rats do not harbor more diseases than their country cousins

In a surprising new study led by Georgetown University, scientists...

Some animals, such as rosemary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiny-genitalia-of-seed-beetles-linked-to-reproductive-success/">beetles</a> and starlings, possess brilliant iridescent colors that constantly change in the light. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, researchers have found that this iridescence serves as a form of deceptive warning coloration. The experts report that it is the key feature of iridescence -&nbsp; changing colors - that supports its ability to protect animals even after they have been detected by predators.&nbsp;



The hue and intensity of metallic iridescent colors vary depending on the angle of the view and the direction of the light. Researchers in Bristol University’s CamoLab set out to investigate why iridescence has evolved so many times in the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



The research team had previously demonstrated that iridescence is a highly effective type of camouflage. Now, the experts wanted to know whether iridescent colors may help provide any protection from predators post-detection.



“One of the challenges when studying the functions of such highly reflective structural coloration has been to separate the effects of the changeability of colors, the hallmark of iridescence, from the effects of simply having multiple colors at the same time, and also to separate the effects of gloss from the effects of iridescence," explained study lead author Dr. Karin Kjernsmo.



To investigate, the researchers presented wing cases of real and artificial jewel beetles to birds that had no previous experience with this particular prey. The wing cases used for the experiment were iridescent, non-iridescent, glossy and matte. The experts then observed the birds’ willingness to attack the prey.



"Here, we tested the effects of both iridescence and surface gloss (i.e. specular reflection) on the attack behavior of prey-naïve avian predators. Using real and artificial jewel beetle, Sternocera aequisignata, wing cases, we found that iridescence provides initial protection against avian predation by significantly reducing the willingness to attack," explained the researchers.



"Importantly, we found that the main factor explaining this aversion is iridescence, not multiple colors per se, with surface gloss also having an independent effect. Our results are important because they demonstrate that even when prey are presented up close and against a mismatching background, iridescence may confer a survival benefit by inducing hesitation or even, as sometimes observed, an aversion response in attacking birds."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How iridescent colors protect animals from predators

Some animals, such as rosemary beetles and starlings, possess brilliant...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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